CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol.

I - Survey Engineering - Eihan Shimizu

SURVEY ENGINEERING
Eihan Shimizu
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo, Japan

Keywords: geodetic surveying, plane surveying, plane coordinate system, vertical

datum, geoid, error adjustment, least squares method, theodolite, leveling, electronic
distance measurement (EDM) instrument, electronic level, total station, control survey,
triangulation, trilateration, traversing, Global Positioning System (GPS), topographic
survey, aerial photogrammetry, route surveying, hydrographic surveying, Geographic
Information System (GIS)

Contents

1. Introduction
1.1. Brief Historical Review
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2. Fundamentals of Plane Surveying
2.1. Plane Coordinate System
2.2. Vertical Datum
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1.2 Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying

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2.3. Errors in Surveying and Their Adjustments
3. Basic Survey Measurements
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Distance Measurement
3.3. Angle Measurement
3.4. Leveling
3.5. Total Station
4. Control Surveys in Plane Surveying
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Triangulation
4.3. Trilateration
4.4. Traversing
4.5. Control Surveys with GPS
5. Topographic Surveys
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Ground Methods
5.3. Aerial Photogrammetric Methods
5.4. Newer Methods for Topographic Surveys
6. Other Branches of Surveying
7. Surveying and Geographic Information System
Acknowledgements
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch

Summary

Surveying is the most traditional and even now an essential and crucial science and art

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

for human living environments and developments. It is divided into two broad
categories: geodetic and plane surveying. This chapter is concerned mainly with plane
surveying, which assumes, except for leveling, that the surface of the earth is horizontal.
Surveying is generally classified into control survey, topographic survey, and other
surveys for specific purposes. The control survey establishes precise horizontal and
vertical positions of reference monuments, which serve as the control framework for
subordinate survey projects. In the past, triangulation was used for control surveys as a
unique reliable method. Since the emergence of electronic distance measurement
(EDM) instrument, however, traversing has been a standard technique for control
surveys. At present, Global Positioning System (GPS) is getting widely in use. The
topographic survey is carried out for making topographic maps, which determines the
positions of the natural and man-made features and the configuration of the terrain. In

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the past, ground survey techniques such as plane table survey were used for these

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purposes. After World War II, aerial photogrammetry replaced them especially if
extensive areas were to be investigated. For relatively small areas, total station, which
incorporates an EDM device, an electronic theodolite, and an onboard microprocessor

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in the same unit, is now a standard device. In addition, a branch of GPS called real-time

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kinematic GPS is expected to be a new technique for topographic surveys. A satellite
that has a sensor of one meter of spatial resolution was successfully launched in 1999,
and other satellites with similar spatial resolution are being planned. It is expected that
satellite remote sensing with high spatial resolution would serve as an alternative
method to aerial photogrammetry. This chapter provides an overview of these trends of
surveying together with the historical backgrounds.

1. Introduction

Surveying is the science, art, and technology of determining the locations of natural and
man-made features on or near the surface of the earth, and presenting thus derived
information in the form of numerical database, map, diagram and the other information
media. It often involves subsequent data manipulation and analysis for design and
planning of a variety of engineering works.

1.1. Brief Historical Review

From earliest times surveying has been an essential art in the development of the human
environment. It is quite certain that surveying has its origin in ancient Egypt. It can be
easily imagined that humans needed some knowledge on surveying for the agricultural
settlements, for instance, measurement of land boundaries and leveling for irrigation.
Besides, the Great Pyramids in ancient Egypt could never have been constructed
without knowledge of surveying. Many sciences including mathematics, astronomy,
optics, aeronautics etc. have indeed made progress through needs for surveying, and
surveying has benefited and developed through these sciences. Astronomical
developments and invention of triangulation enabled the precise measurement of the
form of the earth and made it possible to make continent and country scale topographic
maps. The evolution of the least squares method by F. C. Gauss theoretically improved
the error adjustment of measurement data. Photogrammetry made it possible to make
topographic maps in remarkably short time and less expense. Surveying is still making
progress together with such latest developments as electronics and space technology.
Recently the positioning and observation of the earth have been possible by using
satellites. Surveying can therefore be considered one of the most traditional as well as
cutting-edge sciences and technologies.

1.2 Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying

The principal art of surveying is the measurement of locations of points, i.e. positioning.
The technology of positioning is scientifically based on geodesy. Geodesy is the science
that treats of investigations of the form of the earth’s surface and the relative locations
of points on or near the earth. It is well known that the earth is an oblate spheroid, the
length of its polar axis being somewhat less than that of its equatorial axis. To determine
the positions of points, geodesists have traditionally approximated the form of the earth

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with an ellipsoid of revolution, which is called reference ellipsoid. Geodetic coordinate

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positions of points are established in terms of longitude and latitude based on the
adopted reference ellipsoid. Thus, the type of surveying which takes into account the
shape of the earth is referred to as geodetic surveying.

