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Abstract. Remote sensing is a new emerging field of technological development and has made
a very significant impact on the geological surveys and studies. The work done so far in
geological remote sensing has indicated the scope, utility and limitations of these modern
techniques in different geological problems. The utility of airborne surveys and aerial
photography has now been well established whereas satellite remote sensing at present has two
main constraints--resolution and lack of stereoscopy. With the developments in sensor
technology to provide sensors with improved resolution, more spectral bands and stereoscopy,
substantial new results are anticipated in the geological remote sensing from space. Brief
overview of applications of remote sensing techniques to geology is discussed in this paper.
1. Introduction
Search for mineral deposits has been a constant pursuit right from ancient civilisation.
The growth of civilisation through ages has witnessed increasing use of mineral
resources and the economic prosperity of any region is governed by the mineral
resources which can be exploited, because these resources constitute important raw
materials for industrialisation. Mineral resources are finite in extent and non-renewable
in nature and so are limited in supply. The fact that known resources are getting
depleted at a much faster rate, due to rapid rate of growth, calls for newer methods of
search and exploration of additional resources at an equally fast rate so that
atleast the present rate of growth can be sustained. Rapid industrialisation is also
causing increasing stress on natural environment which leads to geologic hazards such
as flooding, landsliding, earthquakes etc.
The most vital factor in the exploitation of mineral resources is geologic information.
Mineral resources are products of geological processes and the exploitation strategy is
governed by geological factors and environment in which these deposits occur. But the
most important geologic information is the geological map without which no
exploration programme can ever be thought of. Thus geological mapping is a primary
activity not only for search of minerals but also in geotechnical investigations and
geologic hazards mapping etc.
Geological mapping methods have been undergoing continuous change along with
technological and scientific advances in other relevant fields. Remote sensing tech-
niques are now being increasingly used to prepare geological maps and obtain the basic
geological information on which further detailed work is based.
297
(Enog. Sci.)--3
298 S K Bhan and K Krishnanunni
3. Application potential
Aerial photography has proved its worth in geological applications. However the
satellite remote sensing at present has two limiting factors--resolution (spatial and
spectral) and lack of stereoscopy. Poor spatial resolution is a handicap in many
geological investigations, particularly in areas where there are frequent variations
within short distances and where the size of mappable units is much smaller than the
Remote sensing---geological applications 299
spatial resolution. Moreo~/er the spectral resolution has not been optimum for
geological work so far.
Recent advances made in sensor technology with the development of sensors having
finer spatial resolution, more spectral bands (particularly in the region of middle
infrared and thermal infrared with sharper spectral separation), improved geometric
fidelity and greater radiometric accuracy along with stereoscopy will provide geologic
community improved capability to extract more useful information from the satellite
data. In this context utilization of data in middle infrared (1.55 to 2-35) and thermal
infrared (1(~4 to 12.5) bands will be watched with greater interest as these bands will
have a significant impact in delineation of hydrothermally altered zones, lithologic
discrimination, soil moisture, flood mapping and geothermal mapping etc. The
development taking place in microwave technology hold promise, particularly in
structural mapping.
The most significant development will however be the stereoscopic space images
which could possibly lead to a better depiction of geological structures and terrain
features thus leading to improved geologic and geomorphic mapping. The high
resolution which could be attained is also expected to displace aerial remote sensing
techniques to a secondary position.
4. Case studies
In all earth resources programmes the most vital factor is geological information. In
recent years more and more remote sensing techniques are being applied to obtain
geological information depending upon the needs, sphere of activities and availability
of resources (Dhoundial 1983). The impact of these techniques has been significant
because these methods give continuity of geological interfaces. This is otherwise
difficult in ground surveys due to the fact that even in areas of good rock exposures
nearly 30 to 40 % of ground is covered by soil or vegetation and to a large extent
geological maps based on ground surveys are made on the basis of inferences drawn
from random observations or observations along traverses (Ramaswamy 1983).
One of the main objectives of geologic remote sensing is to discriminate among
different materials and ultimately to identify them, thus aiding the mapping process
which is fundamental to many investigations. Images displaying progressively larger
areas show that different scales and types of information are revealed by changing the
perspective. For example, major crustal breaks or faults are rarely exposed continu-
ously for great distances; in fact major faults are usually zones of many smaller faults
and related deformational features rather than a continuous single fracture. While the
details of such features are better seen on larger scale airborne images and
photography, the full significance of such features might escape the notice of the
interpreter because the airborne images may only show a small segment of a major
fault zone (Rowan 1975).
