SAFETY OF FOOD AND BEVERAGES
Soft Drinks and Fruit Juices
R Ryan, Institute of Food Science and Technology of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
r 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Glossary
Brix The sugar content in aqueous solution. (One degree
Brix is 1 g of sucrose in 100 g of solution and represents the
strength of the solution as percentage by weight (% w/w).
If the solution contains dissolved solids other than pure
sucrose, then the 1Bx only approximates the dissolved solid
content.
Fruit juice The unfermented product obtained from fruit
which is sound and ripe, fresh or preserved by chilling, of
Introduction
Perhaps the most widely consumed beverages in the world
(outside of water) are soft drinks and fruit juices. These two
categories of beverages include a variety of products but do not
include alcoholic beverages (wine, spirits, beer, cider, etc.) and
natural mineral and bottled drinking water, which are covered
in other articles.
What Constitutes a Soft Drink?
For the purpose of this article, a soft drink is defined as water-
based flavored drink usually with added carbon dioxide (CO2)
and with nutritive, nonnutritive, and/or intense sweeteners with
other permitted food additives. This definition also includes
gaseosa (water-based drinks with added CO2, sweetener, and
flavor), and sodas such as colas, pepper types, root beer, lemon–
lime, and citrus types, both diet/light and regular types. These
beverages may be clear, cloudy, or may contain particulate mat-
ter (e.g., fruit pieces). Soft drinks also include so-called ‘energy’
drinks that are carbonated and contain high levels of nutrients
and other ingredients (e.g., caffeine, taurine, and carnitine).
Recipes for soft drinks can be formulated so that their
composition is controlled and be maintained as a trade secret.
Most recipes contain an extract, sugar, water, and various
additives, such as acidity regulators, colors, and citric acid.
Some additives are prohibited by specific legal regulation.
Categories of Soft Drinks
The most important categories of soft drinks are:
1. Ready-to-drink essence-flavored beverages: These are practically
always carbonated. The essences used in them may be of
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one or more kinds mixed together, having the characteristic
color, flavor, and taste typical of the juice of the fruit from
which it comes.
Soft drink A beverage that may be made from natural and
artificial flavors and sweeteners, carbonated and
noncarbonated water, vegetable and fruit juice extracts, and
other ingredients, but which contains no alcohol.
natural or of synthetic origin and the sweetener used may
be nutritive, nonnutritive, and/or intense.
2. Ready-to-drink beverages containing fruit or fruit juice: These
can be made from fruit juice or concentrated fruit juice
with the addition of sweetening agents, citric acid, and
water. The normal juice content is not generally sufficient
to impart sufficient flavor, and therefore, essences are
added.
a. This class is not therefore entirely distinct from class (1),
as soft drinks are made with many differing ratios of
fruit juice to essence. Ready-to-drink beverages can also
be made by macerating whole fruit producing a fruit
comminute. These beverages are composed of fruit juice
and tissue with natural peel oil emulsion, thoroughly
homogenized (i.e., with uniform dispersion of the solid
matter throughout the drink).
b. This class includes both carbonated and noncarbonated
beverages. Similar in some ways to these are the so-
called ‘nonalcoholic wines’ and other fermented bev-
erages similar to alcoholic ones, but with a very low
alcohol content.
3. Concentrates of beverages intended for drinking after dilution
with water at home: These fountain syrups (e.g., cola syrup),
fruit syrups for soft drinks, frozen or powdered concentrate
for lemonade and iced tea mixes. These are noncarbonated
and usually have a fruit base, though flavoring essences
may be added as well. They include citrus ‘squashes’ con-
taining fruit juice with cells, sugar syrup, essences, and
citric acid, and intended to be diluted four or five times
by volume before consumption. This also includes con-
centrated comminuted citrus drinks, similar to those
described in class (2). This class also includes cordials
containing noncitrus juices and flavored cordials, as well as
syrups.
Encyclopedia of Food Safety, Volume 3 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-378612-8.00296-1
 Safety of Food and Beverages: Soft Drinks and Fruit Juices
The largest single ingredient of soft drinks is water, and
their manufacture depends on a supply of safe, good quality
water. In addition to the water and the fruit juice or flavoring,
most soft drinks require sweetening agents. Nutritive, non-
nutritive, and/or intense sweeteners can be used for this pur-
pose. There is a certain demand, from diabetics and
consumers wishing to achieve weight control, for soft drinks
that contain nonnutritive sweeteners.