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On the other hand, the area where we carry out surveying for an actual task, e.g.,
determination of land boundaries and civil engineering work, is often very small portion
of the earth. In such a case, the spheroidal shape of the earth may be neglected in the
area concerned, and the surface of the earth may be reasonably assumed to be a plane.
The type of surveying based on these assumptions is defined as plane surveying. The
position of a point is given by rectangular coordinates that are defined in the fixed plane
coordinate system, which is in general established for the area in question by the
country. This chapter is mainly concerned with the plane surveying.

2. Fundamentals of Plane Surveying

2.1. Plane Coordinate System

Geodetic coordinates and plane coordinates are connected to each other. It is because
the plane coordinates are established by projecting, mathematically, the geodetic
coordinates on the surface of a cone or of a cylinder (or, in some cases, both). It is
certain that the surface of a cone or of a cylinder can then be developed to a plane.

It should be noted that, since the surface of the ellipsoid is curved, no map projection
can be made without any distortions. The Lambert conformal conic projection is often
used as a projection on a cone. Distortions of this projection occur in the north-south
direction; hence, it is used for regions with relatively short north-south dimensions. The
projection on a cylinder is known as the Transverse Mercator projection. It is used for
regions with relatively long north-south dimensions.

Since the geodetic coordinates are related to the plane coordinates, the products of the
geodetic surveying are made available for the use in the plane surveying. Each country
has determined accurately the geodetic coordinates, i.e. longitude and latitude, of a large
number of points across the territory, and has established the stations marked by ground
monuments. The plane coordinates of these points can be represented by map
projections; hence, they are utilized as the control points in the plane surveying.
2.2. Vertical Datum

To determine the three-dimensional position of a point, it is necessary to define another

dimension other than geodetic coordinates (longitude and latitude) or plane coordinates.
This is information about height. The height of a point is defined as the elevation both
in the cases of geodetic surveying and plane surveying. The elevation is the vertical
distance from a reference level surface, which is called the vertical datum or the vertical
datum surface. The geoid, which is an equipotential surface that passes through the
mean sea level, is in general regarded as the vertical datum. The mean sea level is
determined, normally by each country, as the average height of the sea’s surface for all
stages of the tide over a long period. It should be noted that the geoid is different from
the reference ellipsoid. Since the geoid is an equipotential surface, it is undulated due to

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the uneven distribution of the earth’s mass. Because of this, the geoid is different from

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the reference ellipsoid, which is mathematically defined as the ellipsoid of revolution.

Each country has established a large number of marked points whose elevations are

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known. These points are called bench marks. In plane surveying, it is assumed that

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some bench marks exist in the surveying area.

2.3. Errors in Surveying and Their Adjustments

As to be mentioned below, surveying is basically done by the various types of

measurements: distance, angle, height, and their combination. Errors in these
measurements are inevitable even if surveyors excise full care in making measurements.
These errors are of two types: systematic and random. Systematic errors, as the name
suggests, are errors that conform to a pattern or system. For example, a tape for
measuring distance is known to be a certain length at some standard temperature. If the
temperature when the taping is made is different from this standard temperature, a
systematic error will occur. Systematic errors are generally eliminated by correcting
theoretically or, sometimes empirically, measured values. Random errors, often called
accidental errors, on the other hand do not follow a systematic pattern and are entirely
based on the probability theory. Errors in measurements in fact include both systematic
and random errors. Systematic parts of errors are usually eliminated first, and the
remaining parts are regarded as random errors.

These random errors are statistically adjusted, and then most probable values of
measurements are obtained. Since it can be reasonably assumed that random errors
conform to a normal distribution (or Gaussian distribution), the most theoretically
acceptable method for adjusting random errors is the least squares method. With this
method, it becomes possible not only to obtain most probable values but also to
statistically test the significance of them.

It should be noted that a random error can never be defined by a single observation.
Now assume that a distance along a line is measured by a single trial of taping. Since
only one value for the distance is obtained, there is no information about the possible
error. If the distance is measured two times, the two values (usually different) will
provide information on the error. Likewise, next, assume that a figure of a triangle is
obtained by measuring three sides of the triangles. Also in this case, the shape of this
triangle is uniquely specified and the error cannot be discussed. If, in addition to
distances of three sides, one or more angles of the triangle are measured, the shape of
the triangle will not be in general uniquely fixed, and the errors will be visible. In order
to identify the existence of errors and to adjust these errors reasonably, redundant
observations (i.e., more observations than are necessary to uniquely specify a value or a
figure) are required. It is required to make as many redundant observations as possible,
to adjust the errors with the least squares method, and to test the statistical significance.
This is the best method to carry out highly accurate and reliable surveying. Especially, it
is extremely necessary for control surveys, which are conducted to give control
frameworks for subsequent surveys such as topographic surveys and engineering
surveys.

