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IC/68/104
3. MAk
• .-i 7
A.O. BARUT
196 9
MIRAMARE - TRIESTE
IC/68/104
(Limited distribution)
A.O. BARUT**
MIRAMARE - TRIESTE
December 1968
APPENDIX I
WIGNER'S THEOREM 25
APPENDIX II
COVERING GROUP, PROJECTIVE AND RAY
REPRESENTATIONS, GROUP EXTENSION 27
APPENDIX III
WHEN UNITARY AND WHEN ANTI-UNITARY
OPERATORS? 30
APPENDIX IV
THE GROUPS O(3), SO(3), SU(2), THEIR
REPRESENTATIONS AND THE QUANTUM THEORY
OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM 31
- ii -
FORMULATION OF QUANTUM DYNAMICS
IN TERMS OF GENERALIZED SYMMETRIES
INTRODUCTION
- iii
It is in such global theories in terms of the total quantum
numbers of the interacting systems that the concept of generalized
symmetries and the theory of group representations re-enter into
the quantum theory, this time in the formulation of dynamics. The
subject of this essay is to try to give a physical interpretation of the
dynamical groups and the use of their representations in the
formulation of quantum dynamics.
- iv -
1. KINEMATICAL POSTULATES
1. 2 Superposition principle
This basic correspondence incorporates the superposition
principle of quantum theory. For although both in classical and
quantum theory we have to do with a continuously infinite set of
states, in quantum theory there is a set of basis states out of which
arbitrary states can be constructed by linear superposition. Thus
ti1 = ) a 0 is another vector, so that the ray { X^1 } corresponds
a £_, n n ; <x
n •
to another possible state of the systems, if the rays \\ip t , n = 1, 2 . . .
describe physical s t a t e s . Note that 0* - \ a 0 and X01 represent
Z a (X 0 ) is a
ot / ,
H
n n cc
-1-
!• 3 Supers election rules
In general, there are limitations on the superposition principle.
One cannot form pure states out of the superposition of certain states;
for example, one cannot form a pure state consisting of a positively
and a negatively charged particle, or a pure state consisting of a
fermion and a boson. This does not mean that two such states cannot
interact t it only means that their formal linear combination is not
a realizable pure state. The existence of superselection rules is
connected with the measurability of the relative phase of such a
superposition and depends on further properties of the system, like
charge, baryon number, etc. The superselection rule on fermions
(i. e., separation of states of integral and half integral fermions)
follows from the rotational invariance [ see Sec. 1.13 ] . In such a
case one divides the Hilbert space % into subsets, such that the
superposition principle holds within each subset. These subsets are
called "coherent subspaces". In each subspace, ) an i)
n and
y L> ^
Z a th correspond to the same state, but ) a ih and ) an1 \bn ,
n*n * •
in general, correspond to distinct states.
/_, n^n Z_J
1. 4 Probability interpretation
The physical experiments consist in preparing definite states,
in letting them interact and in observing the rate of occurrence of
other well-defined states. The transition probability between two
states is defined by |(^, if>)\ (we can also say the transition
probability between two rays ¥ and $ because this quantity is the
same for all vectors of the rays). If 0and $ are themselves linear
combinations of some basis vectors, then the phase problem is inside
these quantities. This quantity can be related, by multiplying it with
certain kinematical factors, to the observed quantities like cross-
*)
sections and lifetimes .
-2-
1. 5 The dynamical problem
Now in order to evaluate quantities like | {ip, 0) | we must
have a definite realization of the Hilbert space %• , and must obtain a
number that can be compared with experiment, i. e., a definite
labelling of the states ip, <!> . . . and a definite expression for the
scalar product. We shall refer to this realization as the concrete
Hilbert space. This is the more important and the more difficult
part of the theory. Although all Hilbert spaces of the same dimension
are isomorphic and one can transform one realization into another,
some definite explicit realization with a physical correspondence is
necessary.
