Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA
DIVISIÓN DE INGENIERÍAS CIVIL y GEOMÁTICA
DEPARTAMENTO DE GEOTECNIA
INTRODUCCIÓN
TEMA 1
Exploración y Muestreo
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Importancia de la Geología en la Ingeniería Civil
En ingeniero civil se enfrenta a una gran variedad de problemas, en los que el conocimiento de
la geología es necesario. Indudablemente aprenderá más geología en el campo y en la práctica
que la que puede enseñarle en las aulas o en el laboratorio de una escuela. Pero este aprendizaje
será más fácil y más rápido y su aplicación más eficaz, si en sus cursos de ingeniería se han
incluido los principios básico de la geología. Merecen citarse especialmente algunas ventajas
especifica las cuales algunas de ellas al desarrollare con más pausa a través del trabajo.
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Ingeniería Geológica y del Entorno
Los ingenieros geólogos aplican los principios geológicos a la investigación de los materiales
naturales tierra, roca y agua superficial y subterránea implicados en el diseño, la construcción y
la explotación de proyectos de ingeniería civil. Son representativos de estos los diques, los
puentes, las autopistas, los acueductos, los desarrollos de zonas de alojamiento y los sistemas
de gestión de residuos. Una nueva rama, la geología del entorno, recoge y analiza datos
geológicos con el objetivo de resolver los problemas creados por el uso humano del entorne
natural. El más importante de ellos es el peligro para la vida y la propiedad que deriva de la
construcción de casas y de otras estructuras en áreas sometidas a sucesos geológicos, en
particular terremotos, taludes (véase corrimiento de tierra), erosión de la costas e inundaciones.
El alcance de la geología del entorno es muy grande al comprender ciencias físicas como;
geoquímica e hidrológica, ciencia biológica y sociales e ingenierías.
La geología se utiliza de diversas formas en obras hidráulicas entre las cuales podemos
mencionar las siguientes.
Obra de control fluvial: desde hace más de 3000 años el hombre ha tratado de amansar
algunos de los grandes ríos del mundo. Las primeras obras de ingeniería civil fueron con toda
probabilidad las de control fluvial. La obras fluvial es esencia la regulación de la corriente natural
del río dentro de un curso bien definido, generalmente el que suele ocupar la corriente. Ya que la
desviación del curso probablemente ocurrirá durante los periodos de caudal de avenida, la obra
de control consiste en regular la avenida.
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Geología en obras viales
La geología en obra viales juega un papel muy importante pues la mayoría de las carreteras,
túneles, y demás obras viales utilizan la geología para realizar estudio de suelo de los terrenos
que se utilizaran para dichas obras. Ahora veremos algún ejemplo donde se aplica la geología.
Carreteras: son contadas las obras de ingeniería civil que guardan relación tan
estrechamente con la geología como las carreteras. Se puede esperar que todo proyecto de
carreteras importante encuentre una gran variedad de condiciones geológicas, puesto que se
extienden grandes distancias. Aunque será extraño que una carretera requiera actividades
constructivas en las profundidades del subsuelo, los cortes que se realizan para lograr las
gradientes uniformes que demandan las autopistas modernas proporcionan por necesidad una
multitud de oportunidades de observar la geología. No sólo es atractivo para los conductores,
sino que también revelan detalles de la geología local que de otro modo serían desconocidos.
Geología en Edificaciones
La geología en las edificaciones constituye la zapata en la cual se apoyan todas las edificaciones
existentes en la actualidad, pues, se debe realizar siempre un estudio del suelo sobre la cual
nosotros los ingenieros civiles debemos construir.
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Geología Física. Conocimientos generales
La inscripción borrosa de una piedra sepulcral, los cimientos de un antiguo edificio que se
desmoronan, las rocas situadas a lo largo de las cunetas de un camino, todo ello nos dice que
las rocas están sujetas a una destrucción constante. Los cambios bruscos de temperatura, la
humedad que empapa el suelo, la incesante actividad de los seres vivos, todo tiende a destruir
las rocas. Este proceso de destrucción es lo que se llama intemperismo y se le define como los
cambios que tienen lugar en los minerales y rocas en o cerca de la superficie de la Tierra por
efectos de la atmósfera, del agua, de las plantas y de la vida animal.
Intemperismo
El intemperismo es la reacción de los materiales que estuvieron una vez en equilibrio dentro de
la corteza terrestre a las nuevas condiciones en o cerca del contacto con el aire, el agua y la
materia viviente. El intemperismo es un proceso de rompimiento de las rocas debido a procesos
mecánicos y/o químicos en pequeños fragmentos. El intemperismo mecánico (desintegración)
puede ser causado por la expansión y contracción de las rocas debido a la continua ganancia o
pérdida de calor resultando por último una desintegración. Frecuentemente, el agua se infiltra
dentro de los poros o grietas existentes en las rocas, al presentarse una disminución en la
temperatura a tal grado de que el agua se congele, existir un aumento de volumen por lo que la
presión ejercida por el hielo, provoca un rompimiento en fragmentos de la roca. Otros agentes
físicos que ayudan a la desintegración de las rocas así como a su transportación, son los hielos
glaciares, las corrientes de agua (arroyos y ríos) y las olas en los mares. Es importante hacer
notar que en el intemperismo mecánico, grandes rocas son desintegradas a pequeños pedazos
sin ningún cambio en su composición química.
Para que actúe cualquier tipo de acción del hielo, deben existir ciertas condiciones: 1) debe haber
un abastecimiento de humedad adecuado; 2) la humedad debe ser capaz de penetrar la roca o
suelo; y 3) la temperatura debe variar por encima y por debajo de la línea de congelación.
Los productos del intemperismo pueden quedarse en el sitio o ser transportados por el hielo, el
agua, el viento, la gravedad y el hombre.
Los suelos formados como producto del intemperismo en el lugar de origen son llamados suelos
residuales. Una característica de los suelos residuales es el escalonamiento en los tamaños de
sus partículas. Suelos de grano fino son encontrados en la superficie y los tamaños de los granos
se incrementan con la profundidad. A mayores profundidades, fragmentos angulosos de roca
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pueden ser encontrados. Los suelos que se crearon fuera de su lugar de origen son los suelos
transportados, los cuales pueden ser clasificados en varios tipos, dependiendo de su modo de
transportación y depositación:
Los depósitos de grava, arena, limo y arcilla que se han formado por el intemperismo pueden
llegar a compactarse por la presión de una sobrecarga, por peso propio y por la presencia de
agentes cementantes como el óxido de hierro, calcita, dolomita y cuarzo. Estos agentes
cementantes son generalmente acarreados, en forma disuelta, por el agua que circula contenida
en la masa de suelo. Estas llenan los espacios entre las partículas y forman las rocas
sedimentarias. Las rocas formadas de esta manera son las llamadas rocas sedimentarias
detríticas. Conglomerado, brecha, arenisca, lodolita, pizarra son algunos ejemplos de este tipo
de rocas.