Remote sensing techniques no doubt hold very good promise and if utilised properly
can supplement the ground surveys to maximise the results. Conjunctive use of remote
sensing techniques with limited conventional ground observations may work out to be
a better strategy for natural resources survey. A few specific case studies from remote
sensing are given to substantiate its utility in geosciences.
300 S K Bhan and K Krishnanunni
Good geological maps are essential not only for exploration and exploitation of natural
resources but also for a variety of other purposes such as location of power plants,
dams, alignment of highways and railway lines, tunnelling etc. Even in areas where
geological mapping has been done in great detail, remote sensing techniques have
contributed information hitherto unknown such as identification of new faults and
fractures.
Amongst all the remote sensing methods, the interpretation of aerial photos have
been widely accepted as a tool of geological mapping. With the advent of space images
particularly the LAr~DSAr images much larger perspective became available for
geological studies and regional geological mapping--resolution and scale of satellite
data limiting the geological mapping to scales smaller than 1:250,000. Capability of
space images for regional geological mapping has been demonstrated through
interpretation of Gemini and Apollo photos and LANDSATimages (Raina 1978; Rakshit
1976, Bhan 1982b).
However, LANDSATdata has been of limited use in the preparation of geological map
of virgin or unmapped areas. But in areas of difficult access such as Himalayas or north
eastern region of the country regional geological maps of considerable usefulness can
be prepared on the scales of 1:250,000. Figure 1 shows the LANDSArimage of the highly
rugged and mountainous terrain covered with forests in northeastern India.
Producing geological maps with stratigraphic and lithologic units in such regions by
conventional methods and even by aerial photo interpretation is not only a difficult task
but cannot be accomplished within a reasonable time. It is in such areas that regional
geological maps of considerable utility can be prepared by interpreting LANDSATdata
(figure 2). Due to poor spatial resolution only broad lithologic groups could be
delineated. Most of the stratigraphic units could not be recognised and delineated as
they are usually of much smaller thickness although complete structural and tectonic
pattern showing doubly plunging folds and longitudinal faults (figure 3) could be
delineated. Since the region is favourable for oil accumulation, delineation of anticlines
and domes assumes significance in oil exploration because these are often the loci ofoil
accumulation in such regions.
The LANOSATdata have been found to be useful in revising and updating the
geological maps even in areas which have been mapped in great detail and in areas
where rock exposures are well defined as in arid and semi-arid areas. The geological
map based on interpretation of LANOSATdata of Andhra, Orissa and Singhbhum (NRS^
1978, 1981 and Rakshit 1982) clearly indicate the utility of LANDSATdata in the revision
of geological maps.
In geological mapping from space the limiting factors have been stratigraphic and
lithologic discrimination. The latter has only limited success because of the generally
less pronounced spectral differences amongst most rock types in the bands provided in
these images, particularly in LANDSAT. Moreover LANDSATMSS measures only the
colour and brightness of rock which are not diagnostic in rock type discrimination since
one rock type can have many colour variants and secondly different rock types can have
Remote sensing--geological applications 301
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the scientists to view the entire regional structure and at the same time allowed critical
study of the inter-relationships with other geological features. Figure 4 shows the
LANDSATimagery of the northern part of Orissa where large regional structure of
Simlipal basin is seen in the image. Many other important structural features such as
Pal Lahara fault, folded iron ore group rocks, extension of Singhbhum shear zone,
fracture pattern in Singhbhum granite and the number of dykes (some extending for
over 100 km in length) etc are seen in the same image (figure 5) thus facilitating
correlation of structural features and extrapolation of information (Bhan 1982b). This
is obviously due to the synoptic overview of features which cannot otherwise be
discerned due to their great size and magnitude.
In fact space data have provided a wealth of information on lineaments ever since the
Remote sensing--oeological applications 303
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lineaments were observed for the first time on the synoptic satellite imagery. The
analysis of lineament pattern has assumed great significance as lineaments often pass
through mineralised areas and mineralisation is often localised at the lineament
intersections. Location of deep-seated features such as earthquake epicentres and
thermal springs aligned along lineaments give credence to the fact that some of the
lineaments, if not all, are of deep-seated tectonic nature. It is these which can assist in
refining the metallogenic models by delineating boundaries of crustal blocks, and
redefining the tectonic set-up of the region, as done in the case of Orissa (NRSA1981).