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3. Basic Survey Measurements

3.1. Introduction
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Plane surveying is traditionally concerned with the field measurements of three

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fundamental quantities: (1) distance between two points; (2) the angle subtended at a
point; and (3) the height of a point above some datum, normally mean sea level. From
these measurements it is then possible to compute the three-dimensional positions of
points.

The Global Positioning System (See Global Positioning System) can perform the three-
dimensional positioning, in general, with much greater accuracy and speed. In the
mapping field, aerial photogrammetry (See Photogrammetry) has been a standard
technique for the positioning of the natural and man-made features because of its
efficiency. However, both GPS and aerial photogrammetry often confront some
unavoidable constraints of overhead obstructions such as buildings and trees. That is
precisely why conventional surveying methods based on measurements of distance,
angle, and height are still essential for plane surveying.

3.2. Distance Measurement

Distance measurements are carried out by many different methods. These include
pacing, odometer, stadia (tacheometry), subtense bar, taping, electronic distance
measurement (EDM) and others. Of these, taping and EDM are the most commonly
used methods by surveyors today. In plane surveying the distance between two points
means the horizontal distance. If the points are at different elevations, the distance
should be measured between the plumb lines at both points; alternatively the physical
distance between two points should be corrected to the horizontal distance based on the
slope angle.

There are basically two types of tape in common use. Fiberglass tapes are generally
used for measurement of short distances. Although not suitable for precise work, these
are very convenient and practical for many purposes. For more precise measurement it
is required to use steel tapes. In order to accomplish high accuracy with either fiberglass
or steel tape, it is necessary to check periodically the graduation on the tape against a
standard reference tape, the length of which is known to a higher order of accuracy. In
addition, since the measured distance in the field has often length variations caused by
differences of temperature and tension in the tape, it is vital to apply appropriate
corrections to the measured distance.

Taping has been both the simplest and the most precise method of measuring distance
until the development of EDM. In the past, invar tapes, which are made of special
nickel-iron steel to reduce length variations caused by differences of temperature, were
used for the precise measurement of baselines for triangulation for control surveys to
be described later. Nowadays, however, taping is generally confined to the
measurement of short distances, especially in the case not requiring highly precise
measurement.

The development of EDM equipment is one of the most remarkable advances in

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surveying since World War II. The EDM determines length by indirectly measuring

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the time taken by an electromagnetic signal of known velocity to travel from one point
(transmitter in EDM instrument) to the other point (reflector as a target) and return.
The time can be computed by measuring the phase difference between the transmitted

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and received signals. Although an observation of the phase difference of signal of

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unique frequency cannot determine the time, by using several types of signal each with
a different frequency, it becomes possible to obtain the travel time through information
on phase differences. The first EDM instrument was developed in the late 1940s. Due
to advances in electronics and low-power light-emitting diodes during the late 1960s,
the devices of EDM made outstanding progress in the aspects of accuracy, price, size
(portability), operation (user-friendliness) and others, and have been widely used in
surveying.

Prior to the introduction of EDM, distance measurements with high accuracy were
made by taping. Precise taping is one of the most difficult surveying tasks, which
demand large amount of labor. EDM instruments have made it possible to obtain
accurate distance measurements rapidly and easily. The last development in the field of
EDM instrumentation is a combination of a digital or electronic theodolite and a
microprocessor. The resulting devices are called total stations or electronic
tacheometers, which are described later in somewhat more detail.

3.3 Angle Measurement

Horizontal and vertical angle measurements have been traditionally accomplished

by surveying equipment called theodolites and transits. Theodolites have been
developed in European countries; transits have been in the United States.
Additionally, equipment which perform angle measurements with high precision
are often called theodolites; those with low accuracy are often called transits.
Although they are sometimes defined by surveyors differently in these and other
aspects, theodolites and transits are fundamentally equivalent and the two terms
are often interchangeably used.