Soft drinks, per se, are not of great importance in inter-
national trade. Their bulk is large due to their water content,
and most countries have their needs for soft drinks supplied
by local manufacturers. Consequently, there is a considerable
trade in concentrates, particularly those used for the cola-type
drinks, fruit juice-based and comminuted fruit drinks. Simi-
larly many countries import considerable quantities of fruit
juices for manufacture into soft drinks. National trade stat-
istics in general do not distinguish between these various
classes.
The typical soft drink of the US is known as soda water.
This phrase is to some extent, a misbranding, it is so called
because originally the CO2 gas with which it is carbonated was
derived from the carbonate or the bicarbonate of soda. The
name has become so firmly attached to waters of this kind that
it probably will be accepted in the future as distinctive. Water
is mixed with syrup which contains the sugar. A flavoring
material is included to give it the character of the drink. For
example, quinine is added to produce tonic water.
Manufacture of Soft Drinks
The most important element in the manufacture of a soft
drink is the formulation of the syrup. The syrup is made to a
predetermined strength using extracts, flavors, colors, sweet-
eners, and additives, such as preservatives, according to the
recipe, which is usually considered a trade secret. As noted
above, this syrup is made at a central location and is then
shipped to distributors who add water in a fixed proportion to
produce the drink. The drink is then is cooled, carbonated and
filled into containers, the lid or cap is applied, sealed, check
weighed, and packed off.
In addition to the fruity flavor, taste, and aroma imparted
by the product, the worldwide acceptance of carbonated
beverages is also due in part to the taste and sparkle imparted
by CO2. CO2 derives from three sources, namely, fermen-
tation, heating limestone, and burning carbon.
In the manufacture of carbonated drinks, CO2 also des-
troys or inhibits growth of bacteria. This preservative action
increases in line with the level of carbonation specified in the
soft drink. In some beverages, such as ginger ale and tonic
water, higher levels of carbonation are present so that the
product can be used as a mixer with noncarbonated com-
ponents, such as whiskey or gin.
The level of carbonation is normally described as the gas
content or degree of carbonation or the volume(s) of CO2.
Depending on the form in which it is supplied and stored, the
CO2 should be sited convenient to its delivery area for reasons
of safety and convenience. All the pipework in the case of
liquid CO2 must be able to withstand high pressure and be of
stainless steel and preferably jointed seamlessly.
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In typical practice, the syrup is pumped from the syrup
tank across to a ‘carbo cooler,’ which is designed to produce a
final product with a consistent brix and level of carbonation.
To incorporate the CO2 into the finished drink a large surface
area of liquid is required and this will be reflected in the
diameter of the carbonating vessel or container which must
also be designed to withstand high pressure. In the carbo-
cooler the chosen brix of a product is achieved by use of a
specific orifice design to allow a small amount of syrup to be
added to a designated quantity of water on a continuous basis.
The resultant beverage is pumped across to a filler. In the
filling of cans, the product is filled down the internal sides of
the can allowing air to escape at the top of the filling valve. The
cans are discharged from the filler and immediately enter the
can seamer where the lid is seamed on to the can. As the can
contains cooled beverage, it next passes into a can warmer to
bring the product to ambient temperature. The can is then
passed under an X-ray detection device to ensure correct fill.
Finished cans are then conveyed to the packing unit for tray
forming, can collation, shrink wrapping, and palletization.
Health – Negative Effects of Consumption
Because of the carbonation, soft drinks are generally con-
sidered safe from a microbiological perspective. In fact the
World Health Organization recommends soft drinks when
travelers are in locations where the quality of the drinking
water is suspect. Most of the negative health effects associated
with most soft drinks relate to their sugar content. Con-
sumption of sugar has been shown to increase dental carries
and excessive consumption of sugar has been linked to
obesity. However, high-energy drinks have been associated
with insomnia, headache, agitation, rapid heartbeat, and
seizures. The US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration report found that the number of people who
attended at the hospital emergency room after consuming
energy drinks had more than doubled from just over 10 000 in
2007 to nearly 21 000 in 2011. In 42% of the cases, people
reported consuming the energy drinks in combination with
other drugs. Health Canada has proposed new regulations to
limit the amount of caffeine in a single serving of an energy
drink to 180 mg from more than 500 mg. A 237 ml cup of
coffee contains about 135 mg of caffeine.
What Constitutes a Fruit Juice?
Fruit Juice is the unfermented but fermentable product ob-
tained from fruit which is sound and ripe; fresh or preserved
by chilling; of one or more kinds mixed together; and having
the characteristic color, flavor, and taste typical of the juice of
the fruit from which it comes. Fruit juices are expressed from
fruits, which are among nature’s most bountiful and
healthy foods.
