Abstract:

Information Communication and Technology (ICT) has revolutionized the way we undertake
our day to day activities ranging from simple communication to tasks automation like
robotics and aviation. It is clear to say the world has transformed from an isolated entity to a
global village with the evolution of ICT as a whole.

With the advancement of Embedded systems since conception from as early as the 1960s
with Integrated circuits (ICs), computing has found means to make far-reaching changes in
day to day human operations. Internet of Things has borrowed largely the concept of
Embedded systems, and has enabled integration of hardware sensors, controlling software,
analytics dashboards and communication networks to form an end-to-end Network of
Networks.

Traditional manual meter reading has come under criticism due to the inefficiency of the
entire process ranging from traditional meters, manual meter reading process, inaccurate and
inconsistent billing, lost meter bills and inability to track water usage.

This project will focus on the implementation of Smart Meters, specifically focusing on
Automated Meter Reading (AMR) for water supply and billing. Focus will be on both the
process automation and security challenges. The automation process underscores the current
modus operandi, available technologies in the market and provision of a working framework
for AMRs in Kenya. Security wise, nonetheless, this paper highlights the security challenges
encountered and anticipated and proposes a workaround on how to curb this challenge. To
tackle both process automation, ethical and security challenges provided by smart meters,
technical and evaluation frameworks need to be developed cutting across all the three areas
of interest.

The purpose of the study is to analyze and develop an Evaluation Framework on the adoption
of Smart Meters and Automated Meter Readings for Kiambu Water & Sewerage Company
Limited, and to recommend an Implementation framework for Smart Water implementation
Three case studies will be analyzed in focus on the success and failure of Smart Meters
implementation globally and locally. Data collected in this research will be done using
questionnaires. The questionnaires will be administered online using paper questionnaire in
two levels; the first one to the Water Service Provider (WSP) staff at Kiambu Water &
Sewerage Company Limited. The second questionnaires will be submitted to the water
consumers from the WSP. This data will be analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS) and later documented in statistical graphs, pie charts, images and tables and
later analyzed to draw a recommended evaluation framework.

ii
Table of Contents
STUDENT’S DECLARATION.............................................................................................iii
Abstract:..................................................................................................................................iv
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Background of the Problem..........................................................................................1
1.3 Statement of the Problem..............................................................................................3
1.4 Purpose of the Study......................................................................................................5
1.5 Specific objectives are of the study...............................................................................5
1.6 Aim of the Study.............................................................................................................6
1.7 Scope of the Study..........................................................................................................6
1.8 Significance of the Study...............................................................................................6
1.8 Definition of terms.........................................................................................................8
1.9 Chapter Summary..........................................................................................................9
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................10
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................10
2.2 Theoretical Foundation: Traditional Water Meters.................................................10
2.2.1 Introduction to water meters................................................................................10
2.2.2 Types of flows.........................................................................................................12
2.3 Traditional metering in operation..............................................................................12
2.3.1 Types of meters......................................................................................................12
2.3.2 Recommendation for Selection.............................................................................15
2.3.3 Traditional water billing.......................................................................................15
2.3.4 Challenges of manual water reading and billing................................................16
2.4 Introduction to Smart Devices....................................................................................18
2.4.1 Embedded Systems................................................................................................18
2.4.2 Internet of Things (IoT)........................................................................................19
2.4.3 Smart Meters.........................................................................................................20
2.4.4 Security concerns...................................................................................................23
2.5 Evaluation Framework................................................................................................25
2.5.1 Process Evaluation................................................................................................26
2.5.2 Impact Evaluation.................................................................................................27
2.5.3 Economic Evaluation............................................................................................28