The main components of a theodolite include a sighting telescope and two

graduated circles (protractors), that is, horizontal and vertical circles. Horizontal
and vertical angles are measured by rotating the telescope in the horizontal and
vertical planes respectively. Older theodolites have graduated circles made of
glass. Readings of angle on the circle are accomplished by means of optical
micrometers. These types of theodolite are called optical theodolite. Newer
instruments, called electronic or digital theodolites, automatically resolve the circle
readings using circler encoders that sense tl1e rotations of the telescope, and display
the values of the angles. ln either case of optical or digital theodolite, it us essential
that, prior to measuring angles, the horizontal circle is accurately oriented into a
horizontal plane, which automatically puts the other circle in a vertical plane. In
optical theodolites, simple level vials are often employed, but digital theodolites
employ pendulum compensators or some other equipment to orient the horizontal
circle to a true horizontal plane.

Leveling

Height measurement, which is generally called leveling, is that of measuring the

elevations of points or differences in elevation between points. Leveling has
traditionally been achieved by a variety of methods. Of these, the differential
leveling and trigonometric leveling have been most commonly used. The former is
generally used for precise measurement; the latter is used for relatively low-
precision measurement.

The differential leveling is accomplished by a leveling instrument and a graduated

rod. The instrument, commonly termed as level, basically consists of a telescope
oriented into horizontal direction, and used to read graduated rods held 011 two
different points. The level is generally set up approximately halfway between two
points. It is assumed that the geoid below or above the area which includes the level
and two points is perfectly a plane. If this assumption holds, the difference in the
two readings means the difference in elevation between the two points. If either of
the two points is a bench mark whose elevation is known, the elevation of another
point is easily calculated.

Level instruments widely used are classified into three categories: tilting levels,
automatic levels, and digital levels. The tilting level enables precise orientation of
a telescope in a horizontal plane using a level via l and leveling and tilting screws.
It is used for the most precise work, and is also widely employed for general
purposes. The automatic level employs an automatic compensating system.
Although it is in general less precise compared with the tilting level, it has become
popular for general use because of the ease and rapidity of its operation. The
digital level, which is so me times called electronic level, is the newest type of
automatic level (See Figure 1). It enables
automatic reading of the graduated rod (special bar- coded rod) by digital image
processing. It is often used for construction surveys.
 Figure 1: Digital Level
(Courtesy Sokkia Corporation)

The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring (I)
either the slope or horizontal distance between them and (2) the vertical angle
from one point to the other. The leveling procedure based on the principle is called
trigonometric leveling. Either the combination of the EDM instrument and the
theodolite or the total station described below is generally used for trigonometric
leveling.

The principle of differential leveling or trigonometric leveling is very simple, but it

should be noted that the measurement of difference in elevation is based on
the assumption that the geoid is a plane. Therefore, when the distance between two
points is long, it is vital to establish several sub-points between two points, to
iterate the above measurements between the adjacent points, and sum up the
differences in elevation.

3.4. Total Station

Total station instruments incorporate an EDM, an electronic or digital theodolite,

and an onboard microprocessor in the same unit (See Figure 2).
 Figure 2: Total Station
(Courtesy Sokkia Corporation)
They can measure simultaneously and automatically both distances and angles. The
microprocessor receives the measured slope distance and vertical angle, calculates
horizontal and vertical distance components, and displays them in real time. The
vertical distance, which is the difference in elevation between the center of total
station equipment and the reflector target, is converted to the difference in elevation
between two points on the earth by inputting the instrument and reflector heights.
Thus, total stations enable all of the basic surveys (measurements of distance,
angle, and elevation) required for plane surveying by setting up a single device.
When equipped with automatic data collectors, total stations can record all the
products of field surveys and transmit them to computers, plotters, and other office
equipment for processing.

Total stations have changed the practice of surveying substantially. The total
station is especially a convenient tool for construction layout surveys. The location
data of construction points, which are generally obtained in the office work, can be
entered into the total station prior to layout surveys. The instrumentation then
guides tl1e person holding the reflector target to the construction points by
calculating the position of reflector target in real time.
4. Control Surveys in Plane Surveying

4.1. Introduction

Control surveys establish precise horizontal positions and elevations of points that
serve as the control framework for subordinate survey projects, Although the geodetic
surveying conducted by the government or public agency provides these control points
over large areas, the number of these points is not in general sufficient in smaller areas
where engineering projects are executed. Therefore, the control survey is still
inevitable process for topographic mapping of small areas and the other engineering
surveys,

Control surveys in plane surveying are divided into horizontal control surveys and
vertical control surveys. The former establishes the stations of known plane rectangular
coordinates, while the latter establish the bench marks of known elevations. The
methods traditionally used in the horizontal control surveys include triangulation,
trilateration, traversing, and combinations of these basic techniques. Differential
leveling described in the preceding section is the most commonly used procedure for
the vertical control surveys, The Global Positioning System (GPS) can also be used for
horizontal and vertical control surveys, and is currently gaining widespread use (See
Global Positioning System).