Fruits are pleasing to the senses of sight, taste, and smell.
Their color, texture, and tartness add to their enjoyment as
fruits. There are hundreds of different kinds of fruits. Some like
apples and berries grow in temperate climates whereas others,
such as citrus and exotic fruits, grow in tropical climates. Many
362 Safety of Food and Beverages: Soft Drinks and Fruit Juices
fruits have prominent roles in culture and religion and many
have been used for their ‘medicinal’ value. This is not surprising
because they are rich in health-sustaining vitamins and min-
erals, energy-giving fruit sugars, and health-protecting com-
ponents such as antioxidants. With modern day technology,
their juices give the same pleasure and benefits.
Categories of Fruits
Fruits can be divided into a number of main categories. For each
category, a few examples of the possibilities are given below:
1. Citrus fruits: oranges, mandarins, grapefruit, lemons,
and limes.
2. Soft fruits: strawberries; raspberries; gooseberries; black-
berries; and white, red, and black currants.
3. Stone fruits: peaches, apricots, plums, and cherries.
4. Pome fruits: apples, pear, and quinces.
5. Exotic fruits: comprise a disparate group of fruits which do
not form part of the other main categories including ba-
nanas, pineapples, pomegranates, melons, mango, kiwis,
passion fruits, and figs.
6. Mixed fruit juices: combinations of the above. Note that
rhubarb though a vegetable is often blended with fruit
juices.
Primary Processing of Single Strength Juice
During processing, the juice is separated from flavor com-
ponents, pulp and cells, but these may be restored to the juice
in the final formulation. In the case of citrus fruits, the fruit
juice must come from the interior fleshy portion (endocarp).
Lime juice, however, may be obtained from the whole fruit, by
suitable production processes whereby the proportion of
constituents of the outer part of the fruit is reduced to a
minimum.
Fruit juices may be considered in various categories de-
pending on market requirements. For example, fruit from
which the juice is extracted just before consumption is the
only juice that may be classified as both pure and fresh. In the
EU, only physical treatments are allowed for this juice. In
the case of freshly squeezed juice, chilling is optional but is
not regarded as a process. All other juices undergo processing
to a greater or lesser extent.
Primary Processing of Concentrated Juice
Fruit juice from concentrate may be defined as the product
obtained by replacing the water in the concentrated fruit juice
that was extracted from that juice during concentration. If
appropriate, pulp and cells that were removed during the
process of producing the fruit juice, may be added back. In the
reconstitution process, the water used must possess appro-
priate characteristics, particularly from the chemical, micro-
biological, and organoleptic viewpoints, to guarantee the
safety and essential qualities of the juice. The final product
obtained must display the basic organoleptic and analytical
characteristics at least equivalent to those of its fresh
counterpart.
Primary Processing of Nectars
Fruit nectar is the unfermented but fermentable product ob-
tained by adding water with or without the addition of sugar,
honey, syrups, and/or sweeteners to fruit juice, concentrated
fruit juice, fruit purees or concentrated fruit purees, or a
mixture of those products. Aromatic substances, volatile flavor
components, pulp, and cells, all of which must have been
recovered from the same kind of fruit and obtained by
suitable physical means, may be added. Products may be
based on a single fruit or fruit blend. Fruit nectars typically
contain 25% to 50% fruit. Under the requirements of Annex
IV of the EU Fruit Juice Directive, the addition of sugars and/or
honey is permitted up to 20% of the total weight of the fin-
ished product. Where fruit nectars are manufactured without
added sugar or with low energy value, sugars may be replaced
wholly or partially by sweeteners, in accordance with Directive
94/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of
30 June 1994 on sweeteners for use in foodstuffs.
Secondary Packing of Juice and Juice Products
Juices may be packed in cartons, polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) bottles, glass, or cans. The carton, however, dominates
the market worldwide and is based on the form, fill, and seal
principle. Juices packed in the carton system are generally
packed aseptically. The carton consists of a seven layer wall
with polyethylene on the inside in contact with the juice.
There normally are few issues with regard to shelf life. The
biggest offender is damage caused by handling abuse.
Tetra Pak and Elopak are two of the major suppliers of
form, fill, and seal packaging systems. To pack juices using
either of these systems the heat exchanger and filler are pre-
sterilized. Juice is subsequently pasteurized in the presterilized
heat exchanger and fed directly into the presterilized filler.
Asepsis is maintained throughout the system.