-3-
1. 6 Equivalent descriptions
First of all, as in any correspondence, let us deal with the
equivalent mappings between the physical states and the rays in
Hilbert space. For the knowledge of physically equivalent descriptions
of a system reflects already, as we shall see, important properties of
the system.
One or the other case occurs for a given situation. Whether the
transformation is unitary or anti-unitary depends on further properties
of the two equivalent descriptions of the system. It does not depend,
however, on the choice of vectors ^, <p, . . . from the rays: if the
-4-
transformation is, for example, unitary for a choice ^,,<p , . . .
there is no other choice Xip , A'cp , . . . such that it becomes anti-
unitary and vice_versa_. [ E. P. Wigner, J. Math. Phys. _1, 409, 414
(I960)]. Furthermore, once a vector tyn is chosen, the others,
<po, X , . . . are uniquely determined from the requirement that the
correspondence is unitary (or anti-unitary).
1. 7 Symmetry transformations
The description of the symmetry properties of the system in the
standard sense belongs to the situation characterized by the above
theorem. For, if under a symmetry transformation in the "physical
space" the physical states are unchanged, we obtain automatically
two equivalent descriptions in dv, one corresponding to the
original and the other to the transformed frames and these two
descriptions must be related to each other by unitary {or anti-unitary)
transformations. Conversely, and this is more important from our
point of view, the Hilbert space of states must be isomorphic to the
carrier space oT unitary (or anti-unitary) representations of the
symmetry transformations (they may form a group-or an algebra,
etc.), Note that we wish to obtain a concrete Hilbert space to calculate
transition probabilities. Thus, if we know the symmetry transformations
of the system we can start from an arbitrary collection of irreducible
unitary (or anti-unitary) representation spaces of the symmetry
rr,
1. 8 Uniqueness of operators
We have said that the vectors from the rays of two equivalent
descriptions can be so chosen that the mapping of vectors if/. <—> \fj^
is either unitary, or anti-unitary. There is one other important
phase problem in quantum theory and this concerns the uniqueness of
the unitary (or anti-unitary) correspondence ^.
-5-
1. 9 Ray representations
If there are two equivalent descriptions with rays ¥,,<!>, . . .
and T , $ , . . . , respectively, corresponding to the same states as
seen by the two different descriptions (passive view) or with rays
¥•,*$,, . . . corresponding to states la } in the first description and
to the transformed states {Ts,} in the second description (active view),
then we know that we can choose vectors \p c ¥ , . . . \Jj e Y .. .
such that
= U = U
^2 T ^1 ' ^2 T Vl' ' " ' ^
(2)
S = s2 (3)
_ rt
of I, i. e., C = TST" S"1 = I, then VQ = w(T, S) I, and u(T, S) is a
characteristic of the coherent subspace only, i. e. , has a unique value
in each coherent subspace. If U and IL are members of the same one-
parametric subgroup then(j(T,S) = 1.
-8-
The rotation "by 2Tr in this discussion can also be replaced
"by the commutator of two rotations "by IT about axes perpendicular to
each other*-*. These two operators commute and their commutator is
independent of the normalization of these operators. One again
1 1
finds, taking D Q = ^(n.^) D(n2Tr) D ^ n ) " D^ir)"" (n = (n^^i ) . unit
vector), that D^ - (-l)2^. Thus DQ is represented by a phase factor
whose value depends on the coherent subsp'ace (see Seel .12).
G.C. Hegerfeldt, K. Kraus and E.P, Wigner, J. Math. Phys.j), 2029 (1968).
-9-
Example 3 - Superselection rules for gauge groups
One can form, instead of pure states, mixed states out of vectors
*)
from different coherent subspaces. But this will not interest us here <
-10-
Very similar considerations apply to other group extensions,
e
»g«» ^7 charge conjugation.
*) This result, proved here group theoretically, has been the subject of
many recent papers where it was proved either from the assumption of
local field theories (P* Carruthers, Phys. Rev, Letters l£, 353 (1967)),
or from analyticity (crossing), (H, Lee, Phys. Rev. Letters 18, 109-8
(1967)). A proof similar to ours but using OPT was given, B. 2umino
and D. Zwanziger, Phys. Rev. I64, 1959 (1967).