Las rocas sedimentarias se pueden formar también por procesos químicos, llamándose rocas
sedimentarias químicas. La caliza, creta (gis), dolomita, yeso y anhidrita son rocas de este tipo.
En la figura 1 se observa en ciclo de la roca en sus diferentes etapas, así como la dureza de las
mismas.
El recuerdo de la persona que utilizó por primera vez el suelo como un material de construcción
se encuentra perdido en la antigüedad. Por años, el arte de la ingeniería de suelos estuvo basado
únicamente en la experiencia transmitida y adquirida de generación a generación. Con el
crecimiento de la ciencia y tecnología, la necesidad por mejorar y hacer m s económicos; los
diseños estructurales y los procedimientos constructivos fue una meta primordial. Esto condujo a
un estudio detallado de la naturaleza y propiedades del suelo relacionadas con la ingeniería
durante los primeros años del siglo XX. La publicación de Erdbaumechanik por Karl Terzaghi en
1925, fue el punto de partida de la moderna mecánica de suelos. En este libro se presentan los
principios fundamentales de la mecánica de suelos en los cuales muchos de los estudios
avanzados se encuentran basados.
También al suelo se le define como el material formado por partículas minerales (producto de la
descomposición y/o desintegración de las rocas) y vacíos (que pueden o no estar ocupados por
agua), figura 2.
* The term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the general field in which it is being
considered.
*To a Pedologist ... Soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface, which grows and
develops plant life.
*To a Geologist ..... Soil is the material in the relative thin surface zone within which roots
occur, and all the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK irrespective of its
hardness.
*To an Engineer .... Soil is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits of mineral and/or
organic particles or fragments covering large portion of the earth's crust.
** Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest disciplines of Civil Engineering involving the study
of soil, its behavior and application as an engineering material.
*According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration
of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituent."
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* Geotechnical Engineering contains:
El suelo es usado como un material de construcción en varias obras de ingeniería civil y soporta
estructuras con diferentes tipos de cimentaciones. Por ello, la ingeniería civil debe estudiar las
propiedades del suelo como son; su origen, las distribución granulométrica, capacidad para
drenar agua, compresibilidad, resistencia al corte, capacidad de carga, etc.
La mecánica de suelos es la rama de la ciencia que trata con el estudio de las propiedades físicas
del suelo y el comportamiento de las masas de suelo sujetas a varios tipos de fuerzas. La
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ingeniería de suelos es la aplicación de los principios de la mecánica de suelos a problemas
prácticos.
A Partículas menores que 0.074mm que forman suelos o pueden estar contenidas en suelos con
partículas de tamaños mayores. Las partículas de este tamaño no se distinguen (limos, arcillas).
B Partículas de tamaños comprendidos entre 0.074 mm y 76.2 mm que forman suelos o pueden
estar contenidos en suelos con partículas de tamaños menores (gravas, arenas)
C Partículas de tamaños mayores que 76.2 mm que no forman suelos pero pueden estar
contenidos en suelos de tamaños menores. Por costumbre se les conoce como: fragmentos de
roca.
Los granos minerales que forman la fase sólida de un suelo son producto del intemperismo de
las rocas. El tamaño de los granos, en forma individual, varía en un amplio rango. Muchas de las
propiedades físicas del suelo son determinadas por el tamaño, forma y composición química de
los granos. Para tener un mejor entendimiento de estos factores, uno debe estar familiarizado
con los tipos básicos de roca que forman la corteza de la tierra, los minerales formadores de roca
y los procesos de intemperismo, figura 3.
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Soil Forming Factors
(Factores Formadores de Suelo)
About Minerals
A mineral is defined as being a naturally occuring element or compound that is formed by inorganic
processes and contains a crystalline structure. Pedologists are primarily concerned with minerals
in soil because minerals form the basic framework of soil. Minerals originally form when once-
heated Earth material magma (molten rock) cools and forms solid igneous rock. During the cooling
process of magma, ions (an atom, a group of atoms or compound that is electrically charged when
the loss or gain of electrons occurs) become bonded together, due to electrical attraction. The
attracted, bonded ions remain fixed in position and produce solid crystalline minerals within
igneous rock.The Earth's crust formed and continues to form in this manner.
Earth's crust contains a combination of naturally occurring elements, of which eight elements are
predominant: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na),
potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). As you can imagine, combinations of these elements along
with the other naturally occuring elements that form Earth's crust produce a wide variety of
minerals.
Igneous rocks contain original minerals that form as magma cools but sedimentary rocks are
formed by secondary minerals that grow and join sediment particles together and become
cemented. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks that become
chemically altered to form different minerals. Minerals that combine to create inorganic parent
material can be released from their attractive bond, during chemical weathering, and become
deposited as soil. Deposits that come from parent material are either residual or transported.
Residual deposits result when a rock is weathered in situ (in place). In contrast, transported
deposits get moved by transport agents, often long distances.
Original Minerals
NAME CHEMICAL FORMULA
Quartz SiO2
Microcline KAlSi3O8
Orthoclase KAlSi3O8
Na-Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8
Ca-Plagioclase CaAlSi3O8
Muscovite KAlSi3O10
Biotite KAl(Mg-Fe)3Si3O10 (OH)2
Horneblende Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3, Si6O (OH)2
Augite Ca2(Al-Fe)4(Mg-Fe)4Si6O24
(Extracted from The Geography of Soils, by Donald Steila. Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey)
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Secondary Minerals
NAME CHEMICAL FORMULA
Calcite CaCo3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Gypsum CaSO4-2H20
Apatite Ca5(PO4)3 - (Cl, F)
Limonite Fe2-O3-3H20
Hematite Fe2O3
Gibbsite Al2-O3-3H2O
Clay Minerals Al silicates
( Extracted from The Geography of Soils, by Donald Steila. Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey )
About Weathering
As you drive or ride in a car, take a train or plane, ride a bike ride, or go for a nature walk you see
the spectacular and varied landscapes on Earth's surface. As Earth's crust is built up by volcanic
and tectonic forces (thrusting and deformation of Earth's crust), weathering forces simultaneously
reduce landforms and release minerals from rocks. Natural weathering processes occur around
us everyday, continually rearranging and building landforms on Earth's surface.
Chemical weathering occurs as minerals in rocks are chemically altered, and subsequently
decompose and decay. Increasing precipitation (rain) speeds up the chemical weathering of
minerals in rocks, as seen on tombstones and monuments made of limestone and marble. In fact,
water is an essential factor of chemical weathering. Increasing temperature also accelerates the
chemical reaction that causes minerals to degrade. This is why humid, tropical climates have
highly weathered landforms, soils, and buildings.
