Chapter 2

▪ Computer hardware is collection of physical elements that comprise a computer

system
▪ Network hardware devices facilitating the use of a computer network
▪ Electronic hardware interconnected electronic components
▪ Electronic component a basic electronic element
▪ Digital electronics is the hardware used by digital computer systems that can be
controlled by software

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▪ Computer hardware is the collection
of physical components that
constitute a computer system.
Computer hardware is the physical
parts or components of a computer,
such as monitor, keyboard, computer
data storage, graphic card, sound
card, motherboard, and so on, all of
which are tangible objects. By
contrast, software is instructions that
can be stored and run by hardware.
▪ Hardware is directed by the software
to execute any command or
instruction. A combination of
hardware and software forms a usable
computing system

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▪ The template for all modern computers is the Von Neumann architecture, detailed
in a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. This describes a
design architecture for an electronic digital computer with subdivisions of a
processing unit consisting of an arithmetic logic unit and processor registers, a
control unit containing an instruction register and program counter, a memory to
store both data and instructions, external mass storage, and input and output
mechanisms.
▪ The meaning of the term has evolved to mean a stored-program computer in which
an instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time because
they share a common bus. This is referred to as the Von Neumann bottleneck and
often limits the performance of the system

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▪ When using computer hardware, an upgrade means adding new hardware to a
computer that improves its performance, adds capacity or new features. For
example, a user could perform a hardware upgrade to replace the hard drive with a
SSD to get a boost in performance or increase the amount of files that may be
stored. Also, the user could increase the RAM so the computer may run more
smoothly.
▪ The user could add a USB 3.0 expansion card in order to fully use USB 3.0 devices,
or could upgrade the GPU for extra rendering power. Performing such hardware
upgrades may be necessary for older computers to meet a programs' system
requirements

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▪ Computer software, or simply software, is a part of a computer system that
consists of data or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from
which the system is built. In computer science and software engineering, computer
software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data.
Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-
executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer
hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on
its own.

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▪ At the lowest level, executable code
consists of machine language
instructions specific to an individual
processor—typically a central
processing unit (CPU). A machine
language consists of groups of binary
values signifying processor
instructions that change the state of
the computer from its preceding
state. For example, an instruction
may change the value stored in a
particular storage location in the
computer—an effect that is not
directly observable to the user

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▪ instruction may also (indirectly) cause something to appear on a display of the
computer system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor
carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to
"jump" to a different instruction, or is interrupted (by now multi-core processors are
dominant, where each core can run instructions in order; then, however, each
application software runs only on one core by default, but some software has been
made to run on many).
▪ The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that are
easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language.
High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an
interpreter or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level
assembly language, essentially, a vaguely mnemonic representation of a machine
language using a natural language alphabet, which is translated into machine
language using an assembler.

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▪ Based on the goal, computer software can be divided into:
▪ Application software, which is software that uses the computer system to perform
special functions or provide entertainment functions beyond the basic operation of
the computer itself. There are many different types of application software,
because the range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so
large—see list of software.
▪ System software, which is software that directly operates the computer hardware,
to provide basic functionality needed by users and other software, and to provide a
platform for running application software.
▪ Malicious software or malware, which is software that is developed to harm and
disrupt computers. As such, malware is undesirable. Malware is closely associated
with computer-related crimes, though some malicious programs may have been
designed as practical jokes

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 ▪ Operating systems, which are essential collections of software that manage resources and
provides common services for other software that runs "on top" of them. Supervisory
programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In
practice, an operating system comes bundled with additional software (including
application software) so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that
only has one operating system.
▪ Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a
computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; because a computer
typically has at minimum at least one input device and at least one output device, a
computer typically needs more than one device driver.
▪ Utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance and
care of their computers.

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▪ Programming tools are also software in the form of programs or applications that
software developers (also known as programmers, coders, hackers or software
engineers) use to create, debug, maintain (i.e. improve or fix), or otherwise support
software.
▪ Software is written in one or more programming languages; there are many
programming languages in existence, and each has at least one implementation,
each of which consists of its own set of programming tools.
▪ These tools may be relatively self-contained programs such as compilers, debuggers,
interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish
a task; or they may form an integrated development environment (IDE), which
combines much or all of the functionality of such self-contained tools.

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▪ IDEs may do this by either invoking the relevant individual tools or by re-
implementing their functionality in a new way. An IDE can make it easier to do
specific tasks, such as searching in files in a particular project. Many programming
language implementations provide the option of using both individual tools or an IDE

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