4.2. Triangulation

As implied by its name, triangulation uses a survey network composed of triangles.

The network is established in such a way that some of the vertices of triangles are
corresponding to existing control stations, which are predetermined by higher order
control surveys, and the other vertices are new control points to be determined. By
measuring horizontal inner angles of triangles and horizontal lengths of a limited
number of sides called base lines, the survey network can be solved and positions of
new control points can be trigonometrically calculated. The distinguishing
characteristic of triangulation is that the number of angles measured is much larger
than that of distances measured. Prior to the development of Electronic Distance
Measuring (EDM) instrument, triangulation only was a preferred and principal method
for horizontal control surveys, especially if the area in question was extensive. It is
because angles could be more easily and precisely measured compared with distances.

4.3. Trilateration

Survey networks used in the trilateration are basically similar to those of triangulation.
The difference from triangulation is that measured quantities are only horizontal
distances between points. By measuring all the sides of triangles, the survey network
can be fixed given at least two existing control points. After the emergence of EDM
equipment trilateration has been a useful technique for horizontal surveys.
4.4. Traversing

Traversing is a method for horizontal control surveys, which uses traverse networks in
contrast to triangulation and trilateration. A traverse network consists of a series of
straight lines connecting successive points. The existing control stations are in general
involved as the end points of the traverse; the intermediate points are assigned to new
control points to be determined. By measuring the distances between successive points
and also the horizontal angles between adjacent lines, the traverse is fixed and the
positions of all the intermediate points are calculated.

Unlike triangulation and trilateration, in which triangle networks should be

established, the traverse network is geometrically a linear configuration. It is only
required that adjacent points are inter-visible. Hence, it is very easy to establish the
network along the linear areas, for example, along roads, railways, and rivers. As with
the case of trilateration, traversing was in the past inferior to triangulation in the sense
of accuracy because of frequent measurements of distances. However, it has given
sufficiently acceptable results since the emergence of EDM equipment. In traversing
total station instruments are very convenient because both angles and distances can be
measured from a sing le setup. For these reasons, traversing is now the most popular
technique for horizontal control surveys.

4.5. Control Surveys with GPS

The GPS has several advantages compared with the traditional surveying techniques.
For instance, (1) the GPS does not require line of sight between points; (2) the GPS is
capable of providing positioning in alt weather conditions, 24 hours a day. In addition
to these, if the static procedure, which is the most reliable method among various types
of GPS surveying, is employed, the GPS can ensure an extremely high accuracy of
horizontal positioning which is equivalent to that of conventional high- precision
geodetic surveying. For these reasons, horizontal control surveys with the GPS are
rapidly replacing all other ground methods.

The GPS can be applied to vertical control surveys. However, the accuracy of
elevation measurements with the GPS is generally insufficient. The GPS provides
not the elevation but the ellipsoid height, that is, the vertical distance from the
reference ellipsoid. To convert the ellipsoid height to the elevation, the geoid
height is required, but it is generally difficult to estimate precisely the geoid
height in an area in advance. This is the reason why the differential leveling is still
employed for the vertical control surveys.

5. Topographic Surveys

5.1. Introduction

Topographic surveying is about determining the positions of the natural and man-
made features, and the configuration (relief) of the terrain after the horizontal and
vertical control stations have been established. The natural features include
hydrography (rivers, oceans, lakes etc.) and vegetation. Man-made features
include roads, railroads, bridges, buildings, etc. and various land boundaries. The
features, which are often referred to as planimetry or planimetric features, are
depicted in

their plan positions and identified by the names and legends on the topographic
maps. The configuration of the ground, which is often referred to as hypsography
or hypsometric feature, is represented on the map most commonly by contours
(contour lines). The preparation of a topographic map, including the necessary
control surveys, is usually the first step in planning and designing a civil
engineering project.

The basic task of topographic surveying is data collection about the horizontal
positions and/or elevations of necessary and sufficient points to describe the
required topographic map. The choice of points to be observed is simple for the
planimetric features; the comer or the boundary points of the features are selected.
rt becomes relatively complex for the configuration of terrain. The break points,
which are the points where the slope of the terrain significantly changes, should be
carefully selected to represent the contours accurately and efficiently.

Topographic surveying or mapping is generally conducted by either ground (or

field) methods or aerial photogrammetric methods, and is often a combination of
both. Ground surveys are frequently used especially for preparing large-scale
maps of small areas. Aerial surveying is employed for topographic mapping
projects covering large areas.