Carbonation and Solution: this weathering process occurs when precipitation (H20)
combines with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). When carbonic acid comes in
contact with rocks that contain lime, soda, and potash, the minerals calcium, magenesium and
potassium in these rocks chemically change into carbonates and dissolve in rain water. Karst
topography, originally named after the Krs Plateau in Yugoslavia where it was first studied, is a
result of this type of chemical weathering that possesses characteristic sinkholes, caves, and
caverns.
Hydrolysis: this chemical weathering process occurs when water (H20), usually in the form
of precipitation, disrupts the chemical composition and size of a mineral and creates less stable
minerals, thus less stable rocks, that weather more readily.
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Hydration: water (H20) combines with compounds in rocks, causing a chemical change in a
mineral's structure, but more likely will physically alter a mineral's grain surface and edges. A good
example of this is the mineral Anhydrite (CaSO4). Anhydrite chemically changes to Gypsum
(CaSO4-2H20) when water is added. Gypsum is used in the construction industry, to build buildings
and houses.
Oxidation: this process occurs when oxygen combines with compound elements in rocks to
form oxides. When an object is chemically altered in this manner it is weakened and appears as
"oxidized" . A good example of this is a "rusting" sign post . The iron in the metal post is oxidizing.
Increased temperatures and the presence of precipitation will accelerate the oxidation process.
Spheroidal Weathering: water penetrates through cracks in rocks and dissolves the cement
that binds particles together and also erodes sharp edges and corners of rocks, making a rock
appear spheroidal. Physical weathering processes, such as frost wedging, can then act upon the
enlargened cracks in rocks.
Rocks that are broken and degrade by processes other than chemical alteration are physically or
mechanically weathered. A rock broken in to smaller pieces exposes more surface area of the
original rock. Increasing the exposed surface area of a rock will increase its weathering potential.
Animals and Plants: Animals burrow into Earth's substrate and move rock fragments and
sediment on Earth's surface, thereby aiding in the disintegration of rocks and rock fragments.
Fungi and Lichens are acid-producing microorganisms that live on rocks and dissolve nutrients
(phosphorus, calcium) within rocks. These microorganisms assist in the breakdown and
weathering of rocks.
Crystallization: As water evaporates moisture from rocks located in arid climates mineral
salts develop from mineral crystals. The crystals grow, spreading apart mineral grains in the
process, and eventually break apart rocks.
Unloading and Exfoliation: Cracks in rocks appear when pressure is released as overlying
rocks or sediment are removed, thus allowing the expansion of the newly exposed rock. Exfoliation
occurs as sheets or slabs of the cracked rock slip off and become further eroded. Domes form as
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the unloading and exfoliation weathering processes continue. Half Dome at Yosemite National
Park , California is a result of unloading (pressure-release jointing) and exfoliation.
COMENTARIOS
Although one weathering process can dominate in a given area, physical and chemical weathering
processes occur simultaneously to break down rock parent material. Rocks that are formed under
intense temperature and pressure and cool rapidly forms crystalline structures in minerals that are
less stable when exposed to low temperatures and pressures at Earth's surface, so they will
weather more rapidly.
Rocks that are formed under intense temperature and pressure, but cool more slowly and later in
the volcanic magma cooling process, are more stable when exposed to the low temperatures and
pressures at Earth's surface. Bonds holding atoms together determine mineral hardness. Rocks
that have cooled more slowly have time to build stronger bonds, so they are more resistant to the
forces of weathering.
Friedrich Mohs, an Austrian mineralogist, devised a scale of mineral hardness in 1812. He used
ten minerals, listed below, as standards by which to determine the hardness of minerals and other
objects. These ten minerals were arranged on a scale of increasing hardness. For instance,
gypsum can scratch talc, and apatite can scratch fluorite, calcite, gypsum, and talc.Your fingernail
has a general hardness of 2.5, so you can scratch gypsum and talc! Diamonds are the hardest
mineral in existence and are used as cutting instruments.
(Information derived from Rocks and Minerals, an Eyewitness Book produced and published by
Dorling Kindersley Limited, London, England. Also published by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York.
1988.)
Since some minerals weather more rapidly than others and weathering processes vary in intensity
and combination, weathering products contain different mineral combinations. Pedologists, or soil
scientists, classify these weathered mineral products as soil separates. Soil separates range in
size and are known as sand, silt, and clay.
Physical and chemical weathering processes erode parent material into mineral particles and
dissolve minerals in solution, but weathering does not transport or deposit weathered minerals.
Volcanoes, wind, water, ice, and waves transport and deposit weathered minerals, they are
influenced by gravity, and upon deposition create landforms from which soil formation begins.
Minerals weathered from parent material determine the mineral content in sand, silt, and clay.
Sand: The major mineral in sand is called quartz and it is composed of silica and oxygen (SiO2).
Sand grains vary in size depending on how long they are exposed to weathering. Quartz is very
resistant to weathering; therefore, sand grains are larger in diameter compared to silt and clay
particles:
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very coarse sand: 2.00 - 1.00 mm diameter
coarse sand: 1.00 - .50 mm diameter
medium sand: 0.50 - 0.25 mm diameter
fine sand: 0.25 - 0.10 mm diameter
very fine sand: 0.10 - 0.05 mm
Because sand is larger in diameter than other soil separates, sand grains provide larger spaces
in which water and air can more easily move through soil. Sandy soils are limited in nutrients
because the nutrients leach out from the large pore spaces between sand grains, so crops are
generally not grown in sandy soils.
Silt: Silt contains silicate minerals like sand but the diameter of silt particles is smaller, 0.05 - 0.002
mm, and so the pore space between silt particles are smaller. Therefore, silt has the ability to hold
water between particles and retains nutrients for plant use. Silt is an ideal soil for growing crops.
Clay: Silicates, mica, iron, and aluminum hydrous-oxide minerals are found in clay. The silicate
clay group is primarily located in the mid-latitudes, while the iron and aluminum clays are found in
the tropic zones. Clay particles are 0.002 mm in diameter or smaller, so the pore spaces between
clay particles are very small. Thus, water and air movement through clays particles is significantly
decreased. When clay becomes wet it swells, sticks together (cohesion), and feels "sticky". As
wet clay dries it shrinks and cracks. Clay also becomes dense, hard, and brittle making it difficult
for plant roots to grow through. Clay soils containing laterite and smectite properties are not
desirable to grow crops in or to build on.
Landforms are constantly developing and changing as weathering forces continually erode rocks
and transport agents (volcanoes, wind, water, ice, and waves) continually deposit the eroded
rocks and sediment in to different depositional environments, on Earth's surface.