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 2.6 Gaps identified..............................................................................................................29
2.7 Conceptual Framework...............................................................................................30
2.8 Chapter Summary........................................................................................................31
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................32
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................32
3.2 Research Design...........................................................................................................32
3.3 Population and Sampling Design................................................................................33
3.3.1 Population..............................................................................................................33
3.3.2 Sampling Design....................................................................................................33
3.4 Data Collection Instruments.......................................................................................36
3.5 Reliability and validity.................................................................................................36
3.6 Research Procedure.....................................................................................................36
3.7 Ethical Considerations.................................................................................................37
3.8 Data Analysis Methods................................................................................................37
3.9 Chapter Summary........................................................................................................37
CHAPTER FOUR: IMPLEMENTATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN..........................38
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................38
4.2 Analysis.........................................................................................................................38
4.3 Modeling and Design...................................................................................................39
4.3.1 Water Loss.............................................................................................................41
4.3.2 OPEX......................................................................................................................41
4.3.3 Lack of Brand Trust..............................................................................................41
4.3.4 Inaccurate Water Readings..................................................................................41
4.3.5 Revenue leakage....................................................................................................41
4.3.6 Environmental challenges.....................................................................................41
4.4 Testing...........................................................................................................................41
4.5 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................42
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................43
APPENDICES..........................................................................................................................I
APPENDIX 1: Questionnaire to staff.................................................................................I
APPENDIX 2: Questionnaire to Consumers....................................................................V

iv
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the topic introduction. It introduces the problem to be addressed, the
background of the problem, the problem statement, purpose for the study, research questions
and objectives to be addressed, the significance and scope of the study, definition of terms
and the summary of the chapter.

1.2 Background of the Problem

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs highlights that human beings have five levels of needs that need
to be constantly met; Physical survival needs, Physical safety needs, Love and Belonging
needs, Self-esteem needs and self-actualized needs. [ CITATION Mar07 \l 1033 ]
Water is a key resource in the livelihood of humanity, making up to 50-65% of the human
body, thereby rendering a huge part of Physical survival needs. 71% of the earth’s surface is
covered in sea water. Of this 71%, 97.5% is salty water, leaving only 2.5% as fresh water,
sufficient for human consumption.[CITATION UNE \l 1033 ]
In the need of addressing this requirement, people globally have used various approaches to
getting fresh water to their homes, the popular ones being borehole water, rain water tapping
and grid water supply services offered by the county governments and national governments
depending on the constitution and mode of governance.[ CITATION Nat98 \l 1033 ].
Distribution of water can also be undertaken by private firms. Internationally best-selling
water distributors but to name a few include Dasani, owned by Coca-cola, Aquafina owned
by PepsiCo and Poland Spring (Nestle). Locally we have Ole Mara Water Distributors, Sham
Distributors, Mancraft Kenya, Keringet Pure Natural Water and Faridah Glacier Water Shop
but to name a few.[CITATION Inf \l 1033 ]
We have the same services, offered by the public government, with a different system of
operation. In the public sector, water is distributed directly to houses via a grid system. The
modus operandi of the public government citizen supply system normally involves the
installation of taps and postpaid meters at the client premise, after piping off the main grid
has been done, and a periodic (monthly) meter reading to calculate utilization. [ CITATION
Wat \l 1033 ].

1
In Singapore, for example, concerns have been raised over the high ratio of water loss i.e. the
ratio between the water entering and water leaving the storage systems, quality of drinking
water and the system operation inefficiency [ CITATION Mic12 \l 1033 ].
This periodic manual meter reading is done by the water management team field agents, sent
to specific sites for manual data acquisition, after which it is propagated to the billing system
for bill calculation. The bill is then dispatched to the meter owners for payment[CITATION
Wat \l 1033 ].
Automation can be defined as the use of technology to reduce and eliminate human
interaction in end to end production. Automation has continuously evolved since 1984.
Originally introduces as a case of “Transactions on Robotics (T-RO)” and “Transactions on
Automation Science and Engineering (T-ASE)”, automation has geared towards the base in
manufacturing. We have seen increased development in different fields such as Healthcare,
Transport, Agriculture and Energy. This involves the programming and delegation of
repetitive tasks to mechanical systems. [ CITATION GOL15 \l 1033 ].
Automation has advanced further to encompass Embedded Systems. With today’s fast
changing world, automation of manual processes holds key to development of a firm and
services offered.
Developments in Smart Devices has seen the introduction of smart meters globally, including
gas and electricity meters. Intelligent metering can be defined as the advanced technology
deployed to capture and monitor water usage. This highlights two main topics of reference,
capturing of water usage and information communication that is involved in data transit as
the capture happens [CITATION Boy13 \l 1033 ].
Smart water meters propose two key benefits instantly achieved; it helps each individual
household keep a track and control of water usage and undoes the common trend of using the
same water bill for different households. [ CITATION Mic12 \l 1033 ].

