★DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ○ Proctodeum → exit from hindgut when

● Fx: cloacal plate ruptures

○ Take in food ○ Short in FISH
○ Store food ○ Long in TETRAPODS
○ Break up food physically and chemically ○ Palate
○ Absorb nutrients ■ Roof of buccal cavity
○ Process and remove solid waste ■ Primary palate
● Morphological variations ● osteichthyans/tetrapods
○ Type of food eaten → medial + lateral series
○ Level of activity and metabolism of bones
○ Body size ● Most fishes → low vault
● Embryonic origin (ontogeny; phylogeny is w/ no openings
envolutionary time) ● Tetrapods → nasal
○ Foregut passages through
■ Oral cavity internal nares
■ Pharynx ■ Secondary palate
● Fishes = oropharyngeal ● New roof
cavity ● Hard palate
■ Esophagus ● Soft palate
○ Midgut ○ Tongue
■ Contains yolk or attached yolk ■ Jawed fishes + primitive
sac amphibians → simple crescent
■ Stomach shaped (primary tongue)
■ Small intestine ● Primary tongue = no
■ Little of the midgut remain in musculature; cannot be
adults independently
manipulated
○ Hindgut ■ Most amphibians (urodeles +
■ Large intestine anurans) → hypobranchial
■ Cloaca eminence + tuberculum impar
○ Accessory organs ● Primary tongue +
■ Pancreas extension
■ Gallbladder ● Primary tongue from
■ Liver hyoid arch mesenchyme
■ Arise as evaginations from ● Extension from glandular
embryonic digestive tract field
○ Glandular field
● Oral cavity secretes sticky
○ Begins at mouth, ends in pharynx mucus
○ Arises as a midventral invagination of ■ Reptiles + mammals → primary
the stomodeum tongue + tuberculum impar +
○ Oral plate (thin membrane) separates lingual swellings
foregut from exterior
 ■ Turtles, crocodilians, some birds
→ immobilized, cannot be
extended
○ Oral glands
■ Used to moisten food and
secrete digestive enzymes
■ Usually named after location
■ Saliva:
● Mucus
● Salts
● Protein
● Enzymes (amylase)
■ Poison (snakes, lizards,
mammals)
■ Anticoagulant (vampire bats)
■ Amphibians → few, roof of
mouth and tongue
■ Reptiles → many, developed
■ Birds → secrete mucus for nest
building
■ Mammals → salivary glands
(parotid, mandibular, sublingual)
● Parotid gland
○ Largest tetrapod
salivary gland
○ Secretes​ptyalin
(for starch
digestion)
○ Teeth
■ Derivations of bony dermal
armor (placoid scales)
■ Composition of teeth → dentin
surrounded by enamel
● Earliest indication =
dental lamina
■ Varies among vertebrates
(number, distribution, degree of
permanence, shape, mode of
attachment)
■ Determines diet of vertebrates
■ Species identification
■ Enamel = 95% inorganic matter
+ hardest substance
● Harder than dentine
● Enamel > dentine >
cement
■ Some tetrapods may lack teeth
(turtles, frogs, birds)
■ Snake teeth
● Aglyphous → no
modifications for venom
● Proteroglyphous →
fangs in front
● Opisthoglyphous →
fangs at the back
● Solenoglyphous →
retractable fangs
■ Mammal teeth
● Incisors → securing food
and grooming
○ Conical spikes →
holding
insects/simple
blades for cutting
plants
○ Single roots
● Canines → simple
spike-like teeth for
tearing
● Premolars → grinding
● Molars → have more
cusps and roots
■ Types of attachment
● Acrodont → no root, rim
of jawbone (​ teleosts​,
most fishes, some
lizards)
● Pleurodont → no root,
lingual side of jawbone
(​anurans, urodeles,
some lizards​, snakes)
● Thecodont → rooted in
sockets (mammals,
crocodilians, birds)
 ■ Types of replacement
● Polyphyodont →
continuous replacement
(most vertebrates)
● Diphyodont → 2 sets of
teeth (most mammals)
○ Deciduous (milk