Tectonic patterns in NE India have been analysed from lineament study on LANDSAX
imagery (Nandy 1980) and in parts of Manipur there is definite correlation between
magnetic trends and lineaments (Hegde & Bhan 1981). The lineament map of India
based on the interpretation of LANDSATdata on the scale of 1:2 million will soon be
published by the Geological Survey of India.
304 S K Bhan and K Krishnanunni
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Figure 4. LANDSATimagery--blackand whiteband 7 (infrared)of northern parts of Orissa
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have also been found useful in monitoring the dynamic geomorphic features such as
coastal environmental features, migration and evolution of rivers (figure 6), drainage
development and river geometry and desert features etc. McKee's study of sand dunes is
one of the classic examples of mapping of large areas of aeolian features around the
world (McKee et al 1973) on the basis of L A N D S A T data, providing for better
understanding of aeolian deposits.
Aerial photography has been used quite successfully to prepare detailed geomorphic
maps covering small areas on scales varying between 1:15,000 and 1:50,000 as
delineation of geomorphic features and evidences of recent tectonic activities are more
306 S K Bhan and K Krishnanunni
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precise on aerial photos and such maps have been useful in mapping natural hazard
zones, groundwater exploration, geotechnical investigations and geoenvironmental
studies etc.
One basic objective of geologic, geomorphic and tectonic maps is ultimately to identify
features or guides associated with mineralisation and to delineate target areas for
exploration. Though remote sensing methods cannot replace proven methods, they can
definitely provide useful inputs in recognition and delineation of mineral provinces and
target areas by identifying surficial indicators or guides.
Aerial photography is widely used for delineation of some of the mineral guides. The
delineation of bauxite-capped plateaus in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra and Orissa was
greatly facilitated by aerial photographs in the rugged mountainous terrain of difficult
access.
Recently air photo interpretation techniques have been used to locate buried
deposits of calcareous nodules, locally called 'Kankar' in the alluvial tracts of Uttar
Pradesh and desert terrain of Rajasthan by Gsl (Basu & Duara 1982). Studies carried
out by the Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi have proved that these kankars
can be used as substitutes for road metal. This is significant in areas such as Indo
Gangetic plain and Rajasthan desert where hard rocks are not locally available. On the
basis of photo tone, texture, vegetation, drainage and unique geomorphic associations,
28 potential deposits of nodular and bedded Kankar, occurring beneath an overburden
of 1-5 m and aggregating an area of 3-4 km 2 out of 2500 sq. km could be delineated
thereby reducing the target area by 735 times (figure 7). Subsequent ground checking of
23 deposits, covering an area of 2.7 km 2 confirmed them as actually kankar bearing,
giving a success rating of 80 %. Similar studies carried out over an area of 3500 km 2 in
Remote sensing--geological applications 307
Bikaner and Nagaur districts of Rajasthan have brought to light 103 workable deposits
of kankar and dhandla with a success rating varying from 77-90 %.
Now airborne multispcctral scanner data are also being used, particularly thermal
infrared data, in locating zones of geothermal energy by identifying surface manifes-
tations like hot springs and hot spots etc, oil and gas leaks, structural mapping in
covered areas and lithologic discrimination. Thermal infrared images particularly have
been successfully used in lithologic discrimination (Watson 1975) and mapping of
lineaments (Sabins 1969).
Spaceborne data particularly the LA~DSAThave been used in mineral exploration in
two ways, viz identifying features directly related to mineralisation such as alteration
zones, gossans, specific host rock or characteristic mineral association and secondly as
delineation of features favourablr for localisation of mineralisation such as folds,'faults
and fractures.
The study of lineaments has assumed great significance because of their correlation
with known mineral deposits all over the world helping in establishing the control of
mineralisation in many areas. Potential ore bodies occur along or in close proximity of
major lineaments representing fracture zones and often at the intersection of two or
more lineaments in the mineralised province. In Khetri and Singhbhum areas it has
been postulated that intersection of different sets of lineaments are the most favourablr
zones of localisation o f mineral deposits. Limits and possible extension of mineral belt
could also be assessed through lineament studies and identification of lithological and
mineralogical guides as done in Singhbhum Shear zone in Orissa on LANDSATdata (naSA
1981) and on digitally enhanced LA~DSATdata (Rakshit 1982).