Alluvial Deposits: rock debris that has been eroded into fine sediments that are subsequently
transported by a mountain stream or river to the valley floor, as the gradient of the mountain
decreases. Sediment is carried by either ephemeral (intermitant) water flow that occurs in arid
climates or perennial stream water flow that occurs in humid climates, and is subsequently
distributed into fan shaped landforms called alluvial fans.
Alluvial fans are known to be either wet or dry, depending on if the fans are located in humid or
arid climates. Alluvial soils are finely layered and are very deep. Closer to river banks and on
natural levees alluvial soils are more sandy, however alluvial soils are more clayey to peaty when
closer to swampy areas. Alluvial deposits such as the Mississippi River Delta and China's vast
alluvial plains have rich top soil and are known for being very fertile, crop growing regions.
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Colluvial Deposits: materials that move downslope by force of gravity and/or erosion and collect
at the base of mountains or foothills, with little or no sorting. Talus cones are a type of colluvial
deposit. Soils from colluvial deposition are generally deep and fragipans (hard clay soil) are
common.
Eolian Deposits: eolian deserts form in arid regions of the world where dry air masses create
wind systems that transport and deposit loose sediments. Silt particles, called loess, are carried
by wind even longer distances than sand and collect around the fringe of deserts. Large areas of
the desert environment that receive more than 125 square kilometers of eolian sand are called
sand seas or ergs, such as Erg Chech in Algeria. The largest desert in the world, the Sahara
Desert, is 7 million square kilometers and contains several ergs. Smaller areas are called dune
fields. Wind force and variable wind directions transport and deposit sand and in the process
create different types of dunes. Some dunes are shaped by the wind into ridges, strings, domes,
stars, or barchans (half-moon shaped dunes). Deserts primarily consist of wind-deposited sand
which originated from sandstone that eroded over time.
Glacial Deposits: Glaciers are large and small ice masses that are found at high latitudes on
Earth.Mountains located at all latitudes have small glaciers. During the Pleistocene, 10,000 years
ago, glaciers extended into much lower latitudes and elevations than are currently located. As the
climate changed and weather got warmer, glaciers began to melt and abrade bedrock lying below
the glaciers. Varying rates of ice melt caused eroded sediment to "drop out" of retreating, melting
glaciers. This "glacial till" formed deposits called moraines and drumlins. Glacial till consists of
unstratified (unlayered) and unsorted glacial deposits, some the size of huge boulders.
Meltwaters flowing upon, under, within or at the margin of glaciers accumulate deposits known as
outwash plains and kettles (depressions), kames (small, mound shaped accumulations of sand or
gravel), and eskers (narrow, sinuous ridges of sediment).Where glaciers extend beyond the
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mouths of river valleys and enter the sea, their glaciomarine sediment load is dumped into the
ocean.
As climates warm glaciers melt and retreat. Glaciofluvial (glacier stream water) sediment is
transported downstream by way of glacial meltwater and is deposited in braided streams.
Glaciolacustrine (glacier lake water) sediment is deposited in glacial lakes when damming of ice
or moraines occurs, and fluctuations of meltwater flow create distinctive varve deposits. Fine
glacial debris consisting of silt and clay becomes airborne where vegetation is not present to hold
this sediment down, and often traveling hundreds of kilometers before landing and forming loess
deposits. The Muir Glacier and Margerie Glacier in Glacier Bay, Alaska are actively retreating
glaciers.
Lacustrine Deposits: Lakes are different than marine environments in that sedimentation of lakes
is ten times higher than in marine environments. Lakes are also smaller, are nearly closed
systems, and tides in lakes are less pronounced. Therefore energy levels in lakes are lower,
coarser sediment (sand and gravel) is deposited in shallow water areas of lakes, especially during
summer, while finer-grained sediment (silt and clay) is deposited in deeper water areas of lakes,
and more so during winter. Varves, alternating thin layers of light-colored coarser grained
sediment and dark-colored finer grained sediment, are one type of lacustrine deposit and form in
both glacial and nonglacial lakes.
Deposits in open lakes come mainly from rivers but may also be deposited by wind, ice-rafting,
and volcanic rock erosion. Sedimentation in closed lake systems consists of evaporite minerals,
carbonate muds, sands, and silts. Lacustrine deposits are often rich in organic shales which are
important source rocks for petroleum. Well-known lacustrine shale deposits in the world include
the Eocene Green River Formation in Wyoming,Utah and Colorado; the Jurassic Morrison
Formation of the Colorado Plateau; Devonian sediments from the Old Red Sandstone of the
Orcadian Basin in northeast Scotland; and the Triassic Keuper Marl of South Wales, just to name
a few.
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Loess Deposits: Loess is comprised primarily of silt grains, with less significant anounts of clay
and sand. The mineral quartz is most dominant in loess with feldspars, carbonates, and clay
minerals present in smaller amounts. For instance, in arid regions loess contains larger amounts
of calcium carbonate; whereas, in humid regions clay minerals in loess are more prevalent. Desert
regions of the world may be thought of as prime locations for loess deposition because of the
availability of loose sediment, sparse vegetal cover, and moderate to strong winds. However, loess
deposits are more commonly located in or near glacial regions.
Glacial outwash debris containing sand, silt, and clay is transported to floodplains by rivers that
drained glacial meltwater. The glacial debris, primarily the silt and clay, becomes airborne via
strong winds as vegetation is not present to hold sediment down. Loess can sometimes become
suspended several kilometers high and hundreds of kilometers in distance, with tens to hundreds
of tons of sediment being transported in a single "dust storm", as was the case in the 1935 dust
storm over the midwest United States. Near Wichita, Kansas a dust storm had suspended about
five million tons of sediment over a 78 square kilometer area and around 300 tons per square
kilometer of dust was deposited from the same storm near Lincoln, Nebraska.
Marine Deposits: physical processes mainly rework and distribute carbonate materials on marine
shelf but can also help in the production of carbonates. Moderate water ciruculation on marine
shelf brings nutrients from deeper water to shallow shelf region which aids in organic growth of
ooids, fecal pellets that eventually become cemented together. Waves constantly move fine
carbonate mud and coarser sediment to form sand or gravel covered tidal flats, beaches, dunes,
marshes, lagoons, and swamps or transports these sediments seaward to form spits, tidal deltas
and bars, and barrier islands. Waves pounding against coastal rocks also contribute rock particles
and sediment to the coastal shelf and seaward. The Outer Banks of North Carolina are a chain of
barrier islands that contain beaches, lagoons, and spits. Reefs can be characterized as either
thick masses of living carbonate "rock", or structures produced by sediment-binding, live
organisms. The Great Barrier Reef, Australia, is the largest coral reef in the world.
Bioherms are mounds of dead organic material that have collected in rocks of different
composition. Organisms are able to extract calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from seawater to build
protective shells or skeletons, although the availability of CaCO3 in seawater is controlled by pH,
temperature, and carbon dioxide content. When these organisms die their remains collect and
form carbonate deposits known as bioherms. Carbonate formers in Earth's current oceans are not
the same as those that formed carbonates in ancient oceans.