-11-
The answer is yes, if we know the properties of a physical quantity
as a particular tensor operator (see definition in Appendix IV) with
respect to the symmetry group. In that case, partial information
relating to the dependence of the matrix elements on the states can
be derived from the commutation relations of tensor operators
(eq. A. IV. 45 ), In ordinary quantum mechanics the concept of
symmetry is used in the narrow sense to mean the symmetry of the
Hamiltonian. The corresponding group is the group of degeneracy
of the energy. One then introduces an additional physical postulate,
the socalled "irreducibility postulate" which says that each eigen-
space of the energy is an irreducible carrier space of the maximal
symmetry group. Only then can one relate properties of states
within each multiplet of G. We can see that the "dynamical group"
approach explains this "postulate" rather naturally (see the remark
in Sec. 1.13 after Ex. 1).
-12-
2. QUANTUM DYNAMICS
-13-
Consider the rotational invariance and the concrete Hilbert
space (CHS) resulting from the irreducible representations of the
rotation group.
Definition: A j-rotator is a system whose states belong to the
irreducible D -representation of the rotation group. The Hilbert
space is (2j + l)-dimensional and a basis is labelled by jj;m)> ,
j = fixed [Appendix IV] .
Z
by the states |(p, ip, ...
Z_j
ip ] m y a r e arbitrary states, the description of the system
I and by the states j DJqj, D ip, . . . 1
rn
are
equivalent:
(Dj<p,D3<&) = (qj.D
m
-14-
••v, >*• ••
External interactions allow us to observe the change of the
state in such a system. When these are small enough not to form
new systems (i.e., interactions which do not "break" the rotator ),
they can be represented by operators acting on the carrier space of
D . The simplest interaction is one which just rotates the rotator,
in which case this active point of view is equivalent to a passive
point of view of a rotation of the co-ordinate frame. The effect of
an external interaction will be represented by the "interaction
vertex"
Interaction J
M = <m1).j|m>- (2.1)
-15-
More generally, the interaction vertex may be described by a
tensor operator (A. IV. 11) so that
M- (2.3)
M - g
-16-
2. 2 Elementary systems
if • M
M = <FjOr'jJ]p;cr> - <>'|e J e*
Here m and j are fixed on both sides (hence the label § inside the
state vectors is not necessary in this case). Again J can be a scalar
or a general tensor operator.
-18-
i-t
2. 3 The generalized concept of symmetry
-19-
they lead to an inequivalent description. But for the combined system
they can be considered as symmetries, in the sense that one obtains
from one possible state of the system another possible state of the
system, corresponding,in general, even to a different total mass and
spin. It follows from our definition of elementary particles in the
previous section that the systems admitting these more general
transformations cannot be elementary. This is also intuitively clear
from the existence of new quantum numbers corresponding to internal
degrees of freedom.
-20-
are only 2(2j + 1) distinct basis states out of which all other states
can be constructed. In fact the dynamical group idea suggests
that, in the rest frame of the system, the dynamical transformations
on the system form a relatively simple group.
*>
That the symmetnesof general relativity are of dynamical nature is
also the conclusion of Cartan, Fock and Wigner, see
K.M. F. Houtappel, H. van Dam and E. P. Wigner, Rev. Mod. Phys.
37, 595 (1965) for a very detailed discussion of geometrical symmetries
and for other references. See also A.O. Barut and A. B6*hm, Phys.
Rev. 139. B1107 (1965).
-21-
2. 6 Complete and approximate geometrization of dynamics
M = <1|J]2> ;
in particular we expect J = 1.
H H + H
- 0 l+H2 '
M '
-22-
2. 7 The concept of "interaction" versus global point of view in
relativistic theories
-23-
2.8. Survey of further chapters
-24-
APPENDIX I
WIGNER'S THEOREM ^
Let the rays tjr , $.. , . . . represent the states of the system in
one description and "(jr , $ 0 , . . . represent the same states in the second
description.
b'cp2
-25-
b
y b'<P9 • Hence
<p,) = Uf + U<p.
U(a
/l
Now we form
a ,+a
cp
and
These two numbers must be equal. This plus the fact that l a ' I = I a |
• (p ' ' cp'
allows us to calculate a1 in terms of a and a, . One obtains two
cp cp 0
solutions:
I1 n
and i1 = a*
<P cp cp
Clearly for the first solution U is linear and unitary. For the
second solution we find Uf. = a ,/a* [a* IM, + a*Ucp.. + . . . 1. An over-
1 if/ if/ if/ 1 ( p i
-26-
MWitf ;)"U* I
APPENDIX II
COVERING GROUP, PROJECTIVE AND RAY REPRESENTATIONS,
GROUP EXTENSION
Ray representations:
It is easy to see by taking very simple examples that (A. II. 3) even
up to equivalence(pLLI.2) does not uniquely determine the phases ufx, y)
so that we have, in general, a number of new inequivalent ray represent-
ations for a given group G , besides its vector representations.
Protective representations:
-27-
co-ordinate frame. A ray can be represented by the quantities
v. = v./v , for clearly all vectors in the ray £Xv} induce the same
v where v is any component singled out. By choosing a special
vector v with v1 = 1 we see that the transformations induced on v
by D are
V' = v
I 1
oil
=
^i N [ Z DiK(x)^K + D i l ] ' i " 2, 3. . . . (A. II. 4)
-28-
X
V 1 V 2) = (U W(X X )W
1 1 2 2' X 1 X 2 ) " (A
*IL 5)
-29-
APPENDIX III
WHEN UNITARY AND WHEN ANTI-UNITARY OPERATORS?
We have seen that the anti-unitary case cannot occur if the sym-
metry transformations are continuously connected to the identity {see Sec.
1.12). One can also see that the invariance of a state which is a super-
position of two stationary states with different energies at time t also
•4
eliminates the anti-unitary case. For then the operator corresponding
to the second solution denoted by A would give
E E E E
J = e
whereas the correct solution of the Schrodinger equation is
E E
l 2
e A^ + e Acp . On the other hand, for the "reversal of
the direction of motion" (time reversal), the stationary states 0(t) and
E E
-l n n t
- i —"
t
e (p and \ e
n
n n
This last state muHt be (by time reversal invariance) at the same time
.E. .E.
1 -1
e -h O ft
iL = ) e i> •
n n
n /_, n
Thus, here only the second solution is correct.
*)' E . P . Wigner, Group Theory (Acad. Press, NY, 1959) Appx. 20.
-30-
APPENDIX IV
-31-
Hence [I., I.] = 6... I, .
n
r = R(n0)r , R(f*0) = e , (A. IV. 3)
In components, writing
we get
R k ^ = cos0 6k^ + (1 -cos0) n V - sin0 £ k ^ j n j . (A. IV. 5)
One can verify that R R = I or R R = 5 ; using the identities
ttjlt H
R(n\0) = R ^ e j R ^ e j ,
fl 1 9 1 9
cos
cos- = cos-y ~^" " " i ' " 2 Sin~2~ Sin
~2~
(A. IV. 6)
-32-
, ? = f i s i n | , 0 ^ 0 4pr (A.IV. 7)
3 =«< 2
o <y o
i - j =k =-1 , i j = - j i = k ( c y c l i c ) ; aQ, a^ j
(A. IV. 8)
then the group law becomes
group.
-33-
3, Passage to the 2-dimensional double-valued representation
h
±U = (^ \ , |a|2+|b|2 =l (A. IV. l l a )
9 . . 6 , . . v . 9
a = cos-ii - i n O
s i n - , b - (- i n - n ) s i n - . (A. IV. l i b )
Z X £, £i
a = ei(*+ ^ 2
cosf , b=e*~v)!2si4 . (A. IV. 12a)
2 + -1
<r. = 1 , t r c = 0 , tr. = or. = or. , <r x a = 2i a or
X 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ —
CT.CT. = 5 . . + i £. or,
l j 13 ljk k
(a*cr)(b*<7) = ( a « b ) + i ( a x b ) ' t r
Z k
( a , ) . (or, ) . = 2 6 , 6 U
kab k c d
- 6 ^ 6 ,
a d be a b c d
-34-
Then
>/2
0
0 e" iy/2
Thus
-35-
I 4.
again, are multiples of unitary matrices. Hence X = UXU is also
hermitian and traceless and consequently must be of the form
1
'i ' 2 12
X =r a. . Because det X = det X , we find r = r , i. e. , the
induced transformation on the space of r is an orthogonal transform-
ation. Writing r = R« r ^ one obtains from JC = UXU+
io
(c) e v U—>R(U)
(d) det R = +1 . *)
From (a) - (d) we see that we have a homomorphism between U(2)
and SO(3) ( reflections cannot be obtained by this homomorphism), i. e . ,
a single-valued map from U(2) onto SO(3) that preserves the multi-
plication . The elements of U(2) mapped into the identity element of
SO(3) a r e of the form U = e • (kernel of the automorphism). We can
write U = e 1 ^ V , det V = +1 , V € SU(2). We have then the homo-
morphism + V—>R(V) . The kernel of this homomorphism is the
discrete abelian subgroup CL = {I, -i} of SU(2). Thus there a r e the
following isomorphisms (one-to-one homomorphic maps):
6... det R = € R R . R
i]k i m n tx mj nX
Insert this into (A.IV.15) and use the identity
imn m n . r / r 1 s. ~\
f u M iwa * o - a* 6 A
ab cd ad be cb ad
to obtain £.„ det R = € . Hence det R = +1
-36-
(A. IV, 17)
Tr R * | trier. U o\ U + ]
= t r U t r U+ -1 = (tr U) 2 -1 .
a. R.. a. - 2 U t r U + - I .
I + cr. R.. a.
1
U=+i ^ ,3 . (A. IV. 18)
2
4 tr R+ I
Now we come back to the quantum mechanical ray representations.
F o r the three-dimensional representation we had found the group law
-37-
presentation (A. IV. 11) we can have
which is, in this case, that of a direct product. Thus all ray represent-
then
ationsof SO(3) are vector representations of SU(2) which is/the quantum
mechanical rotation group.
r r r
l 2 0'r3 r
0"r3 °
1'"2
Let r1 = R r , then z ! = x1 + iy 1 ~ 2r_ = f(z) . One obtains
r
0 3
precisely
of z1 = acz
Z
, a. , ad - be f 0 which is isomorphic to SL(2,C)] .
+
-38-
. _ - . J. vU— . . - . , ' 1 -
6, Spinor calculus
b
U | bI,2. (A. IV. 23)
+-1 * T-l
Together with U = U also U = U is a representation; but these
two representations are equivalent (in the two-dimensional case) because
(inner automorphism)
= C
5a ab5b :
«a = C - X a b | b . (A. IV. 26)
Consequently
In the case of the SU(2) a lower dotted index is the same as an upper
undotted one. For SL(2, C) it is different .
-39-
Quite generally, for any SU(n), higher order spinors are obtained
from the direct products of f . For example, the bases in the spinor
EL , ,
13
= T?' uffT b ' = 7 T 3
• (A.IV.28)
^ a a b1 a' ^ a
ab
Thus tensors T.. ' ' ° with symmetric and antisymmetric indices are
1J • . »
tensors of lower dimensions, so is the contracted tensor
T . * ' " = S, * . A tensor antisymmetric in two lower (upper) indices
aj.. . J. • .
transforms like a tensor with these two indices replaced by an upper
(lower) index.
(1°) E2 = I , E" 1 = E , E T = E
n n n n n
(2 ) E^ n - -n
(3°) If m- it = 0 , then E^ m = in
-40-
This is the most important property. It shows that reflection
through any arbitrary plane can be obtained from the reflection through
rf and rotations. Hence, det E - det E = -1 .