Besides structural features the LA~DSATdata have also proved its utility in locating
anomalous tonal areas directly related to mineral deposits, subject to limitation of
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spatial resolution, such as identification of gossans, blooms, alteration zones etc. In the
Eastern Ghat terrain of Orissa, bauxitic-lateritic plateaus could be picked up by visual
interpretation of LANDSA'rdata as such plateaus show a distinct tone and occur as fiat
surface on top of hills and ridges (Bhan 1982a, Bhan & Hegde 1983).
Delineation of anomalous tonal areas is particularly significant in sulphide ore
deposits and uranium mineralisation as these deposits form distinctive alteration zones
at surface. Techniques such as band ratioing have been developed to enhance or
distinguish these altered zones on images. These ratio colour composites bring out
spectral radiance differences which aid in lithologic discrimination and delineation of
such altered zones (Rowan et al 1974; Schmidt 1975) for mineral exploration.
LANDSATimagery and its enhanced products, particularly the ratio images and colour
composite, exhibit some interesting geological features in Badampahar area which are
significant from the stratigraphic point of view in establishing the relationship between
the Singhbhum granite and the iron-ore of rocks and correlation "of the iron-ore group
formations east and west of the Singhbhum granite craton (Rakshit 1982; Rakshit &
Swaminathan 1983). The Singhbhum granite in the area has probably two components,
one forming the base for iron-ore formations and the other being a later granite which
may be equivalent to the Mayurbhanj granite-granophyre igneous complex. No
physical continuity of the iron-ore formations of Badampahar group in the east to the
Noamundi group iron-formations has so far been established though Dunn & Dey
(1942) has indicated correlation between the two groups. Iyengar & Murthy (1982) and
others have however postulated these groups as separate ones in their stratigraphic
position, suggesting Badampahar group as much older than the Noamundi formations
of Koira group, deposited in different basins. From LANDSATimagery (figure 8) the
extension of the Badampahar iron-ore formation towards west through a series of
detached and discrete outcrops with a folded configuration ultimately passing
into the Noamundi formation, could be suggested. This continuity is well depicted
along a rugged, curvilinear, densely-forested zone on the enhanced LANDSATimagery.
Field verification showed this zone to be mainly composed of granite gneiss, granite,
granophyre and pegmatite with numerous basic to ultrabasic dykes and enclaves of
hornblende gneiss. Bands of basic lava, hornblende gneiss, banded ferruginous shale
and quartzites and banded hematite quartzite occur sporadically. Laterite mounds
found here and there contain pieces of banded hematite quartzite and banded
ferruginous shale and quartzite. Banded hematite rocks found are similar to that of
Badampahar area and the basic lava and emphibolites are also similar to those found in
the iron-ore formation of Badampahar and Noamundi area.
5. Conclusions
Even with certain constraints remote sensing techniques in geological applications and
mineral exploration have proved their value. In fact satellite remote sensing has become
an important tool in the preparation of regional geological and geomorphological
maps of areas not previously covered, in updating and revising already existing maps, in
correlating large scale geological features and structures over widely spaced separate
areas and in delineating target areas for detailed work by airborne and ground methods
in mineralised belts.
Remote sensing--geological applications 309
Two main constraints in satellite data have been resolution (spatial and spectral)
and lack of stereoscopy. Developments now taking place in sensor technology
to provide sensors with better resolution, more spectral bands with sharper spectral
separation (LANDSATthematic mapper), stereoscopy (SrOT) and in thermal infrared and
microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum are expected to have a significant
impact in improving the capability to extract more useful geologic and geomorphic
information from satellite data. It is evident that the geologic community will utilize
more and more of remote sensing data in future for all programmes.
Figure 8. u. LANDSATdata enhanced; Band ratio black and white image of MSS Band 6/7.
2a--Singhbhum granite. 2e--Mayurbhanj granite. 4--Dhanjori group. 8g--Iron ore
SHQ/quartzite/shale. 8f--lron ore metavolcanic/metabasic/newer dolerite dyke.
310 S K Bhan and K Krishnanunni
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