Other marine depositional environments include deltas, beaches, barrier bars, estuaries, lagoons,
and tidal flats. Beach and barrier bar deposits are mostly contain fine to medium grained, well
sorted sand as well as placer gold, platinum, and other minerals.
Estuarine deposits, like in the Chesapeake Bay and San Francisco Bay, consist of cross-bedded
sands and mud, or a mixture of both sand and mud. Lagoonal deposits include evaporites, fine-
grained sediments, and black shales. Delta deposits and tidal flat deposits, like the Mississippi
River Delta, primarily contain muds in the upper zone, mud and sand in the middle zone, and sand
in the lower zone.
Volcanic Deposits: Volcanoes produce magmas consisting of various mineral compositions that
in turn create various rock types. The amount of gas in magma and the viscosity (thickness) of
magma determine the volatility of a volcanic eruption and the types of landforms that are formed.
Continents and oceanic environments contain highly fluid, basaltic magma whereas magma
Copyright © by HALC_2016
17
forming as island arcs at the margins of some continents consists of high silica lavas that are more
viscous and crystallize into rhyolites, andesites, and dacites.
Lava in orogenic (mountain building) environments is most viscous (thick) and has a higher gas
content so eruptions are more explosive and form an extrusive, solid volcanic material called
tephra. Volcanic ash is found in the United States primarily in Hawaii, Washington, Oregon, and
also in Japan, Indonesia, Central America, and other mountainous regions of the world. Most
volcanic ash forms into very fertile soil that is used for growing crops.
Lava Plains and Plateaus - these types of volcanic landforms are created as a large volume of
fluid lava flows over an expansive surface area. The resulting topography are extremely flat
surfaces that aggrade with each successive lava flow that is mafic in composition. An example of
a lava plain is located in the Columbia River Plain in Washington and Oregon. Oceanic plains and
plateaus can also form, even more extensively, from this type of lava flow.
Cones or Shields - most volcanoes form into composite cones that have a distinctive appearance
of layers of interbedded, blocky lava with tephra that is mostly ash or cinder. The peaks of
composite cones have narrow, circular bases whose peaks rise several thousands of meters.
Mount Ranier, in Washington is a composite volcano. Conversely, shield volcanoes are comprised
of fluid basaltic magma with very little tephra and therefore have lower peaks than composite cone
volcanoes. The chain of Hawaiian volcanoes are shield volcanoes.
Calderas- this type of volcanic landform is created once eruptions occur and subsequently the
upper part of a volcano collapses inward. Volcanoes containing tephra sheets, such as the
composite cones, are more prone to forming calderas once an eruption occurs. Crater Lake,
Oregon and Yellowstone Plateau, Wyoming are calderas.
Landforms are not always formed by deposition alone. For instance, the spectacular Grand
Canyon land formation has been cut and etched by the erosive forces of wind and water over
millions of years. The Colorado River has deeply cut gorges into less resistant rock and created a
canyon while more resistant, less weathered rocks, such as sandstones, give the Grand Canyon
its statuesque appearance.
Also, human activity on the land can have a significant affect on erosion due to construction and
agricultural practices, as is seen in this picture of eroded sediment entering and filling the San
Francisco Bay, in California.
Can you think of other landforms that have been created by erosional and depositional
forces?
Can you think of ways we can improve how land is used and how we can protect sediment from
eroding from the land and entering into rivers, lakes, deltas, and bays?
Copyright © by HALC_2016
18
EXPLORACIÓN y MUESTREO
OBJETIVO
MÉTODOS DIRECTOS
Muestras alteradas.
Muestras no alteradas.
La profundidad de inicio y fin de los estratos, por tanto el espesor de los estratos.
La profundidad del agua subterránea (nivel freático).
El grado de saturación de una roca o un suelo.
Se determina la porosidad.
Se determina la permeabilidad.
El fracturamiento del subsuelo.
Tipos de métodos
Copyright © by HALC_2016
19
MÉTODOS INDIRECTOS
No se perfora el suelo.
Tiene un costo económico.
No se obtienen muestras.
Tipos de métodos
Método de resistividad.
Método sísmico a fracción.
Método sísmico a reflexión.
Método geo-radar.
Método gravimétrico.
Copyright © by HALC_2016
20
EXPLORACIÓN y MUESTREO
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Indice
1
FUNDACIONES SUPERFICIALES
Informe Geotécnico en proyectos de edificios
Antecedentes e Reconocimiento
información previa geotécnico
Pruebas y ensayos
Tipo de edificio,
cargas, etc.
Tipo de terreno
Alta
Influencia del NF Optimización Resistencia Baja
sobre la const. de excavaciones
Media
Baja Alta Baja Alta
Deformabilidad Deformabilidad
Media
Media
Tolerancias Estrictas Problemas de No Análisis según
del edificio interacción con tipo de edificio
edif.adyacentes
Positivo
Amplias Negativo
Si
Cimentación Cimentación
directa (zapatas,losas ) profunda ( pilotes )
Geología Hidrogeología
Coeficientes de Implantación Tipología
seguridad
Reconocimientos
Definición de
Correlaciones la cimentación
Proyecto
Ensayos Modelos de
comportamiento
Informe Geotécnico
Ejecución
Sistema de
Parámetros estructuramiento
geotécnicos del terreno
Control del
comportamiento
2
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Estudio Geotécnico
Método de estudio
Ensayos Reconocimiento
geotécnicos geológico
Problema Habituales
a resolver
3
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Trabajos a realizar
La cantidad y calidad de los trabajos de reconocimiento, queda definidos por :
Tipo de terreno
Nivel de estudio
( Factibilidad, previo,
anteproyecto,proyecto)
Importancia
de la obra
Tiempo disponible
4
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Otro Criterio de Ubicación de Sondajes
ESPACIAMIENTO DE SONDEOS
Estructura u obra Espaciamiento ( m )
Carretera 300 - 600
Presa de tierra - Diques 30 - 60
Excavación para empréstito 30 - 120
Edificio de varios pisos 15 - 30
Edificio industrial de un piso 30 - 90
Tamaño y características de la
estructura propuesta
Bulbo de presiones
5
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Profundidad de los sondajes
Teoría
Algunas recomendaciones son:
de sobrepresiones
Teoría Regla de
de Boussinesq E. de Beer
Otras recomendaciones
Prof. que cumpla
Prof. mín. ∆ σ = 0,10 σo’
10% del bulbo
Zapata aislada
1,5-2,0 B
Zapata corrida
2,5 B
1. Recopilación de antecedentes y
reconocimiento geológico
2. Exploración Preliminar
6
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Etapas del Estudio Geotécnico
Objetivo :
7
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Etapas del Estudio Geotécnico
Objetivo :
Objetivo :
Se utilizan cuando :
8
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Métodos de Reconocimiento
Prospección Geofísica
METODOS Manual
Ensayos de Penetración
Estático
Dinámico:CPT,SPT
Veleta de Corte
Ensayo de Permeabilidad
9
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Método de Muestreo Indirectos
SONDAJES
10
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Método de Muestreo Indirectos
Sondeo y ensayo
de Penetración Dinámica
SPT
11
SONDAJE S.P.T.