An introduction of smart meters in Bengaluru, India, back in 2014, has seen the evolution of
the water usage and tracking. While rationing was the main method of water supply control,
the introduction of Smart Meters has seen continuous water supply, reduced water wastage
and reduced water consumption. India Times reports that there has been up to 50% reduction
in consumption attributed to the tracking of water wastage homes [ CITATION Raj18 \l 1033
].

2
Africa as a continent has also seen advancement of technology with increased Machine-to-
Machine (M2M) communication. This technology involves communication between
computers, processors embedded to devices, smart sensors, actuators and mobile devices, via
a communication network, without human intervention. M2M has four main principles in
operation; Data collection, data transmission through a network, data assessment and
response to the availed information.[CITATION Gal \l 1033 ].

The key features in Machine to Machine (M2M) communication include low mobility –
Devices move less frequently or do not move at all, devices are time tolerant and data
transfer can be delayed, the devices are low power consumption, the devices are controlled
with location specific triggers such as waking up the device and the devices are monitored
against theft and vandalism by sensors. [CITATION GSM14 \l 1033 ]

Systems implementing M2M communication have been implemented to aid in smart solar
power distribution such as M-KOPA Solar. They work by distributing power to remote areas,
in a GSM based mobile sim card devices that control power to consumers based on Mobile
payments (M-PESA) [CITATION MKO \l 1033 ].

A proposed introduction of Smart water billing system in Kenya by Davis & Shirtliff in 2018
failed to hit the expectation of customers. This proposal involved the payment of water bills
via credits from a vendor or via mobile money, which are then used to confer water at
designated Aqtap dispensers[ CITATION BTC18 \l 1033 ]. The mail failure of this was that
it was still unable to guide customers on their utilization, relay usage to the Water service
providers (WSP) and report on water trends.

The main question is, how will this manual process be improved by automation?

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Since the establishment of Kiambu Water & Sewerage Company Ltd (KWCL) that was
introduced under the Companies Act (Cap. 486), Kiambu residents have filed large
complaints in relation to water bill management.

A recent increase in complains has led to an alarm in the sector. This has been mainly
attributed to the manual process of water meter reading and billing offered by the field and
the financial agents, and old meters (non-smart) that are still in operation. Various other

3
reasons have been cited in relation to high water bills such as “Showering with water
running” and “regular tariffs revision” [CITATION LIL16 \l 1033 ].

Water loss has been observed as a challenge of manual meter reading and lack of
accountability. Lack of intelligent meters has revealed great water leaks in relation to meter
adjustment and physical altering of meter readings.[ CITATION BTC18 \l 1033 ]

Financial challenges incurred during this process has led to catastrophically high losses, both
to individuals paying inconsistent amounts of bills, and water companies who also allege loss
through unpaid water bills.

In Kenya, Kiambu area to be specific, manual reading of water bills has come under constant
criticism in terms of Bills approximation, overcharge, meter destruction and rogue field
officers.[CITATION LIL16 \l 1033 ]

When doing monthly meter readings, an agent is dispatched to specific meter sites, to record
current readings, on paper. This reading is then taken back to the main station where data is
pulled into the billing system and a bill is calculated basing on the deviation between the
current meter reading to the previous reading, multiplied by the water bill rate per unit.
[ CITATION Wat \l 1033 ]

The danger exposed by this has been inaccurate readings of the meters, thereby leading to
erroneous data being used to calculate billing information. Getting accurate and timely
readings is threatened by this process. Statistical data also proves to be a challenged since a
single incorrect entry affects a mirage of continuous data henceforth since error point.

From an operational point of view, manual meter reading as a non-efficient, rigid and non-
environmental operation, contrary to our focus on Environmental conservation. Carbon
dioxide gas from fuel fumes of cars and/or motorbikes used pose a threat to the environment.
[ CITATION Har19 \l 1033 ]

This also leads to increased Operational Expense (OPEX) as fuel consumption, salary to field
agents and office agents, a cost that can be curbed by automation of the meter reading.