(6°) t r E n = ti
<?O) E ? = 2C? II
£l \ * • ' 1 ) *1 " 2(? n
' 2) S + 4 ?
( -n 2 ) ( i ? 2*"l ) *1
[(n-n) = +1]
det (E E ) = +1 .
= 0 if n" • n*o = 0 , or if n* = if .
1 It O
-41-
7.2 Structure of O(3)
E R E~* = R El 1 E = R1 = FR
n n Kn n
2
and F is an automorphism of SO(3). F = I.
R ER
R R ER
ER ER R
PRP" 1 = R
-42-
7. 3 Is there a two-dimensional representation of O(3)?
'u(0) 0\ /o 1
D(e) = 1 1 D(P) =
0 U(0) / \ 1 0
> D(P) =
0 DS{-0) /
P =
= + i J
[J.,JJ £ijk k • (A. IV. 32a)
-43-
R(n0) = e is generated by 3 x 3 matrices with the same commutation
relations.
or
lL
ij'V" L ji, • (A. IV. 32b)
The commutation relations (A. IV. 32) are valid for every represent-
ation of the group. The elements L.. are said to generate a Lie algebra.
The Lie algebra is most conveniently defined in terms of one-parameter
subgroups.
we obtain
where
The two Lie algebras generated by fL.l and {L.*^ are isomorphic.
1 1
k
There is even a change of basis for which the structure constants C..
1
k *'
are invariant (i. e., C . are isotropic tensors):
-44-
S; = 67 + a C j . (S )T = 6, - a C . . (A. IV. 35)
Then
=C , by Jacobi-identity:
w h i c h follows from
i i k i
S = 6! + 6 n C .
ii ki
and coincides exactly with the infinitesimal rotation (A. IV. 5). Thus,
under rotations (in the Lie algebra space) the structure constants are
invariant.
JT f 1. T ' . <,j r
Then
JW.,1^.} A'1 = c ! Jk
<fL,k 'if"1 . (A.IV.38)
1 3 13
In particular, all transfer mations A which leave the structure con-
stants invariant form a group which is isomorphic to the original group.
Similarly, all S. which leave the structure constants invariant form an
r x r matrix group. In fact we shall show that for every group element
x there corresponds an S.
-45-
S.(x) : r-dimensional adjoint representation of G
This is of the form (A. IV. 38) with D(a) —«• A . Eq. (A. IV. 40), i. e.,
§• = a ? a , provides an r-dimensional representation of the group in
the space spanned by §. (or L.) , it is called the adjoint representation;
-46-
In terms of a matrix representation and with a definite base L.
we have
Ad(L.) L. = [L., L.] = Ck. L . (A. IV. 42b)
1 K
3 ! 3. !J
i. e . , Ad(L.) is represented by the "left-multiplication" in the Lie
1
k
product sense. In the basis L. the matrix C,... represents L. .
3 (1)3 1
In wother form, from L - D(a) L D(a) we get infinitesimally
= (I + Ad(L )) L
a
and this is precisely the S that we had introduced in eq. (A. IV. 33).