teeth) replaced
by permanent
teeth
● Monophyodont → 1 set
of teeth (cetaceans)
■ Types based on shape
● Homodont → teeth of
similar shape along jaw
● Heterodont → different
■ Types based on crown shape
● Bunodont → peaked
(omnivores)
● Lophodont → ridged
(rats, rhinoceros)
● Selenodont → crescent
(bovines, deers)
■ Random shit from book
● Early prototherians =
triconodont
● Early therians =
trituberculate
● Pharynx
○ Exhibits pharyngeal pouches that may
give rise to slits
○ Fish → pharynx = respiratory organ
○ Tetrapods
■ Glottis
■ Openings of auditory
(eustachian) tubes
■ Opening into esophagus
● Morphology of the Gut Wall
○ One large tube
○ Mucosa
■ Secretes mucus
○ Submucosa
■ Blood vessels, nerves, small
glands
○ Muscularis
■ Outer longitudinal (shortening +
peristalsis)
■ Inner circular (lengthening +
constriction)
■ Oblique muscles
○ Serosa
■ Peritoneum = serosa
■ No peritoneum = adventitia
● Esophagus
○ Fish + amphibians → primitive, little
differentiation between esophagus &
stomach, short esophagus merges with
stomach
○ Birds → may have diverticulum called
‘crop’ (storage site for food)
○ Tetrapods →
● Stomach
○ Temporary storage site for food
○ Cardia (only in mammals) → secretes
mucus
○ Fundus → digestive region, secretes
hydrochloric acid (activates pepsin) &
pepsinogen (active form = pepsin)
○ Pylorus → secretes mucus that
neutralizes acid in stomach
○ Birds & crocodiles
■ Proventriculus
● ‘Fundus’, site for
enzymatic breakdown of
food
■ Gizzard
● ‘Pylorus’, site for
mechanical breakdown
of food
○ Herbivorous animals → have cellulose
○ Ruminants
■ Rumen
■ Reticulum
■ Omasum
■ Abomasum
 ○ Comparison of vertebrate stomachs
■ Agnathans → weakly developed
■ Fishes, amphibians, reptiles →
increasing specialization
■ Birds → proventriculus +
ventriculus
■ Mammals → well developed
■ Ruminants →
compartmentalized stomachs
● Intestine
○ Site of completion of digestion and
absorption of nutrients
○ Modifications:
■ Sharks → spiral valve
■ Bony fishes → pyloric ceca
■ Increase length of intestine
■ Development of villi & microvilli
■ Divide into small and large
intestine
○ Small intestine
■ Duodenum → first part
■ Remainder (Jejunum) is coiled
except in urodeles and apodans
■ Lined with villi in lizards, birds,
mammals
■ Digested lipids absorbed by
lacteals
■ Jejunum and ilium is
differentiated by:
● Shape of villi
● Nature of epithelial lining
● Size of lymph nodules in
mucosa
○ Peyer’s patches
in ilium
■ Terminates at ileocolic sphincter
○ Large intestine
■ Absorb H2O (chiefly in the
colon)
■ Transport undigested materials
to rectum
■ Cecum (double in birds, single in
mammals)
■ Comparison of vertebrates:
● Fishes → straight and
short intestine
● Amphibians → small +
large intestine
● Reptiles and birds →
small + large intestine
● Mammals → cecum
(herbivores)
● Cloaca
○ Absent in some fishes and most
mammals
○ Forms as a second invagination
(proctodeum)
■ First separated form gut by
cloacal membrane that breaks
down
○ Small chamber where digestive, urinary,
reproductive systems empty
● ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
○ Liver
■ Largest gland in the body
■ Extramural digestive gland
(important in metabolism)
■ Fx:
● Detoxifies drugs and
toxins
● Forms and secretes
bile
● Metabolizes carbs and
fats
● Produces plasma protein
● Forms urea
● Inactivates polypeptide
hormones
● Reduction and
conjugation of adrenal
and gonadal steroid
hormones
■ Vessels & ducts of liver are
arranged into polyhedral units
(lobules)