The lack of tracking of water bills and usage has led to numerous storms both in the courts
and on social media platforms. A recent storm to social media was brought up by a user who

4
lamented that her September 2016 water bill was Ksh 27,000. “How will we be able to
survive if the cost of water and school fees are the same,” she lamented [CITATION LIL16 \l
1033 ].

To date however, the lack of implementation of the Automated Meter Readers, still causes
distrust in the system among customers.

This research, will therefore review the current solutions developed to automatically process
meter readings and the final denouement will be the recommendation of a working
framework on AMR implementation, that can curb the problem of manual processes, and
introduce automation in the Meter reading sector.

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The aim of this paper is to appreciate smart meters and how they can be implemented to curb
the menace of water bill disputes.

The main purpose of the study is to develop an Evaluation Framework for the
implementation of Smart Meters and Automated Meter Readings for Kiambu Water &
Sewerage Company Limited, and to recommend an Implementation framework for Smart
Water implementation

1.5 Specific objectives are of the study

a) Identifying and defining fault in the current mode of operation in meter reading
b) Documentation of the manual and smart meters technology developed and those
being developed
c) Analysis and documentation of the successful and failed cases of smart meters
globally
d) Analysis of the crucial factors affecting the adaptation of smart water meters
e) Determining what will lead to the success or failure, to recommend a practical smart
meter framework for meter reading for Kiambu Water and Sewerage Company
Limited
f) Recommendation of an implementation strategy of the framework in conjunction with
vision 2030 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

5
1.6 Aim of the Study
Smart meters are an advanced technology for meter reading, analysis and billing based on
live water usage. Despite this being implemented in various advanced states, there is limited
research and implementation in Africa, Kenya to be specific.

The aim of the study is to establish an evaluation and implementation framework that will be
used as a reference for the implementation of smart meters in Kiambu Water. This will also
be replicated to other Water Service Providers, and as a result provide a guide to the
automation of water management and service process.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study will be conducted in Kiambu county. The focus will be on Kiambu Water &
Sewerage Company Limited and its consumers. The research will be conducted in
approximately 3 months. The first month will be to collect feedback on the current mode of
operation and analyze the challenges in the processes. The second month will be to collect
feedback on consumer and staff thoughts on the automated meter reading, sighting the
process, advantages and challenges expected, and analysis on feedback. The third month will
be to develop an evaluation framework and recommend a working implementation
framework.

1.8 Significance of the Study

This study aims at dissecting the manual meter operation mode, understanding the challenges
and appreciating technology evolution with smart meters.
The findings of this study will appreciate the society in readiness for technology
appreciation. There is greater increase in demand for automation of repetitive tasks,
elimination of human intervention in specific aspects of manufacturing and processes, and
improved accuracy in billing services. Thus, companies offering services through automated
and accurate systems, are already a technology above those that base on manual modes of
operation.
This research will help uncover areas that are still lagging behind in water services
automation and as such propose a valid framework that can be used to cover these barriers.
The result of this study will be of great benefit to the following:

6
 i. Water Service Providers – WSPs will be able to monitor and track their specific
assets including water meters and the water cycle flow, preventing theft, water
leakage and waste and incorrect billing. Data gathered in this study will help the
WSPs to understand their revenue leakage, effects of manual meter reading
effects of carbon emission to the environment.
ii. Water Consumers – customers will be able to monitor their water utilization.
This will guide the water use and anticipate water bills. In this automated process,
customers will also be able to track monthly usage vis-à-vis the bill incurred and
have an accurate trend analysis.
iii. The County and National Governments – the implementation of smart meters
is in alignment with Vision 2030 goal of industrialization and automation. This
will lead to improved revenue streams for the government, money which can be
used in infrastructure development. Accurate automated bill clearing will also
guide the governments in tracking assets such as tax compliance.
iv. The Universal Environment – this study aims to arrive at a pure green non-
carbon emitting mode of operation. With the SDGs 13 – Climate Action, 14 –
Life below water and 15 – Life on Land, this study aims at recommending a
carbon-free mode of monthly data collection, helping in achieving a clean
environment.

In conclusion, this study aims at recommending the best framework for meter installation and
bill reading and close in the gaps of inaccurate billing.