5.2. Ground Methods

ln the past, so-called plane-table surveys were typical methods for topographic
surveys. In this method map compilation is almost completed in the field with the
plane-table mounted on a tripod. Control points are plotted on the plane-table sheet,
and the plane table is set up and oriented at a control poi nt. Distances to chosen
points are measured generally by a simple distance-measurement instrument called
alidade, they are scaled immediately, and the points are plotted on the plane-table
sheet , that is, the map. Elevations of points are written beside their plotted
positions. Contours are sketched based on the elevation points. The plane-table
survey is rarely used today.
Total stations are, currently, most widely used instruments for ground or field
procedures for topographic surveys because they enable automatically the
relative three-dimensional positioning. A total station is set up at a control point;
the person operating the reflector goes around the area to put it at the points whose
positions and elevations are required. The observed horizontal positions and
elevations are automatically recorded in automatic data collectors. In addition to
this, most automatic data collectors provide a function that permits field personnel
to enter feature codes such as: top of curb = TC, tree = TR, center line = CL, and
so forth. Total stations greatly contribute to the field-to-office routine for
acquisition of topographic details (See Figure 3).

Figure 3: Digital Topographic Surveying System Using Total Station

(Courtesy Sokkia Corporation)

5.3. Aerial Photogrammetric Methods

Photogrammetry is the science, art, and technology of obtaining reliable

information about an object indirectly from photographs (See Photogrammetry).
Two broad categories are involved in photogrammetry: metrical and interpretive.
The metrical photogrammetry is that of determining three-dimensional positions
of points from photographs. The second category, classically called photo
interpretation, involves recognizing objects from their photographic images and
judging their significance.

In aerial photogrammetry, photographs are taken from aircrafts. Two overlapping

aerial photographs (usually 60% overlapped between two pictures in the direction
of flight line) establish a three-dimensional model, called a stereo model, of the
surface of the earth, which is basically similar to the principle of a stereoscopic
viewing. The model is scaled and oriented to the actual scale and direction based
on control points of known horizontal positions and elevations. The identification
of necessary natural and man-made features and break points of the terrain feature
is done from the photo interpretation. The relationship between the photograph
coordinates of a point and the actual three-dimensional position (required
horizontal coordinates and elevations) can be mathematically represented. Hence,
three-dimensional positions of any points on the ground, if they appear in both
overlapped photographs, can be measured from the photograph coordinates.

instrumentations called plotters are used to achieve aerial photogrammetric

topographic surveying and mapping. They principally incorporate three
components: (I) a projection system to create a stereo model, (2) a viewing system

which enables an operator to view the stereo mode l, and (3) a measuring/tracing
system for mapping. The plotters called stereo plotters make optically and
mechanically the stereo model, and have traditionally been of use exclusive ly in
the field of photogrammetry. Analytica l plotters, which are aided by computers,
have gradually replaced the stereo plotters. They enable construction of stereo
model mathematically, precise measurements of photographic coordinates of
images, automatic and digital record of observed data, and other useful
procedures. This type of photogrammetry is called analytical photogrammetry.

Advantages of this method for topographic mapping are (1) speed of compilation,
(2) reduction in the amount of control points, (3) relatively low cost, (4) ease of
obtaining information in inaccessible areas, (5) providing office work, and so
forth. For these reasons, aerial photogrammetry is the most powerful technique
for topographic surveying and mapping for large areas. Actually, almost all of the
topographic maps with small scales are currently produced by this technique.

5.4. Newer Methods for Topographic Surveys

The static OPS surveying, which is used for control surveys, enables highly accurate
positioning required for precise control surveys. However, the method demands a long
time, e.g. about an hour, for measurement of the position of a single poi nt. Special
GPS methods, known as kinematic GPS surveying and real-time kinematic (RTK)
GPS surveying , have made great progress and enable rapid determination of
positions although the accuracy is lower than the static method (See Global
Positioning System). They generally meet the requirement of accuracy of topographic
surveying. In the open areas with a clear visibility to OPS satellites, the kinematic or
RTK GPS surveying is very convenient for mapping.

Satellite remote sensing technology (See Satellite Remote Sensing) is another new
technique for topographic surveying. So far, the spatial resolution of the satellite
remote sensing, which is basically the ground size corresponding to a pixel of satellite
image, has been at the highest about 10 m by 10 m, and it is of much coarser
resolution than required for the aerial photogrammetric procedure. Therefore, the use
of satellite images for topographic mapping has been restricted to few special cases in
developing countries. However, now recent development has led to higher resolution
satellite remote sensing. The image of the IKONOS-1, which was launched by a
company in the USA late in 1999, has a higher resolution of about 1 m by 1 m. Other
high-resolution satellites are now being planned in sequence. It is expected that these
data can be utilized for topographic surveying and mapping for extensive areas.