 ■ Cystic duct (gallbladder) +
hepatic duct (liver) = common
bile duct
■ Some phagocytose old red
blood cells (bilirubin and
biliverdin pigments)
■ Blood proteins are manufactured
→ fibrinogen + prothrombin (for
blood clotting)
○ Gallbladder
■ In most craniates
■ Always in carnivores, lacking in
some vertebrates
○ Pancreas
■ Mass of soft tissue
■ Exocrine
● Secretes enzymes
● Digestive activities
■ Endocrine
● Secretes hormones
(insulin, glucagon)
● Has pancreatic islets
★RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
● Fx:
○ Gas exchange
○ Regulates pH of blood
○ Voice production
○ Olfaction
○ Innate immunity
○ Ventilation
● Types of respiration
○ External respiration → exchange of
gases with the environment
○ Internal respiration → exhange of gases
in capillary beds
○ Cutaneous respiration* → exhange of
gases across skin
● Cutaneous respiration
○ Chordate ancestors of vertebrates (not
needed by amniotes)
○ To increase gas exchange
■ Increase surface area via skin
folds/papillae
■ Thinner skin
● Aquatic respiration
○ External gills
■ Develop from surface ectoderm
■ Only in amphibians
○ Internal gills
■ Develop from endodermal walls
of embryonic pharynx
■ Pharyngeal pouches → develop
in lateral walls
■ Visceral grooves → lie opposite
the pouches
■ Closing plates → separate
pouches and grooves
■ Visceral arches → separate
adjacent pouches
○ Agnathans
■ Pouched gills
■ Connected to pharynx (afferent
gill ducts)
■ Connected to exterior (efferent
gill ducts)
■ Pharyngocutaneous duct =
modified last gill pouch
○ Cartilaginous fishes
■ Septal gills
■ 1st pair = spiracle
■ 1st 4 gill chambers =
demibranch (gill surface)
■ Posterior = no demibranch
■ Parts of gills
● Gill filaments
(demibranch) → gill
lamellae (gas exchange)
● Interbranchial septum →
separate gill pouch
● Gill rakers → protect
demibranch lamellae
● Gill bar/ray → gill arch +
blood vessels + nerves +
muscles + integument
○ Holobranch =
demibranch on
 anterior and ● External gills =
posterior side outgrowths from external
○ Hemibranch = surface of gill arches
one side only ● Filamentous extensions
○ Pseudobranch = = project through gill slits
not for respiration ● Internal gills
■ Dual pump system ventilation ■ Absorption of nutrients from
● Draw water into mouth or uterine = histotrophic nutrition
spiracles and expel it via ● Air respiration
gills ○ Gas or swim bladders
● Suction pump ■ Located high in body cavity for
○ Inspiration buoyancy
○ External gill slits ■ Absent in cyclostomes,
closed cartilaginous fishes
○ mouth/spiracle ■ Types:
open ● Physoclistous swim
○ Floor of pharynx bladder (duct closes)
depressed ○ Independent of
● Force pump esophagus
○ Expiration ○ Buoyancy
■ Mouth ○ Marine dwellers
and ○ Hearing or sound
spiracle production via
closed vibrations
■ Floor is ● Physostomous swim
elevated bladder (duct remains
● Sharks swim with mouth open)
open to save energy ○ Connected to
○ Bony fishes esophagus
■ Opercular gills (pneumatic duct)
■ Operculum ○ Fx: primitive lung
■ Oral valve = prevents escape of ○ Freshwater
H2O by mouth dwellers
■ Do not have spiracle, ○ Fx:
interbranchial septa ■ Hearing
■ Accessory organs Pressure waves = weberian ossicles (sound detection)
● Bimodal breathers ■ Sound production
(oxygen from air) ■ Respiration
● Uses outpocketing of gill ○ Lungs
arches ■ Derived from physostomous
■ Dual pump system bladders
■ Larval gills* ■ Usually paired
■ Higher surface to volume ratio
■ Join ventral side of gut via ○ Gas exhange: 2 cycle
trachea crosscurrent
■ Deoxygenated blood via vessels ■ 1 = environment to rear
■ Return oxygenated blood to air sacs
heart ■ 2 = rear air sacs to
■ Adapts to body size/metabolic main lungs
rate by increasing ■ 3 = main lungs to
compartmentalization of lungs anterior air sacs
■ w/ associated structures = ■ 4 = anterior air sacs to
larynx, trachea, syrinx environment
■ Pulse (expiration) pump ○ Primary bronchus
ventilation = incoming air
● Fresh air is stored ○ Mesobronchus
● CO2 escapes through ● Mammals
skin (cutaneous ○ Lungs even more
respiration) divided
■ Comparison of vertebrates: ○ Lobes absent or
● Anura (toads) present
○ Larynx ○ Trachea
■ Arytenoid cartilages ○ Primary bronchi =
= (dorsal) support of bronchioles
vocal cords ■ End at alveolar
■ Cricoid cartilages = duct systems
derived from (w/ alveoli)
primitive visceral ○ Larynx
arches (ventral) ■ Paired
● Urodela (salamanders) arytenoids +
○ Simple, long, cricoid + thyroid
slender sacs w/ + epiglottis +
smooth walls vocal cords
○ Most rely on ○ Ventilation =
cutaneous/gill aspiration pump
respiration (bidirectional air
● Birds flow)
○ 9 air sacs (for ■ Trachea → 1*
ventilation, not bronchi → 2*
gas exchange) bronchi →
○ Very long trachea bronchioles →
○ Syrinx: avian alveoli
voice box ○ Gas exchange =
○ Ventilation: uniform pool
aspiration pump
 ■ Aspiration pump ventilation ■ Transient embryonic structure
● Inspiration = negative ■ Associates w/ glomerulus to
pressure form kidney
● Expiration = ○ Mesonephros
passia/constriction ■ Does not produce new duct
● Allow oral cavity/pharynx ■ Functional in embryos
to perform feeding ■ In adults, merges with tubules
functions ■ Persists as anterior portion of
● Need strong ribs, kidney in fish and amphibians
intercostal, and ○ Metanephros
abdominal muscles ■ Becomes adult kidney of
★URINARY SYSTEM amniotes
● UROGENITAL SYSTEM (Greek ‘ouro’ = urine ■ Metanephric duct becomes
+ Latin ‘genitalis’ = reproduction) ureter
○ Anatomically associated ● Phylogeny of Nephron (evolutionary)
○ Functionally dissimilar ○ Kidney forms as a series of segmental
● Ontogenetic similarities nephrons
○ Mesoderm ○ Evolution of kidney
○ Originate retroperitoneally ■ Holonephros (archinephros)
○ Share ducts ● Original/ancestral
● Fx: vertebrate kidney
○ Eliminates nitrogenous waste, products ● Long dorsal band of
of metabolism nephrons drained by
○ Regulates water, pH and ion balance archinephric duct
○ Kidney = osmoregulation ● Seen in larval hagfishes
● Renal tubules ■ Opisthonephros
○ Intermediate mesoderm (mesomere) ● Mesonephros +
○ Medial end of nephrotome = glomerulus metanephros =
○ Distal end = nephric duct opisthonephros
○ Coelom and nephric duct develops ● Primitive opisthonephros
renal tubules = 1 pair
● Vertebrate nephron ● Advanced
○ Functional unit of kidney opisthonephros
○ Produces ultrafiltrate of blood ○ Comparison of vertebrates
○ Nephron = renal corpuscle (glomerulus ■ Agnathans
+ surrounding capsule Bowman’s ● Short and straight
capsule) + renal tubule + associated ● Holonephros = larval
capillaries stage
○ *Glomeruli = site of water retention ● Opisthonephros = adult
○ *Tubules = reabsorption of salt stagve
● Tripartite kidney ● Gonads have no duct
○ Pronephros ■ Anamniotes (fishes +
■ Archinephric duct amphibians)
 ● Opisthonephros
● Multiple nephrons per
segment
● Testis utilizes
archinephric duct
■ Amniotes
● Mesonephros is lost
● Metanephros = new adult
kidney
● Archinephric duct → vas
deferens
● Kidney
○ Excretory and osmoregulatory systems
combined
○ Aquatic vertebrates
■ Osmoregulation, NOT excretion
○ Terrestrial vertebrates
■ Excretion and osmoregulation
● Urinary bladder
○ Fishes
■ Present in some fishes
■ Expansions of archinephric duct
■ Independent of cloaca
○ Amphibians
■ Archinephric ducts open into
cloaca, not bladder
■ Tetrapod bladder homologous to
allantois
○ Reptiles and Birds
■ Ureters empty into bladder or
into urethra
■ No bladder = uric acid stored in
cloaca
○ Mammals
■ Bladder loses connection with
gut
■ A new duct forms = urethra
● Common feature with
reproductive system
●Nitrogenous Wastes
○ Ammonia
■ Freshwater teleosts,
aquatic/semi-aquatic
amphibians
■ Ammonotelic animals
○ Urea
■ Elasmobranchs and mammals
■ Ureotelic animals
○ Uric acid
■ Water is not abundant
■ Reptiles
■ Uricoteic animals
★REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
● Gonads and ducts
● Provisions for copulation and gestation
● Almost all vertebrates reproduce sexually and
are gonochoric (separate sexes)
● External fertilization is ancestral (but typical of
fishes)
● Few parthenogenic lizards (asexual ‘cloning’
reproduction wherein offspring develops from
unfertilized eggs) ie, whiptail lizard
● Some fishes are hermaphrodites (can be male
or female) ie, agnathans + bony fishes
● Gonads and ducts
○ Gonads (ovaries or testes = sexual
organs)
■ 2 fx: produce gametes +
synthesize steroidal hormones
■ Gametogenesis = produces
haploid gametes
■ Develop from genital ridge of
mesomere
■ Early embryos and initially
indifferent (development begins
later)
■ Sexual structures present BUT
sex is unrecognizable
 ○ Ducts required to take gametes to ● Males
exterior ○ Early male gonad
■ NO ducts in agnathans ■ Adult germinal epithelium
■ May be modified for gamete becomes thin outer cortex
storage, gestation, secretion of ■ Oviduct regresses
nutriment/shell, reception of ○ Late male gonad
penis ■ Primary sex cords become
● Secondary sexual characteristics semineferous tubules and sertoli
○ Morphology, behavior, color patterns, cells
size, muscular development, antlers, ■ Interstitial cells = secrete
mammary glands testosterone
○ Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in ○ Genital duct
many birds ■ Testes shares/takes over
■ Less evident in mammals, most archinephric duct
fishes, amphibians, reptiles ■ Archinephric duct becomes vas
● Sources of cells deferens
○ Yolk sac mesoderm ■ Ureter drains metanephric
■ Origin of primordial cells that kidney
undergo meiosis to become ● Ureter + vas deferens
gametes ○ Testis and kidney ducts
○ Peritoneal mesoderm ■ Seminiferous tubules drain into
■ Origin of germinal epithelium kidney tubules
■ Sertoli cells = testis ■ Originated as spaces in
■ Follicle cells = ovary mesomere; connected to
○ Mesomeric mesoderm hypomeric coelom
■ Origin of gonad ○ Comparison of vertebrates:
medulla/interstitial gonadal cells ■ Agnathans
● Stages of gonadal development ● No reproductive ducts
○ Early indifferent ■ Fishes, amphibians
■ Swelling under peritoneum ● Kidney and testis share
■ Germinal epithelium archinephric duct
■ Oviduct forms (in both sexes) ■ Teleosts
■ Primordial germ cells migrate ● Kidney controls
○ Late indifferent archinephric duct
■ Well defined inner medulla ● Testis makes a new
■ Oviduct and archinephric duct sperm duct
form ■ Amniotes
○ Early different ● Kidney abandons
■ Mesorchium = males archinephric duct to the
■ Mesovarium = females testis
○ Late different ● Develops ureter for itself
○ Mature ○ Accessory glands:
■ Prostate gland
 ● Prostatic secretions
provide optimal
environment for sperm
survival and motility
■ Vesicular gland
● Alkaline fluid rich in
fructose
■ Bulbourethral gland
● Found near bulb of penis
● Females
○ Early female gonad
■ Germinal epithelium becomes
● Peritoneal covering
● Cortex surrounding ovary
● Follicle cells
■ Ovary = dominated functionally
by cortex (contains oogonia)
● Oogonia = descendents
of primordial germ cells
○ Late female gonads
■ Primary sex cords = replaced by
secondary sex cords
■ Follicle cells develop from sex
cords
● Enclose oogonia
○ Mature ovary
■ Oogonia moves to interior and
activates gametogenesis
■ Secondary oocytes are released
from follicles into coelom
○ Genital ducts
■ Ovary develops a new duct,
oviduct = Mullerian duct
■ Oviduct and archinephric duct =
indifferent embryo
● Archinephric duct
retained as urinary duct
in female anamniotes
■ NO direct connection bw ovary
and oviduct
● Proximal end of oviduct =
ostium tubae, ciliated
funnel
● Eggs are shed into
coelom and enter ostium
○ Comparison of vertebrates:
■ Agnathans
● No male/female ducts
■ Fishes, amphibians
● Glands secrete mucus or
gelatinous covering for
eggs
● Oviduct opens into
cloaca
■ Teleosts
● One oviduct
● Some have a vestigial
oviduct (salmon)
■ Mammals
● Copulation → internal
fertilization → gestation
● Oviduct has specialized
regions for gestation and
penis reception
○ Paired proximally
and unpaired
distally
● Fallopian tube and ostia
○ For egg transport
○ Always paired
● Vagina
○ Penis reception
○ Unpaired
○ Types of vagina:
■ Uterus
● Primitive (duplex uterus) =
marsupials, rodents, bats
● Intermediate (bipartite & bicornuate
uteri) = eutherian mammals
● Derived (simplex uterus) = higher
primates
● Cloaca
○ Therian mammals do not have cloaca
○ Caudal chamber
■ Gut, gonads, bladder empty
○ Forms from the proctodeum and caudal
gut
○ Partly ectoderm and endoderm
○ Comparison of vertebrates:
■ Fishes
● Lacking or poorly
developed
● Intestine, genital, urinary
ducts open
independently
● Elasmobranchs &
lungfishes (well
developed)
■ Lower tetrapods
● Present cloaca
● Urinary bladder = ventral
diverticulum
■ Birds
● Bladder is absent in most
● Uric acid w/ feces
● Cloaca w/ coprodeum,
urodeum, cloacal bursa
○ Early indifferent embryo
■ Resembles adult monotreme
■ Cloaca present, separated from
proctodeum by closing plate
● Consists of caudal
coprodeum and cranial
urodeum
● Bladder & allantois joins
urodeum
● Intestine joins
coprodeum
■ Urethra = connection bw bladder
and urodeum
■ Oviduct and archinephric duct
enter urodeum
○ Late indifferent embryo
■ Cloaca divides into 2 chambers
● Caudal portion =
coprodeum → rectum
● Cranial portion =
urodeum → urogenital
sinus
■ Urogenital sinus
● Formed by confluence of
urinary and genital ducts
● Genital ducts (oviduct
and archinephric duct)
and urethra enter
urogenital sinus
○ Female
■ Urogenital sinus becomes short
■ Shallow in primates
■ Deeper in carnivores
○ Male
■ Urogenital sinus = penile urethra
■ Long tube
● Intromittent/Copulatory organs
○ Organs used for introducing sperm into
female reproductive tract
○ Claspers
■ Modified pelvic fins
■ Male elasmobranchs
○ Gonopodium
■ Modified anal fin (sperm
transfer)
■ Teleosts
○ Ascaphus
■ Tail-like extension of cloaca
■ Frogs
○ Hemipenis
■ Sac-like folds stored in pockets
within cloaca
■ Snakes, lizards
○ Penis
■ Thickening of floor of cloaca
● Composed of corpus
spongiosum in lower
forms
● Female counterpart =
clitoris
■ Ensheathed by prepuce, erectile
■ Birds and mammals