1.8 Definition of terms

AMR – Automatic Meter Reading – this is a technology used to gather data from energy,
gas and water metering devices and transmitting it to a central station for processing of
billing purposes [ CITATION Pal15 \l 1033 ].

7
M2M – Machine-to-Machine - This technology involves communication between
computers, processors embedded to devices, smart sensors, actuators and mobile devices, via
a communication network, without human intervention[CITATION Gal \l 1033 ].
AMI Advanced Metering Infrastructure – An integrated system of smart meters,
communication, mostly telecommunication networks, data management and analysis systems
that offer two-way communication between the customer, utility and Service Provider
[CITATION Sma16 \l 1033 ].
KWCL - Kiambu Water & Sewerage Company Ltd – Kiambu County, Kenya Water
Service Provider.
GSM - Global System for Mobile for communication – A telecommunication technology
that uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to give voice and content over a cell
phone system[ CITATION Iht17 \l 1033 ].
WAN - Wide Area Network – A telecommunication or computer network that spans over a
large geographical area.
Embedded Systems – A computer, surrounded by sensors, actuators and communication
systems
IoT – Internet of Things – the use of intelligently connected devices, systems and
communication networks to grasp data collected by Embedded sensors and systems
[CITATION GSM14 \l 1033 ].
SDG – Sustainable Development Goals – 17 goals created by 193 countries facing a 15-
year future that would eliminate poverty and hunger and evade the worst climatic
conditions[CITATION UND \l 1033 ].
WSP – Water Service Provider – Companies tasked with the responsibility of providing
water to consumers.
OPEX – Operating Expense – costs incurred by a company to run its operations on a daily
basis.
IC – Integrated Circuits – Small circuits integrated into a plastic chip, that regulate the flow
of electric current.
ICT – Information, Communication and Technology – technological means of collecting,
processing and outputting information. It encompasses information acquisition,
communication via a transmission media all covered by a specific technology.

8
1.9 Chapter Summary
This chapter has covered the introduction to smart meters, challenges facing the manual
meter reading including the background of the problem, the problem statement and the
purpose of the study. It has taken the overview on how this challenge has been addressed
globally and has detailed the scope to be covered in this paper. Terms have been defined and
references have been assigned on each concept.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This chapter with cover literature done in relation to Traditional and Smart Meters. It will be
divided to three main sections as below:

9
The first section will introduce traditional water meters, manual meter reading and billing
process and the challenges associated with it.

The second section will cover the different Smart Meter technologies available in the market
and where they have been implemented. This includes the analysis on embedded systems and
the impact of Automation and the security challenges.

The third section will highlight the evaluation frameworks, including the success and the
challenges expected.

2.2 Theoretical Foundation: Traditional Water Meters

2.2.1 Introduction to water meters
Traditional meters are used to measure, record and display water consumption via a specific
meter path.

Water metering begun as early as the Agrarian revolution age. Water became a limited
resource that needed to be shared between irrigation, power generation, industrial use,
domestic use and fish and wildlife uses. This therefore necessitated an invention of better
managing and water distribution. [ CITATION USD01 \l 1033 ].

From as early as 1790, meters needed to be designed to help in both pumping water to
agricultural farms and households, as well as record the water usage for billing purposes.

Early agriculture in Egypt, which started between 5000 and 4000 BC led to an increased
demand for water from River Nile. The occasional flooding by the river led to increased
agriculture and food production. This was also assisted by the fertile soil being transported
by the Nile river. There was no statewide policy on irrigation, but rather a responsibility of
the local farmers. This led to the increased use of water, which necessitated a water
management policy and distribution. [CITATION Jan02 \l 1033 ]

Water meter management was designed as a measure to control water distribution due to
increased demand. Meter reading helps in equitable distribution of the resource as well as a
guide to future improvements on water flow and monitoring. [ CITATION USD01 \l 1033 ]

10
The first documented type of water meters is the “Inferential” turbine type meter invented by
Reinhard Woltman back in 1790. This was later to be evolved to the modern Woltman class
II turbine meter. [ CITATION Jay08 \l 1033 ].

This was later advance to a Positive Displacement (PD) type of meters. This is the concept of
modern piston type of measurement. It works by displacing water. Each stroke of a piston
equaled a volume measure.

Figure 2-1: Woltman Concept of 1790[ CITATION Jay08 \l 1033 ] Figure 2-2: Modern “Woltman”
Class II Turbine [ CITATION Jay08 \l 1033 ]

Figure 2-3: Piston Type Meter of 1885[ CITATION Jay08 \l 1033 ]

2.2.2 Types of flows

Flow is described as the mode and direction water follows from a given source. There are
basically two types of flows:

11
Open flow where the flow is open and unconstrained. The surface is open to the atmosphere,
and there are no limitations. An example of open flow is the path river water follows.

Closed conduit flow is a guarded type of flow. In this flow, the water is controlled to follow a
specific path, and the pipes are usually circular in shape. For closed flow, the water has to be
carried under pressure.

Closed flow rate is affected by the amount of pressure, head difference of the inlet and outlet,
resistance of the flow due to friction and the shape of the conduit[ CITATION USD01 \l
1033 ].

For this writing, we will focus on closed flow, as this is the metered connection.

2.3 Traditional metering in operation

2.3.1 Types of meters
There are four main types of meters used in Kenya, displacement, velocity, ultrasonic, and
electromagnetic meters.

Displacement meters – these base on the water displacement modulus, where the water
passing physically displaces the measuring instrument, in direct proportion to the amount of
water that passes. This piston drives the register and records the displacement size, which
runs as units. This mode of operation is called Positive Displacement. They are suitable for
low to medium water flow rates. Rotor rotational velocity is directly proportional to flow
rate, since the flow of fluid is causing the rotation. [ CITATION Ome \l 1033 ]. the main
advantages of Displacement meters are the Accuracy, Low maintenance, reliability and space
parts availability.

12
Figure 2-4: Positive Displacement Meter [CITATION Zen \l 1033 ]

Velocity Meters – they measure the velocity of the flow through a meter of known internal
capacity. For consumption calculation, the speed of flow is converted to flow volume. They
are mainly used for small flow rates.

Figure 2-5: Velocity Meter [ CITATION Dwy \l 1033 ]

Ultrasonic Meter - Ultrasonic Flow Meters (UFMs) use sound waves to determine flow
velocity. They are placed on top of pipes, and use ultrasonic time difference algorithm to
calculate the flow. They are used for bulk flows.

13
Figure 2-6: QStar Ultrasonic Meter [ CITATION BES \l 1033 ]

Electro-magnetic meter – an advanced meter that measures water flow rate based on its
electromagnetic properties, rather than measuring it mechanically. They are easy to install
and have reduced maintenance cost. They are accurate for low flows as they have high
sensitivity.

Figure 2-7: accuMAG electro-magnetic meter [ CITATION Sen \l 1033 ]

14
 2.3.2 Recommendation for Selection
Due to the availability of different meter types, the main consideration is the purchase of new
and unused meters.

According to ISO 4064-5:2014, the characteristics of water, the volume, flow and pressure
should be considered before selection of a meter. The aspects to consider are:

1. The pressure of water supply

2. The physical and chemical characteristics of the water, including temperature, quality
and water texture.
3. The accepter meter pressure loss.
4. The suitability of the meter, based on the intended mechanical, climatic, electrical and
hydraulic conditions. These include but not limited to humidity, vibrations,
electrostatic discharges, magnetic field and electromagnetic disturbances.
[ CITATION Wat \l 1033 ]

2.3.3 Traditional water billing

The traditional water billing process can be summarized as below:

 An agent is dispatched by the Water Service Provide (WSP) to the meter location site.
The agents commute either via company vehicles or motorbikes to the site.
 The agent then manually reads the current meter reading, and documents it physically
on a piece of paper.
 The readings are taken back to the company for manual keying in and calculation.
 The calculation is then done by comparing the previous units reading and the new
reading. This is then used to calculate the price to pay.
 The bill is then dispatched to the customer by an agent, delivering to the doorstep.
 The consumer then pays the bill manually by visiting the WSP
 If the bill is paid, the process is repeated after the month, or after the billing duration.
 If the bill is not paid, the customer is suspended by manually turning off the water
supply at the meter, by the agent