6. Other Branches of Surveying

There have traditionally been a variety of surveying fields other than the control
surveys and the topographic surveys. Some of examples are (1) route surveying
for the planning, design, construction of civil engineering works of linear
configuration such as roads, railroads, pipelines and transmission lines, (2)
hydrographic surveying for securing information about the physical features of
the water bodies, and for the planning, design, and construction of civil
engineering works on, in, or near the water bodies, (3) cadastral or land boundary
survey for determining the land property boundaries, and for producing the map
principally for legal purposes , and so forth. Surveying procedures required
before, during, and after any civil engineering works are often called collectively
as construction surveying, or sometimes engineering surveying. Besides, all the
surveys other than control surveys and topographic surveys are sometimes called
applied surveying. These branches have traditionally developed separately in each
particular discipline, and they involve some specific types of surveys.

A principal task of construction surveying is that called layout or setting out,

which marks out the positions of the facility to be constructed on the ground by
means of stakes or string lines. These guide the contractor to carry out
construction according to the plan. These have conventionally been accomplished
using the surveyor' s standard equipment - theodolites, levels, ta pes, and EDM
instruments. Recently, total stations have replaced these conventional techniques.
The real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS is also currently employed for the layout
surveying. The route surveying often involves the process of computing the
linear and vertical alignments of the facilities, for example, those of the centerline
of road. The alignments are computed as series of coordinates of points in the
required interval, and these points are staked on the construction site.
Hydrographic surveying determines depths and surface configurations of the
bottom of water bodies. This surveying consists of two basic tasks: sounding
(measuring depth) from the water surface to the bottom and positioning where the
sounding was made. The sounding is generally pe1formed by a sounding pole for
shallow areas of limit ed size; in deep water sonic depth recorder called echo
sounder is generally used. Total stations and any other ground surveying
techniques are used to determine the positions of soundings. The GPS has also
been applied to this procedure. Refined systems combining echo sounders and
RTK-GPS are currently employed to the automatic hydrographic mapping, e.g.,
production of nautical charts.

The scope of cadastral survey often involves negotiations with land owners to
establish fairly and accurately the land boundaries. This is in general the most
demanding process in cadastral surveying. Professional cadastral surveyors must
have experience, patience, good judgment, and adequate knowledge of legal
principles and local customs.

7. Surveying and Geographic Information System

A technology closely related to surveying, called Geographic Information System

 (GTS), has been rapidly making a remarkable progress and has recently gained much
popularity. A GTS is a computer-assisted information system for collecting and
storing

a wide variety of "geographic data'' su.ch as maps and statistical data in a common
geographical reference system, for manipulating and analyzing them, and for
displaying information resulting from data processing (See Geographic Information
System). It is indeed a challenging task to manage and control the amount of
information now available on a wide range of data variables and to utilize this
information for good decision making. In such circumstance, GISs have become
extremely important in virtually all activities that deal with geographic data. These

involve urban planning and design, environmental management, disaster prevention

planning, public health planning, urban facility and utility management, land and
cadastral management, commercial and administrative marketing, mobile navigation,
and so forth.

A GIS is obviously an infrastructure, which should be commonly and widely used for
public welfare. Hence, the geographic referencing system used in the GIS should be
based on the plane coordinate or geodetic coordinate system defined by a public entity.
Surveying is an essential science and technology for determining the positions of
geographic data to be stored in a G1S. The GIS is a powerful tool for efficient and
effective use of surveying products. As described at the beginning, the concept of
surveying involves not only data acquisition but also data manipulation and analysis.
Knowledge about GISs is therefore extremely important for modern surveyors.

Acknowledgements
The author expresses his sincere thanks to Professor Hideo Nakamura. The contents of
this chapter are based on the textbook titled ' Surveying' that Professor Nakamura and
the author published in Japanese in 2000. Professor Nakamura reviewed all portions of
the original draft of this manuscript and provided helpful suggestions.
Glossary

Bench mark: A relatively permanent object, natural or manmade, having a marked

point whose elevation is known.

Control surveys: A branch of surveying that establishes precise horizontal and vertical
positions of reference monuments, which serve as the control framework
for subordinate survey projects.

Electronic A device for distance measurement by indirectly measuring the

distance time it takes electromagnetic signal to travel from one point to another
measurement and return.
(EDM)
instrument:
Geodetic A branch of surveying that takes the curvature of the earth into account,
surveying: where all distances and horizontal angles are projected onto the surface
of the reference ellipsoid.

Geographic A computer-assisted information system for collecting, storing,

Information manipulating, and analyzing wide variety of data which are
geographically referenced, and displaying information resulting from
System (GlS): those processes.