CUCHARA NORMAL
SPT
12
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Ensayo de Penetración Dinámica SPT
13
SONDAJE POR ROTACION
Cabezal
conductos
Tubo
exterior
Tubo
interior
Broca
cortanúcleos
Muestreador
14
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Métodos de Muestreo Indirectos
Onda refractada
• Se pueden emplear 3 métodos:
- Método de resistividad eléctrica Curva de tiempo
- Método de reflexión sísmica de primer arribo
Distancia
- Método de refracción sísmica
Método de Refracción Sísmica
15
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Métodos de Muestreo Directos
Métodos Directos
Resultados inmediatos
( Ensayos In Situ )
16
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Métodos de Muestreo Directos
Fuerza variable
o continua
ENSAYOS DE PENETRACIÓN
Manómetro
Revestimiento
Ensayo de Penetración Anclajes
Estática Punta o barra
( Deep soundering )
Presión ( barra ) Kg- f / cm2
Presión para
• Popular a nivel mundial (poco en Chile) hundir barra
• Uso en obras de fundaciones profundas y
z
en suelos blandos
• Se utiliza un gato hidráulico con carga, y
una camisa, en donde se introduce la Presión para
hundir punta
punta Resistencia Resistencia
de punta de roce
Ensayo de Penetración
Dinámica
CPT
17
Ver Ensayo portatil
Ensayo de Penetración
Dinámica
CPT
N COMPACIDAD φ
<4 muy floja <29
4-10 floja 29-30
10-30 media 30-36
30-50 alta 30-41
>50 muy alta >41
18
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Métodos de Muestreo Directos
19
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Métodos de Muestreo Directos
Información por obtener de un ensayo de placa : E, Cc , K , Valor de soporte
Presión Normal
Deformación
Tiempo Deformación
Curva deformación v/s tiempo Curva Presión v/s
Deformación con descarga
Presión Normal
Presión Normal
Ciclos
Deformación de def.
Def.Plástica Rebote elástico
Curva con aplicación
cíclica de la presión Curva de carga repetida
K = Módulo de Reacción
K=p/δ p = presión ( Kpa )
δ = reacción o deflexión
20
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Métodos de Muestreo Directos
ENSAYO PRESIOMÉTRICO
Manómetro
Célula de guarda
21
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
ENSAYO DE PERMEABILIDAD
Tubo vidrio
IN SITU (Ejemplo)
• Se mide la cantidad bombeada de agua de un
pozo o el nivel de descenso del agua en el
terreno dh
• Se busca alcanzar un estado estacionario h1
cuando a flujo constante de bombeo, se h2 h
mantienen constantes los niveles en pozos de L suelo
observación
• Medición de la velocidad de infiltración:
• Se utilizan dos perforaciones o pozos de
prueba, de tal forma de que exista entre ellos
un gradiente hidráulico natural.
• En la perforación superior se introduce NF
Pozos de prueba
colorante y se mide el tiempo que demora en
llegar a la otra perforación. h
D B
22
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Profundidad de los sondajes
PROFUNDIDAD DE LOS SONDAJES EN EMBALSES Y DIQUES :
D
PROFUNDIDAD DE LOS SONDAJES EN TERRAZAS Y TERRAPLENES :
Condición normal : D = B
D
23
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO
Caracterización Geohidráulica
En Ingeniería de Fundaciones , el agua juega un rol muy importante, ya
que genera variados problemas , los que se agrupan en :
Bombeo
Bombeo de Consolidación
de pozos
resumideros abiertos química
horizontales
Bombeo
de Electro - osmósis Aire comprimido
Pozos
Bitumen
Bombeo de pozo
Lechada con cemento
filtrante de pequeño Congelamiento
Suspensión de arcilla
diámetro
Geosintéticos
24
Detalles
Cono C.P.T
25
26
Department of Sustainable Natural Resources
SCOPE
This test method describes the engineering properties of a soil based on the size of the
particles, the amounts of the various sizes and the characteristics of the very fine grains. It can
be carried out by either field examination or laboratory testing.
SPECIAL APPARATUS
Sieves, 75 mm, 4.75 mm (ASTM No 4), 2.0 mm (ASTM No 10), 0.425 mm aperture (ASTM No
40).
1. Take a representative sample of soil (excluding particles >75 mm) (see Note 1) and
classify the soil as coarse-grained or fine-grained by estimating whether 50% by weight, of
the particles can be seen individually by the naked eye. Soils containing >50% of particles
that can be seen are coarse-grained soils; soils containing <50% of particles smaller than
the eye can see are fine-grained soils. If the soil is predominantly coarse-grained, identify
as being a gravel or a sand by estimating whether 50% or more, by weight, of the coarse
grains are larger or smaller than 4.75 mm (No 4 sieve size).
2. If the soil is a gravel, identify as being "clean" (containing little or no fines, <5%) or "dirty"
(containing an appreciable amount of fines, >12%). For clean gravels final classification is
made by estimating the gradation: the well-graded gravels belong to the GW groups and
uniform and gap-graded gravels belong to the GP group. Dirty gravels are of two types:
those with non-plastic (silty) fines (GM) and those with plastic (clayey) fines (GC). The
determination of whether the fines are silty or clayey is made by the three manual tests for
fine-graded soils.
3. If a soil is a sand, the same steps and criteria are used as for gravels in order to determine
whether the soil is a well-graded clean sand (SW), poorly-graded clean sand (SP), sand
with silty fines (SM) or sand with clayey fines (SC).
DIRTY SANDS SM
Non-plastic fines (to identify, see ML below)
Will leave a stain on a wet
palm
HIGHLY Readily identified by colour, odour, spongy feel and frequently by fibrous texture OL
ORGANIC OH
SOILS Pt
After moving particles >0.4 mm (No 40 sieve size), prepare a pat of moist soil with a volume of
about 10 cm3. Add enough water, if necessary, to make the soil soft but not sticky.
Place the pat in the open palm of one hand and shake horizontally, striking vigorously against
the other hand several times. A positive reaction consists of the appearance of water on the
surface of the pat which changes to a livery consistency and becomes glossy. When the
sample is squeezed between the fingers, the water and the gloss disappear from the surface,
and the pat stiffens and finally it cracks or crumbles. The rapidity of appearance of water
during shaking and of its disappearance during squeezing assist in identifying the character of
the fines in a soil.