A typical juice from concentrate preprocessing line consists
of a drum dumper feeding juice concentrate to a juice/water
proportioner automatic in line brix controller, juice tankage in
which the juice is thoroughly mixed; pumped or gravity fed to
a pasteurizer; then optionally fed to a deaerator; and from
there it is fed to the carton packing machine.
The individual cartons are conveyed from the filler to case
packers or in the case of smaller cartons to the drinking stray
applicator, multicarton, packer. The larger 1 l packs go directly
to the case packers where they are subsequently shrink wrap-
ped and placed on pallets for despatch to warehousing.
Forms Under which Juice is Marketed
Citrus fruit juice and in particular orange juice dominates the
fruit juice market. According to the United Nations Com-
modity Trade Statistics Database, international trade in orange
juice exceeds US$16 billion a year. This trade involves orange
juice in various forms. Single strength orange juice should
have a brix value of at least 10% (or 101Bx) measured at the
time of picking. This juice is known as ‘Not from Concentrate
(NFC)’ in the trade because it has not been concentrated and
reconstituted with water. NFC juice may be pasteurized, chil-
led, or frozen before shipment to the packing house.
 Safety of Food and Beverages: Soft Drinks and Fruit Juices
Juice from concentrate, however, is initially concentrated
by evaporating the water resulting in a concentrate of 601 or
651Bx. Concentration may be achieved using a thermally ac-
celerated short time evaporator (TASTE). This type of evapor-
ator is mainly used in the large citrus plantations of Brazil
and USA. An important parameter in regard to process fruit
juice is the degrees brix, which is the sugar content of in the
aqueous portion of the juice. One degree brix is equivalent to
1 g of sucrose in 100 g of juice. If the solution contains dis-
solved solids other than pure sucrose, then the degrees brix
only approximates the dissolved solid content.
Unlike NFC, citrus juice concentrate has a minimum value
of 11.21Bx because the concentrate plants mix concentrates
from early, mid, and late seasons together to give the con-
centrate and subsequently its reconstituted juice the flavor,
texture, and taste that meet the preferences of the market that
the company is targeting. Certain food additives may be used
to enhance the juice. For example, ascorbic or citric acid may
be added to that which is naturally present in orange juice to
give it more tartness. Ascorbic acid may also be added to
improve the vitamin C content. Other nutrients, such as cal-
cium, vitamin D, and omega-3 fatty acids may also be added.
In addition, the producers of reconstituted orange juice may
add a mixture of compounds derived from orange peels to give
the juice the aroma of fresh-squeezed juice as these are lost
during the concentration process.
Health – Benefits of Juice Products
As the consumption of fruits and vegetables have been shown
in many studies to be associated with reduced risk of many
cancer types, stroke, and Alzheimer’s disease, the consumption
of fruit juices has increased significantly in recent years. Most
consumers believe that the health benefits of fruit juice are
equal to fresh fruit, but some nutritionists have noted that
juice lacks fiber of fresh fruit.
Health – Negative Effects of Consumption
Juice may naturally contain high levels of sugar, which poses
the same risks of dental carries and obesity as refined sugar. In
363
this regard, juices may contain added sugars, including high-
fructose corn syrup.
Fruits can frequently be contaminated with biological
hazards, such as viruses and bacteria. As a consequence, pro-
cessed fruit juices are pasteurized to minimize this potential
problem. However, fresh-squeezed juices are typically not and
may present a health risk unless the fruit is decontaminated
and sanitation of the equipment is maintained. In addition,
fruit can contain residues of pesticides, which may be trans-
ferred to the juice. Controls should be directed at the source of
the fruit to assure that levels do not exceed those allowed by
regulation.
See also: Safety of Food and Beverages: Alcoholic Beverages;
Fruits and Vegetables; Water (Bottled Water, Drinking Water) and Ice
Further Reading
AIJN (1993) Code of Practice for the Evaluation of Fruit and Vegetable Juices.
Brussels: AIJN (European Fruit Juice Association).
Ashurst PR (ed.) (2005) Chemistry and Technology of Soft Drinks and Fruit Juices,
2nd edn. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Hui YH (ed.) (2006) Handbook for Fruits and Fruits Processing. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell Publishing.
Redd JB, et al. (1996) Quality Control Manual for Citrus Processing Plants. Safety
Harbor, FL: Intercit Inc.
Ruis JZ (1974) The Soft Drinks Bottlers Handbook. FL, USA: All Americas
Publishers Service, Inc..
Whiteman K (1999) The New Guide to Fruit. London: Anness Publishing.
Relevant Website
www.ifu-fruitjuice.com/
International Federation of Fruit Juice Producers.