Geoid: A model of the figure of the earth that coincides with the equipotential
surface that passes through the mean sea level.

A surveying and navigation system using specific satellites called

Global NAVSTAR satellites, which was developed by the US Department of
Positioning Defense. It often refers broadly to all of surveying and navigation
System (GPS): systems using satellites.

Levelling: The process of determining elevations of points, or their difference in

elevation.

Photogrammetry: A technique that determines three-dimensional positions of points

through the overlapping photographs. It often refers to, more broadly,
a technique that uses photographs for surveying and mapmaking.

Plane An official plane or rectangular coordinate system for a specific area,

Coordination which is established by projecting the reference ellipsoid to a
System: horizontal plane. The projection is designed so that surveys can be
performed as on a horizontal plan e within tolerable levels of
accuracy.
Plane surveying: A branch of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
neglected except for leveling, where all distances and
horizontal angles are projected onto one horizontal plane.

Satellite remote A technique that extracts information of the surface of the earth
sensing: by sensing and analyzing electromagnetic radiation reflected
and/or emitted from the surface with sensors carried on
satellites.

Total station: An instrument for surveying which incorporates an EDM

device, an electronic or digital theodolite, and an onboard
microprocessor in the same unit.

Topographic A branch of surveying for making topographic maps,

which
surveying: determines the positions of the natural and man-made
features and the configuration of the terrain.

Traversing: A typical surveying technique for control surveys that

establishes a surveying network consisting of any number of
consecutive lines and measures the length and direction of
each line.
Bibliography

Anderson J.M. and Mikhail E.M. (1997). Surveying: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition: WCB/McGraw
Hill. [This is a widely used textbook of modern surveying]
Austin Barry B. (1997). Errors in Practical Measurement in Surveying, Engineering and Technology:
Landmark Enterprises. [This book presents a comprehensive overview of statistical error analysis in
measurement]
Crawford W.G. (1995). Construction Surveying and Layout: A Step-By-Step Field Engineering Methods
Manual, Second Edition: Creative Construction Publishing. [This is a highly illustrated, practical textbook
of construction surveying]
Kavanagh B.F. and Glenn Bird S.J. (1999). Surveying: Principles and Applications, Fifth Edition: Prentice
Hall. [This book presents a comprehensive overview of modern surveying]
Moffitt F.H. and Bossler J.D. (1997). Surveying, Tenth Edition: Addison-Wesley. [This is a widely used
textbook of modern surveying]
Robinson A.H., Morrison J.L., Muehrcke P.C., and Guptill S.C. (1995). Elements of Cartography: John
Wiley & Sons. [This is a widely used textbook that presents principles of traditional and modern
cartography]

UNESCO –
Sickle J.V. (1997). 1001 Solved Surveying Fundamentals Problems, Second Edition: Professional

SAMPLE
Publications. [This book is a collection of problems and their solutions covering fundamental knowledge
and techniques essential for modern practice of surveying]
Smith J.R. (1997). Introduction to Geodesy: The history and Concepts of Modern Geodesy: John Wiley &

EOLSS
Sons. [This presents a comprehensive introduction to geodesy, which is necessary to surveyors]

CHAPTERS
Wilford J.N. (2000). The Mapmakers: Knopf. [This book presents a comprehensive world history of
cartography by a science writer]
Wolf P.R. and Brinker R.C. (1997). Elementary Surveying, Ninth Edition: Addison-Wesley. [This book is a
comprehensive reference of modern surveying]
Wolf P.R. and Ghilani C.D. (1997). Adjustment Computations: Statistics and Least Squares in Surveying
and Gis, Third Edition: John Wiley & Sons. [This book provide a comprehensive overview of error theory,
least squares methods, and their applications]
Yang O.H., Snyder J.P., and Tobler W.R. (2000). Map Projection Transformation: Principles and
Applications: Taylor & Francis. [This book is a relatively advanced textbook that covers theory, methods,
and applications of map projection transformation]

Biographical Sketch

Eihan Shimizu is currently Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Tokyo,
Japan. Professor Shimizu graduated with his Master of Engineering from the Department of Civil
Engineering of the University of Tokyo in 1984. After completing his doctorate in Engineering there in
1989, he became Associate Professor at Gifu University, Japan in 1990. Subsequently, he became
Associate Professor at the University of Tokyo in 1993 before assuming the position of Professor at the
University of Tokyo in 1998. His research interests include satellite remote sensing, image processing,
geographic information system (GIS), mathematical cartography, spatial statistical analysis, and regional
and urban planning. Professor Shimizu has served as a council member of several Japanese academic
societies and associations, such as Japan Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing and GIS
Association in Japan. He is currently Secretary General of the Japan Society of Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing.