Aircraft ground handling

In aviation, aircraft ground handling defines the servicing of an aircraft while it is on the ground and (usually) parked at
a terminal gate of an airport.

Overview
A ground-handling tug pulls a British Airways Boeing 747-400 at London Heathrow Airport, England

Airbus A380-800 operated by Qatar Airways at London Heathrow Airport apron outside Terminal 4 with a wide range of
ground handling equipments around such as aircraft container, pallet loader, ULD, jet air starter, belt loader, pushback
tug, catering vehicles and dollies.
Many airlines subcontract ground handling to airports, handling agents or even to another airline. According to the
International Air Transport Association (IATA), conservative estimates indicate airlines outsource more than 50 per cent
of the ground handling that takes place at the world's airports.[1] Ground handling addresses the many service
requirements of an airliner between the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the time it departs on its next flight. Speed,
efficiency, and accuracy are important in ground handling services in order to minimize the turnaround time (the time
during which the aircraft must remain parked at the gate).[2]
Airlines with less-frequent service or fewer resources at a particular location sometimes subcontract ground handling or
on-call aircraft maintenance to another airline, as it is a short-term cheaper alternative to setting up its own ground
handling or maintenance capabilities.
Airlines may participate in an industry-standard Mutual Assistance Ground Service Agreement (MAGSA). The MAGSA is
published by the Air Transport Association (the current version is from 1981) and is used by airlines to assess prices for
maintenance and support to aircraft at so-called MAGSA Rates, which are updated annually based on changes in the
U.S. Producer Price Index.[citation needed] Airlines may choose to contract for ground handling services under the terms
of a Standard Ground Handling Agreement (SGHA) published in the International Air Transport Association (IATA) Airport
Handling Manual.[3] Airlines may also contract for ground handling services under non-standard terms.
Most ground services are not directly related to the actual flying of the aircraft, and instead involve other tasks. The
major categories of ground handling services are described below.

Cabin service
The primary aim of this service offering is to ensure passenger comfort. While cabin cleaning comprises the bulk of the
effort, it also includes tasks such as replenishing onboard consumables (soap, tissues, toilet paper, reading materials)
and washable items like pillows and blankets.

Catering
Catering includes the unloading of unused food and drink from the aircraft, and the loading of fresh food and drink for
passengers and crew. Airline meals are typically delivered in Airline service trolleys. Empty or trash-filled trolley from the
previous flight are replaced with fresh ones. Meals are prepared mostly on the ground in order to minimize the amount of
preparation (apart from chilling or reheating) required in the air.
While some airlines provide their own catering, others have either owned catering companies in the past and divested
themselves of the companies, or have outsourced their catering to third-party companies. Airline catering sources
include the following companies:
• Airline Services & Logistics PLC(EPZE)
• American Airlines
• Atlas Catering (Royal Air Maroc's catering service)
• Cara Operations
• Cathay Pacific's Cathay Pacific Catering Services
• Chelsea Food Services
• Gate Gourmet
• KLM's KLM Catering Services
 • LSG Sky Chefs
• Q Catering (Qantas)
• Servair
• Thai Airways's Thai Catering Services
• United Airlines

Ramp service

Luggage being unloaded from a Northwest Airlines Boeing 757-200 at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol

A British Airways aircraft being refueled

Pushback tractor and a ground power unit

Lavatory drainage
This includes services on the ramp or apron, such as:
• Guiding the aircraft into and out of the parking position (by way of aircraft marshalling),
• Towing with pushback tractors
• Lavatory drainage
• Water cartage (typically non-potable for lavatory sink use)
• Air conditioning (more common for smaller aircraft)
• Airstart units (for starting engines)
• Luggage handling, usually by means of beltloaders and baggage carts
• Gate checked luggage, often handled on the tarmac as passengers disembark
• Air cargo handling, usually by means of cargo dollies and cargo loaders
• Catering trucks
• Refueling, which may be done with a refueling tanker truck or refueling pumper
• Ground power (so that engines need not be running to provide aircraft power on the ground)
• Passenger stairs (used instead of an aerobridge or airstairs, some budget airlines use both to improve
turnaround speed)
• Wheelchair lifts, if required
• Hydraulic mules (units that provide hydraulic power to an aircraft externally)
• Deicing

Passenger service

This includes services inside the airport terminal such as:

• Providing check-in counter services for the passengers departing on the customer airlines.
• Providing gate arrival and departure services. The agents are required to meet a flight on arrival as well as
provide departure services including boarding passengers and closing the flight.
• Staffing the transfer counters, customer service counters and airline lounges.

Field operation service

This service dispatches the aircraft, maintains communication with the rest of the airline operation at the airport and with
Air Traffic Control

Ground support equipment

Ground Support Equipment

Taxiing in/pushing back
Ground Support Equipment (GSE) is the support equipment found at an airport, usually on the ramp, the servicing
area by the terminal. This equipment is used to service the aircraft between flights. As the name suggests, ground
support equipment is there to support the operations of aircraft whilst on the ground. The role this equipment plays
generally involves ground power operations, aircraft mobility, and cargo/passenger loading operations.
Many airlines subcontract ground handling to an airport or a handling agent, or even to another airline. Ground handling
addresses the many service requirements of a passenger aircraft between the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the
time it departs for its next flight. Speed, efficiency, and accuracy are important in ground handling services in order to
minimize the turnaround time (the time during which the aircraft remains parked at the gate).
Small airlines sometimes subcontract maintenance to a much larger and reputable carrier, as it is a short-term cheaper
alternative to setting up an independent maintenance base. Some airlines may enter into a Maintenance and Ground
Support Agreement (MAGSA) with each other, which is used by airlines to assess costs for maintenance and support to
aircraft.
Most ground services are not directly related to the actual flying of the aircraft, and instead involve other service tasks.
Cabin services ensure passenger comfort and safety. They include such tasks as cleaning the passenger cabin and
replenishment of on-board consumables or washable items such as soap, pillows, tissues, blankets, and magazines.
Security checks are also made to make sure no threats have been left on the aircraft. Airport GSE comprises a diverse
range of vehicles and equipment necessary to service aircraft during passenger and cargo loading and unloading,
maintenance, and other ground-based operations. The wide range of activities associated with aircraft ground operations
lead to an equally wide ranging fleet of GSE. For example, activities undertaken during a typical aircraft gate period
include: cargo loading and unloading, passenger loading and unloading, potable water storage, lavatory waste tank
drainage, aircraft refueling, engine and fuselage examination and maintenance, and food and beverage catering. Airlines
employ specially designed GSE to support all these operations. Moreover, electrical power and conditioned air are
generally required throughout gate operational periods for both passenger and crew comfort and safety, and many times
these services are also provided by GSE.[1]
Airbus A380-800 operated by Qatar Airways at London Heathrow Airport apron outside Terminal 4 with a wide range of
ground handling equipments around such as aircraft container, pallet loader, ULD, jet air starter, belt loader, pushback
tug, catering vehicles and dollies.

Boeing 737-900ER operated by Thai Lion Air at Gate 46, apron outside Pier 4 with a wide range of ground handling
equipments around such as aircraft container, pallet loader, ULD, jet air starter, belt loader, pushback tug, Refuelers and
dollies. Before took off operated flight 8538 to Hat Yai on 26 September 2015

Catering vehicle
Airbus A320-200 operated by Thai Smile, 3 June 2016, at Gate A3 Suvarnabhumi Airport, apron outside terminal with
ground handling equipment: aircraft container, pallet loader, ULD, jet air starter, belt loader, pushback tug, and dollies.

ground handling equipment at Piarco International Airport.Non-powered equipment

Dollies

A single dolly for aircraft cargo Unit Load Device, next to a group of dollies for loose luggage.

Those on the left are dollies for baggage unit load device (ULD). Those on the right are dollies for loose baggages.
A large dolly holding two aircraft cargo Unit Load Devices.

Dolly for unit load devices

Dolly for cargo pallets

Dollies for loose baggages are used for the transportation of loose baggages, over-sized baggages, mail bags, loose
cargo carton boxes, etc. between the aircraft and the terminal or sorting facility. Dollies for loose baggages are fitted with
a brake system which blocks the wheels from moving when the connecting rod is not attached to a tug. Most dollies for
loose baggages are completely enclosed except for the sides which use plastic curtains to protect items from weather. In
the US, these dollies are called Baggage Cart, but in Europe Baggage Cart means passenger baggage trolleys.
Dollies for unit load device (ULD) and cargo pallets are standard sized flatbed trolley or platform, with many wheels,
roller bars or ball bearings protruding above the top surface for easy loading and unloading of ULD and cargo pallets
respectively. Since ULD/pallet rest on ball bearings, these dollies are equipped with hinge/locks to secure the position of
the ULD/pallet on them during tugging transportation. The aviation industry adopted ULD/pallets to be lightweight
containers and supporting platforms respectively, intended to be loaded into aircraft and fly along with their loads, they
need to be minimum in weight and thus do not have wheels or strong base structure. Also, the ULD/pallets have
stringent dimensional standard following the aircraft cargo bay dimension. Therefore, these dollies are custom designed
to complement the ULD/pallet's dimension, hinge/fixture position, weak overall physical strength and transportation
need. Advanced dollies for ULD and pallets, such as those used on an airport apron, may have the following specialized
facilities.
• Rollers - Dollies have built-in rollers or balls bearings on the deck to assist in the moving of containers or
pallets. Advance dollies have two sets of power driven rollers, one set moves the container forward and
backward, and the other move it left and right. The precise movement is needed to align the center of gravity of
the container to the center of the deck, or else the dollies may turn over when in motion. In addition, the
containers or pallets on dollies are secured with built-in locks.
• Revolving platform - Some dollies have a revolving platform to facilitate rotating the ULDs to the correct
orientation before transferring them onto a cargo conveyor belt or ULD/pallet lift leading to the aircraft bay.
 Some revolving platforms are power assisted.
• Brakes - Dollies have mechanical brakes which automatically lock the dolly wheels when the towbar is in the
parked (vertical) orientation, and automatically release the dolly wheels when the towbar is in the towing
(horizontal) orientation. No explicit manual locking/unlocking action by the operator is needed.
Dollies fleet management is an issue specific to the airport ground support equipment industry. Dollies are not
inexpensive consumable equipment like a hand trolley. Dollies are numerous (thousands) in a large airport apron. An
airport usually has more than one dolly fleet operator, using dollies not greatly different in appearance, and each
operator is using many types of dollies simultaneously. Apron is a large area that using direct eyesight to find an item is
not easy. Dolly in operation needs frequent detachment and re-attachment from the tug and other dollies. It is not access
controlled (it does not need a car key be used, like an automobile). It is not always supervised by the same driver (any
tractor can come to pick up any dolly and tug them away, sometimes erroneously). As a result of all above factors, dollies
do get lost/misplaced on an apron, or at least dollies fleet management is an ongoing burden for ground support
equipment operator. Major airports are starting to attach battery power active RFID tags to Dollies to facilitate their fleet
management. The active RFID tags can be detected at up to 100m away in open space from the fixed RFID reader
antenna, which can be mounted at the aircraft loading bridges. The RFID tag report the dolly's facility number as well as
the "battery weak" and "strong collision" status, making management of the RFID tags (and thus the associated dolly)
easier.[2]

Chocks

Chocks
Chocks are used to prevent an aircraft from moving while parked at the gate or in a hangar. Chocks are placed in the
front ('fore') and back ('aft') of the wheels of landing gear. They are made out of hard wood or hard rubber. Corporate
safety guidelines in the US almost always specify that chocks must be used in a pair on the same wheel and they must
be placed in physical contact with the wheel. Therefore, "chocks" are typically found in pairs connected by a segment of
rope or cable. The word "chock" is also used as a verb, defined as the act of placing chocks in front and back of the
wheel.

Aircraft Tripod Jack

They are used to support a parked aircraft to prevent their tail from drooping or even falling to the ground. When the
passengers in the front get off an aircraft, the aircraft becomes tail heavy and the tail will droop. Using the jack is optional
but not all aircraft need it. When needed, they are tugged to the tail and setup by manpower. Once setup, no supervision
to the jack is needed until the aircraft is ready to leave.
Powered equipment

Refuelers

Hydrant truck aircraft refueler.

Tank truck aircraft refueler.

Aircraft refuelers can be either a self-contained fuel truck, or a hydrant truck or cart. Fuel trucks are self-contained,
typically containing up to 10,000 US gallons of fuel and have their own pumps, filters, hoses, and other equipment. A
hydrant cart or truck hooks into a central pipeline network and provides fuel to the aircraft. There is a significant
advantage with hydrant systems when compared to fuel trucks, as fuel trucks must be periodically replenished.

Tugs and tractors

The tugs and tractors at an airport have several purposes and represent the essential part of ground support services.
They are used to move all equipment that can not move itself. This includes bag carts, mobile air conditioning units, air
starters, and lavatory carts.

Ground power units

Ground power unit that needs towing.

A ground power unit (GPU) is a vehicle capable of supplying power to aircraft parked on the ground. Ground power units
may also be built into the jetway, making it even easier to supply electrical power to aircraft. Many aircraft require 28 V of
direct current and 115 V 400 Hz of alternating current. The electric energy is carried from a generator to a connection on
the aircraft via 3 phase 4-wire insulated cable capable of handling 261 amps (90 kVA). These connectors are standard
for all aircraft, as defined in ISO 6858.
A so-called "solid state unit" converts power from AC to DC along with current separation for aircraft power requirements.
Solid state units can be supplied stationary, bridge-mounted or as a mobile unit.
Buses

Soviet apron bus

Buses at airports are used to move people from the terminal to either an aircraft or another terminal. The specific term
for airport buses that drive on the apron only is apron bus. Apron buses may have a low profile like the Guangtai or
Neoplan aircraft buses because people disembark directly to the apron. Some airports use buses that are raised to the
level of a passenger terminal and can only be accessed from a door on the 2nd level of the terminal. These odd-looking
buses are usually referred to as "people movers" or "mobile lounges". Airport buses are usually normal city buses or
specialized terminal buses. Specialized airport buses have very low floor and wide doors on both sides of the bus for
most efficient passenger movement and flexibility in depot parking. The biggest producers of airport buses are in China
(Weihai, Shenyang, Beijing, Jinhua), Portugal and Slovenia.[specify]

Container loader

Photo of aircraft container and pallet loader showing its numerous powered rollers for shifting and rotation of containers.

Photo showing a ULD loader lifting a ULD from apron dollies level to aircraft cargo bay level. Unit Load Device (ULD) is
standardized size air cargo container. All are apron Ground support equipment.
Members of Naval Mobile Construction Battalion Four (NMCB-4) load TriCon containers loaded with construction
equipment destined for field testing in Iraq, into a U.S. Air Force, Air Mobility Command, C-5 Galaxy transport aircraft.
Container loaders, also known as cargo loaders or "K loaders", are used for the loading and unloading of containers and
pallets into and out of aircraft. The loader has two platforms which raise and descend independently. The containers or
palettes on the loader are moved with the help of built-in rollers or wheels. There are different container and pallet
loaders.
• 3.5 T
• 7 T (standard version, wide-body, universal, high)
• 14 T
• 30 T
For military transport planes special container and pallet loaders are used. Some military applications use airborne
loaders, which are transportable within the transport plane itself. Container and pallet loaders are mainly produced in
France, Germany, Latvia, Spain, Canada, Brazil, Japan, China, and the United States.

Transporters

Container transporter
Transporters are cargo platforms constructed so that, beside loading and unloading containers, they can also can
transport the cargo. These transporters are not typically used in the United States.

Air Start Unit (ASU)

Volkswagen Type 2 (T3) jet air starter

An Air Start Unit is a device used to start the aircraft's engines when the aircraft's APU is not operational. There are three
primary types of these devices that exist currently: a stored air cart, a gas turbine based unit, and a diesel engine driven
screw compressor unit. All three devices create a source of high pressure air to start the aircraft engines. Typically one
or two hoses are connect to these units, with the largest aircraft engines requiring three.

Potable water trucks

Potable water trucks are special vehicles that provide reliability and consistency in the delivery of quality water to an
aircraft. The water is filtered and protected from the elements while being stored on the vehicle. A pump in the vehicle
assists in moving the water from the truck to the aircraft.

Lavatory service vehicles

A man connects the waste suction hose to the lavatory service outlet on the underbelly of a C-17 Globemaster III,
enabling him to suck the waste into a tank in the truck shown in the background.
Lavatory service vehicles empty and refill lavatories onboard aircraft. Waste is stored in tanks on the aircraft until these
vehicles can empty them and remove the waste. After the tank is emptied, it is refilled with a mixture of water and a
disinfecting concentrate, commonly called 'blue juice'. Instead of a self-powered vehicle, some airports have lavatory
carts, which are smaller and must be pulled by tug.
See also: Blue ice (aircraft)

Catering vehicle

Photo showing two Aircraft Catering Vehicle serving an aircraft

Mercedes-Benz Econic aircraft caterer

Catering includes the unloading of unused food and drink from the aircraft, and the loading of fresh food and drinks for
passengers and crew. The meals are typically delivered in standardized carts. Meals are prepared mostly on the ground
in order to minimize the amount of preparation (apart from chilling or reheating) required in the air.
The catering vehicle consists of a rear body, lifting system, platform and an electro-hydraulic control mechanism. The
vehicle can be lifted up, down and the platform can be moved to place in front of the aircraft.
In-flight food is prepared in the flight kitchen which is a completely HACCP certified facility where food is made in sterile
and controlled environments. The packed food is then placed in trollies and wheeled into the Catering truck at the flight
kitchen, which can be located within a 5 km radius of the airport.
Thereon the vehicle drives to the airport and is parked in front of the plane. The stabilizers are deployed and the van
body is lifted. The platform can be fine controlled to move left-right as well as in-out so that it is aligned with the door
correctly.
The body is made of insulated panels and is capable of maintaining temperatures of 0 degrees by means of refrigeration
unit.
A special higher type of catering truck has been designed for the Airbus A380 because of its unique height.

Belt loaders

Belt loader
Belt loaders are vehicles with conveyor belts for unloading and loading of baggage and cargo onto aircraft. A belt loader
is positioned at the door sill of an aircraft hold (baggage compartment) during operation. Belt loaders are used for
narrowbody aircraft, and the bulk hold of wide body aircraft. Stowing baggage without containers is known as bulk
loading.

Passenger boarding steps/stairs

Passenger boarding stairs

Low-cost carriers may prefer using air-stairs for saving expenses

Passenger boarding stairs, sometimes referred to as air-stairs, boarding ramps, stair car or aircraft steps, provide a
mobile means to traverse between the aircraft doors and the ground. Because larger aircraft have door sills 5 to 20 feet
high, stairs facilitate safe boarding and deplaning. Smaller units are generally moved by being towed or pushed, while
larger units are self-powered. Most models have adjustable height to accommodate various aircraft. Optional features
may include canopies, heating, supplementary lighting, and a red carpet for VIP passengers.

Pushback tugs and tractors

Photo shows a pushback tug carrying a towbar on apron.

A conventional tractor hooked up to a United Airlines Boeing 777-200ER at Denver International Airport
Main article: Pushback
Pushback tugs are mostly used to push an aircraft away from the gate when it is ready to leave. These tugs are very
powerful and because of the large engines, are sometimes referred to as an engine with wheels. Pushback tugs can also
be used to pull aircraft in various situations, such as to a hangar. Different size tugs are required for different size aircraft.
Some tugs use a tow-bar as a connection between the tug and the aircraft, while other tugs lift the nose gear off the
ground to make it easier to tow or push. Recently there has been a push for towbarless tractors as larger airplanes are
designed.

De/anti-icing vehicles

A de/anti-icing vehicle de-icing the wing of a Croatia Airlines aircraft.

The procedure of de/anti-icing, protection from fluids freezing up on aircraft, is done from special vehicles. These
vehicles have booms, like a cherry picker, to allow easy access to the entire aircraft. A hose sprays a special mixture that
melts current ice on the aircraft and also prevents some ice from building up while waiting on the ground.
Aircraft rescue and firefighting

Firefighting equipment at the Düsseldorf International Airport, 2013

Aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) is a special category of firefighting that involves the response, hazard mitigation,
evacuation and possible rescue of passengers and crew of an aircraft involved in (typically) an airport ground
emergency.