Very fine clean sands give the quickest and most distinct reaction whereas a plastic clay has
no reaction. Inorganic silts, such as a typical rock flour, show a moderately quick reaction.
After removing particles >0.4 mm (No 40 sieve size) mould a pat of soil to the consistency of
putty, adding water if necessary. Allow the pat to dry completely by oven, sun or air drying,
and then test its strength by breaking and crumbling between the fingers. This strength is a
measure of the character and quantity of the colloidal fraction contained in the soil. The dry
strength increases with increasing plasticity.
High dry strength is characteristic for clays of the CH group. A typical inorganic silt possesses
only very slight dry strength. Silty fine sands and silts have about the same slight dry strength,
but can be distinguished by the feel when powdering the dried specimen. Fine sand feels
gritty whereas a typical silt has the smooth feel of flour.
After removing particles larger than the 0.4 mm (No 40 sieve size), a specimen of soil about 10
cm3 in size is moulded to the consistency of putty. If too dry, water must be added and if
sticky, the specimen should be spread out in a thin layer and allowed to lose some moisture by
evaporation. Then the specimen is rolled out by hand on a smooth surface or between the
palms into a thread about 3 mm in diameter. The thread is then folded and re-rolled
repeatedly. During this manipulation, the moisture content is gradually reduced and the
specimen stiffens, finally loses its plasticity and crumbles when the plastic limit is reached.
After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and a slight kneading action
continued until the lump crumbles.
The tougher the thread near the plastic limit and the stiffer the lump when it finally crumbles,
the more potent is the colloidal clay fraction in the soil. Weakness of the thread at the plastic
limit and quick loss of coherence of the lump below the plastic limit indicate either inorganic
clay of low plasticity, or materials such as kaolin-type clays and organic clays.
Highly organic clays have a very weak and spongy feel at the plastic limit.
NOTES
1. This value is not included in the USCS. It is necessary to know the amount of particles >75
mm if gravel content is required.
2. Many natural soils will have property characteristics of two groups because they are close
to the borderline between the groups, either in percentages of the various sizes or in
plasticity characteristics. For this substantial number of soils, boundary classifications are
used i.e. the groups symbols most nearly describing the soil are connected by a hyphen,
such as GW-GC.
Proper boundary classification of a soil near the borderline between coarse-grained and
fine-grained soils is accomplished by classifying it first as a coarse-grained soil and then as
a fine-grained soil. Such classification as SM-ML and SC-CL are common.
CHAPTER 3
FIELD EXPLORATION
3 -1
ture interaction effects in swelling soil are complicated sary. Corrections to improve performance compared
by the foundation differential movement caused by with earlier structures may prove difficult to devise
soil heave. Sufficient samples should be available to al- and implement and may require evaluation of the be-
low determination of the representative mean of the havior of the subsurface foundation soils and ground-
swell and strength parameters of each distinctive soil water conditions.
stratum. The lower limit of the scatter in strength b. Distribution and depth of borings. The distribu-
parameters should also be noted. tion and depth of borings are chosen to determine the
a. Sampling requirements. The design of lightly soil profile and to obtain undisturbed samples required
loaded structures and residences can often be made to evaluate the potential total and differential heave of
with minimal additional subsurface investigations and the foundation soils from laboratory swell tests, as
soil testing if the site is developed, if subsurface fea- well as to determine the bearing capacity and settle-
tures are generally known, and if the local practice has ment. Consequently, greater quantities of undisturbed
consistently provided successful and economical de- samples may be required in swelling soils than nor-
signs of comparable structures. Additional subsurface mally needed for strength tests.
investigation is required for new undeveloped sites, (1) Borings should be spaced to define the geology
multistory or heavy buildings, structures with pre- and soil nonconformities. Spacings of 50 or 25 feet and
viously untested or new types of foundations, and spe- occasionally to even less distance may be required
cial structures that require unusually limited differen- when erratic subsurface conditions (e.g., soils of differ-
tial movements of the foundation such as deflec- ent swelling potential, bearing capacity, or settlement)
tion/length ratios less than 1/1000. Where the local are encountered. Initial borings should be located close
practice has not consistently provided satisfactory de- to the corners of the foundation, and the number
signs, a careful review of the local practice is neces- should not be less than three unless subsurface condi-
3-2
tions are known to be uniform. Additional borings Personnel should be well trained to expedite proper
should be made as required by the extent of the area, sampling, sealing, and storage in sample containers.
the location of deep foundations such as drilled shafts, (1) Disturbed sampling. Disturbed auger, pit, or
and the encountered soil conditions. split spoon samplers may be useful to roughly identify
(2) The depth of sampling should be at least as the soil for qualitative estimates of the potential for
deep as the probable depth to which moisture changes soil volume change (para 4-1). The water content of
and heave may occur. This depth is called the depth of these samples should not be altered artificially during
boring, for example, by pouring water down the hole
down about 10 to 20 feet below the base of the founda- during augering.
tion or to the depth of shallow water tables, but it may (2) Undisturbed sampling. Minimization of sam-
be deeper (para 5-4c). A shallow water table is defined ple disturbance during and after drilling is important
as less than 20 feet below the ground surface or below to the usefulness of undisturbed samples. This fact is
the base of the proposed foundation. The entire thick- particularly true for expansive soils since small
ness of intensely jointed or fissured clays and shales changes in water content or soil structure will signifi-
should be sampled until the groundwater level is en- cantly affect the measured swelling properties.
countered because the entire zone could swell, provid- (a) The sample should be taken as soon as pos-
ed swelling pressures are sufficiently high, when given sible, after advancing the hole to the proper depth and
access to moisture. Continuous sampling is required cleaning out the hole, to minimize swelling or plastic
for the depth range within the active zone for heave. deformation of the soil to be sampled.