When applied to the two- and three-dimensional representations of
SO(3)*U(2) , eq. (A. IV. 41b) implies the relations
-1 •*)
D J. D =R J ' (holds also for parity)
(A. IV. 43)
U tr. U = R, . cr,
l ki k
From J one can form tensors J. J, , etc. and their linear com-
l l k
binations T.. , etc. These tensors have the transformation property
^In fact the commutation rules for J^ can be obtained from this
equation. -47-
J f (u) d/u(u) = J f(gu) cl/i(u) I u e G/K , g e G . (A. IV. 50)
-50-
j . m1 >
m1
and
, (A.IV.52a)
Hence
Thus
rf
I ^«P) CA.IV.52b)
D
l o ( W f l ' ) = ((UTT)) ^ m <«-") • (A.IV. 52c)
J
±= < J i ±iJ 2> y r
[J±,J3J = T J± ; £J+J_1 = Jg • (A. IV. 53)
-51-
The J_J m ^> = (m -1) J m a x ^ . Hence ( J i m ) ) is an
3 - I max' max - ' ' - I max'
J m )> = h m -1 ^ / e i g e n v e c t o r of Zn with the eigenvalue
v - I maxx - I max J 3 s
v
vr-——— -""^
(m -1): repeating this p r o c e s s we find (J ) | m y=a\m -r^
max ' r &
- I max' I max '
2 2 2
Now J = J J, + J_33 "+ Jn33, hence J m m a x ')> = m max (m max -1)
Jm )>,. The eigenvalues of J must be r e a l and non-negative:
= m (m +1) m
max max max
or,
= n
m —
max 2
Now from <( jmj [ J , J_] | jm.)> = m, we can determine all the matrix
+
elements
< j m | J 3 | j m ' > = m'
The expressions
**)
satisfy the commutation relations of the Lie algebra of 0(3) . Here
*) 2
F o r the same reason m (m +l)-r is also real aid non-negative.
6
max' max
In differential form X^ ^ ^
-52-
[a. , a* ] -6... We consider the following basis in the Hilbert space:
. m> E Nj a / + m a* ^ m
| 0> . (A. IV. 56a)
2
It i s c l e a r t h a t J | $, m)> = m j # m > a n d J J ^ m ) > = 0(0+1) | 0, m )>>
by direct computation. Also J, | 0> $y - 0, J | 0, -^^> ~ 0. From
(J ) = J one obtains the matrix normalization
_ fa $\ -1 . ftf-P \
u u
- y a) > - U -J '
Consider the basis functions (A. IV. 56 and A. IV. 57)
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Im1
• m-ra 1
N' / pp \N'
m1
Thus
j m>m' j |
m-m1
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-m-m' * m-m1
m'm [_ ($-m)l (<p+m')i J (m-ni 1 )! 2
2f
x F(-<£-m', 1+^-m1 ; m-m' + 1 ; sin f) ;
m'-m
(cos
)I (0-m'j: J 2} ( s m
13. Functions and integrals over the group space - harmonic analysis.
-55-
invariant if / f(yx)dju(x) = / f(x)dju(x). F o r compact groups there
f(6)n (0) d 0
n
= i(6)n (0) dnn 0 (A. IV. 60)
9h. 90.
I
»'. - 80-. 301'
J
and
-1.
90. 90'.
"i l
J
9<P
j k
Thus
M*> &
The last two equalities follow because the equation is true for arbitrary
d',9t(p . Hence u(6) = N ||r7j|| and N can be so chosen that
f
G^
Let us apply this for the rotation group. All rotations by a
fixed angle 0' around any axis form a conjugate class. In group space
this is a sphere of radius 0'. The invariant measure has the same value
of this sphere, thus depends only on a single variable 0' (u{6) is a
class function). The combination of two rotations (01, 0, 0) •, (0* Q1' 9')
± A o
= {By 0g, 0 J gives infinitesimally the equations
-56-
$1 = 8' + 0^
6 M
2 ' V 2 si
1_ r, \
„ fi
2 2J
2 sine-
Hence, for fixed $',
M
30" 2(1 - cos0')
From
1 (1 - COS0)
(A. IV. 61)
. 2 J.
-L 6. 6. ifDS^DS'
n llm
m jn
(A. IV. 62)
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where n is the dimension of the representation. For our rotation
matrices, in particular,
i'*
/ 2J mm' nn'
(A.I V. 63)
The functions D..(x) form therefore an orthonormal basis (up to
normalization factor) for the square integrable functions f (x) over
the group. Thus we can expand
m n
Dj (x)
mn
j m, n=l
whe re
(A. IV. 64)
Ln • "i f * « "x) D L ( X )
Then
mn
G m, n
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(d) = J e"1111" = ° l l l l j ; 2 '~ . (A. IV. 66)
m = -j
-59-