(3) Sampling should extend well below the antici- (b) The samples should be obtained using a push
pated base of the foundation and into strata of ade- tube sampler without drilling fluid, if possible, to
quate bearing capacity. In general, sampling should minimize changes in the sample water content. Drill-
continue down to depths of 1.5 times the minimum ing fluids tend to increase the natural water content
width of slab foundations to a maximum of 100 feet near the perimeter of the soil sample, particularly for
and a minimum of three base diameters beneath the fissured soil.
base of shaft foundations. The presence of a weak, (c) A piston Denisen or other sampler with a
compressible, or expansive stratum within the stress cutting edge that precedes the rotating outer tube into
field exerted by the entire foundation should be de- the formation is preferred, if drilling fluid is neces-
tected and analyzed to avoid unexpected differential sary, to minimize contamination of the soil sample by
movement caused by long-term volume changes in this the fluid.
stratum. Sampling should continue at least 20 feet be- e. Storage of samples. Samples should be immedi-
neath the base of the proposed foundation. Determi- ately processed and sealed following removal from the
nation of the shear strength and stress/strain behavior boring hole to minimize changes in water content.
of each soil stratum down to depths of approximately Each container should be clearly labeled and stored un-
100 feet below the foundation is useful if numerical der conditions that minimize large temperature and
analysis by the finite element method is considered. humidity variations. A humid room with relative
c. Time of sampling. Sampling may be done when humidity greater than 95 percent is recommended for
soil moisture is expected to be similar to that during storage since the relative humidity of most natural
construction. However, a design that must be adequate soils exceeds 95 percent.
for severe changes in climate, such as exposure to peri- (1) Disturbed samples. Auger, pit, or other dis-
ods of drought and heavy rainfall, should be based on turbed samples should be thoroughly sealed in water-
maximum levels of potential soil heave. Maximum po- proof containers so that the natural water content can
tential heaves are determined from swell tests using be accurately measured.
soils sampled near the end of the dry season, which of- (2) Undisturbed samples. Undisturbed samples
ten occurs toward the end of summer or early fall. may be stored in the sampling tubes or extruded and
Heave of the foundation soil tends to be less if samples preserved, then stored. Storage in the sampling tube is
are taken or the foundation is placed following the wet not recommended for swelling soils even though stress
season, which often occurs during spring. relief may be minimal, The influence of rust and pene-
tration of drilling fluid or free water into the sample
d. Sampling techniques. The disturbed samples and during sampling may adversely influence the labora-
the relatively undisturbed samples that provide mini- tory test results and reduce the indicated potential
mal disturbance suitable for certain laboratory soil heave. Iron diffusing from steel tubes into the soil
tests may be obtained by the methods described in ta- sample will combine with oxygen and water to form
ble 3-2. Drilling equipment should be well maintained rust. Slight changes in Atterberg limits, erosion resist-
during sampling to avoid equipment failures, which ance, water content, and other physical properties may
cause delays and can contribute to sample disturbance. occur. In addition, the outer perimeter of a soil sample
3-3
T M 5 -8 1 8 -7
stored in the sampling tube cannot be scraped to re- completely immersed and covered with the molten
move soil contaminated by water that may have pene- wax, and then allowed to cool before moving.
trated into the perimeter of the sample during sam- (e) When the samples are being transported,
pling. The sample may also later adhere to the tube they should be protected from rough rides and bumps
wall because of rust. If samples are stored in tubes, the to minimize further sample disturbance.
tubes should be brass or lacquered inside to inhibit cor-
f. Inspection. A competent inspector or engineer
rosion. An expanding packer with a rubber O-ring in
should accurately and visually classify materials as
both ends of the tube should be used to minimize mois- they are recovered from the boring. Adequate classifi-
ture loss. The following procedures should be followed
cation ensures the proper selection of samples for lab-
in the care and storage of extruded samples.
oratory tests. A qualified engineering geologist or
(a) Expansive soil samples that are to be ex- foundation engineer should closely monitor the drill
trubed and stored should be removed from the sam-
crew so that timely adjustments can be made during
pling tubes immediately after sampling and thorough-
drilling to obtain the best and most representative
ly sealed to minimize further stress relief and moisture
samples. The inspector should also see that all open
loss. The sample should be extruded from the sampling
borehoes are filled and sealed with a proper grout,
tube in the same direction when sampled to minimize
such as a mixture of 12 percent bentonite and 88 per-
further sample disturbance.
cent cement, to minimize penetration of surface water
(b) Samples extruded from tubes that were ob-
or water from a perched water table into deeper strata
tained with slurry drilling techniques should be wiped
that might include moisture deficient expansive clays.
clean to remove drilling fluid adhering to the surface
of the sample prior to sealing in the storage con- 3 -4 . Groundw a t e r
tainers. An outer layer of 1/8 to 1/4 inch should be
Meaningful groundwater conditions and engineering
trimmed from the cylindrical surface of the samples so
properties of subsurface materials can often best be
that moisture from the slurry will not penetrate into determined from in situ tests. In situ tests, however,
the sample and alter the soil swelling potential and
are not always amenable to simple interpretation. The
strength. Trimming will also remove some disturbance
pore water conditions at the time of the test may differ
at the perimeter due to sidewall friction. The outer appreciably from those existing at the time of con-
perimeter of the soil sample should also be trimmed struction. A knowledge of groundwater and the nega-
away during preparation of specimens for laboratory
tive pore water pressure are important in evaluating
tests. the behavior of a foundation, particularly in expansive
(c) Containers for storage of extruded samples
soil. Every effort should be made to determine the po-
may be either cardboard or metal and should be
sition of the groundwater level, its seasonal variation,
approximately 1 inch greater in diameter and 1.5 to 2
and the effect of tides, adjacent rivers, or canals on it.
inches greater in length than the sample to be encased.
Three-ply, wax-coated cardboard tubes with metal bot- a. Measurement of groundwater level. The most re-
toms are available in various diameters and lengths liable and frequently the only satisfactory method for
and may be cut to desired lengths. determining groundwater levels and positive pore
(d) Soil samples preserved in cardboard tubes water pressures is by piezometers with tips installed at
should be completely sealed in wax. The wax and card- different depths. Ceramic porous tube piezometers
board containers provide an excellent seal against with small diameters (3/8-inch) risers are usually ade-
moisture loss and give sufficient confinement to mini- quate, and they are relatively simple, inexpensive, and
mize stress relief and particle reorientation. A good sufficient for soils of low permeability.
wax for sealing expansive soils consists of a 1 to 1 mix- b. Measurement of in situ negative pore water pres-
ture of paraffin and microcrystalline wax or 100 per- sure, Successful in situ measurements of negative pore
cent beeswax. These mixtures adequately seal the sam- water pressure and soil suction have been performed
ple and do not become brittle when cold. The temper- by such devices as tensiometers, negative pore pres-
ature of the wax should be approximately 20 degrees sure piezometers, gypsum blocks, and thermocouple
Fahrenheit above the melting point when applied to psychrometer. However, each of these devices has
the soil sample, since wax that is too hot will penetrate certain limitations, The range of tensiometers and
pores and cracks in the sample and render it useless, as negative pore pressure piezometers has been limited to
well as dry the sample. Aluminum foil or plastic wrap the cavitation stress of water under normal conditions,
may be placed around the sample to prevent penetra- which is near one atmosphere of negative pressure.
tion of molten wax into open fissures. A small amount The fluid-filled tensiometer is restricted to shallow
of wax (about 0.5-inch thickness) should be placed in soils less than 6 feet in depth. The useable range of the
the bottom of the tube and allowed to partly congeal. tensiometer is reduced in proportion to the pressure
The sample should subsequently be placed in the tube, exerted by the column of fluid in the tensiometer. Gyp-
3-5