Number of units consumed = Current reading – Previous reading

Water bill = (Number of units consumed) * charger per unit
15
Figure 2-8: Water billing cycle (Source: Author)

2.3.4 Challenges of manual water reading and billing

Traditional water reading and billing is bound to challenges:

Leakage of revenue – in the manual water reading and billing, some meters can be misread,
unread or ignored. Revenue is leaked through inaccurate reading, faulty metering and
inefficiency of agents. The Word Bank estimates a global Non-revenue water (NRW) is at
roughly 45 million cubic meters, lost daily with an economic value of over US$3 billion per
year [CITATION SOP16 \l 1033 ]

Over billing – manual record management is prone to error or erroneous over quoting. In a
situation where an agent over quotes the current meter reading, the customer has to over pay.
In Bengaluru for example, after the introduction of smart meters, it was observed that the
customers have been paying an excessive of 20% on average [ CITATION Raj18 \l 1033 ].
The same case has been raised locally where Kenyan residents complain of inflated bills and
lack of trust in the metering process [CITATION LIL16 \l 1033 ].

16
High expenditure on OPEX – the manual process involving maintenance costs, physical
asset management and manual agent reading of meters increases the OPEX that would be
saved from automation of the cycle [ CITATION Mwa17 \l 1033 ].

Environmental degradation – Carbon dioxide gas from fuel fumes of cars and/or
motorbikes used pose a threat to the environment. The manual process involves travelling,
thereby affects the environment, increasing degradation. Carbon dioxide emission from
burning fossil fuels reached an all-time high in 2018, a 2.7 percent in 2018, after a 1.6
percent increase in 2017[ CITATION Har19 \l 1033 ]

Increased customer dissatisfaction – customers have reduced confidence in services that

are offered with unclear and inconsistent billing. These happen when a delivery of a service
does not get according to expectation. This can be because of incorrect billing, poor customer
service or poor support. This often leads to customers switching. Complaining or terminating
of services.[ CITATION Zee04 \l 1033 ].

Aging infrastructure – since the water infrastructure has been there for long, they are
subject to aging and low performance. These infrastructures need upgrade, as some are
already at the end-of-life and support. There is an estimation of trillion of dollars in the US,
to perform an upgrade on the already existing equipment [ CITATION Mwa17 \l 1033 ].

Figure 2-9: Behavioral responses to failed service encounters [ CITATION Zee04 \l 1033 ]

17
2.4 Introduction to Smart Devices
2.4.1 Embedded Systems
With the wake in automation and technology growth, embedded systems are key in growth of
the global village.

Embedded systems can be described as a computer, surrounded by subsystems, sensors and

actuators. These systems are made up of micro-computers and micro-controllers, logged
together to perform a specific task [CITATION Wik \l 1033 ].

Components of an embedded system are its hardware, the main application software and a
real time operating system (RTOS).

Embedded system software is a software designed to keep a view of three main constraints:
Available system memory, available processor speed and the need to limit power dissipation.
[CITATION Pro \l 1033 ].

Embedded systems are everywhere. Washing machines, microwave ovens, automobiles and
aircrafts are an example of such systems.

Their distinguishing properties make them unique because of their real-time operations. They
are relatively small in size, cost is relatively low and they operate in real-time.

They are classified as either small scale, medium scale or sophisticated embedded systems.

Small scale embedded systems have a single 8-bit or 16-bit microcontroller. They have very
little hardware and software complexity and they consume very little power.

Medium scale embedded systems have a single or a few 16-bit or 32-bit microcontrollers.
They have a more complex hardware and software. They are programmed with Real time
operating systems and are coded with simulators, debuggers and integrated development
environment (IDE) tools.

Sophisticated, as the name suggests, have enormous hardware and software complexity. They
require scalable processors with programming logic arrays.

18
 2.4.2 Internet of Things (IoT)
The widely used term, IoT, refers to the use of intelligently connected devises, systems and
sensors (embedded systems) to leverage on gathered data. Perfectly working IoT chain
includes data analysis and the ability to interpret and make decisions based on acquire data.
[CITATION GSM14 \l 1033 ]

IoT for enterprises leverages on ability to interpret data and formulate a working trend. This
can be applied in health, agriculture, communication and manufacturing industries.

Machine-to-machine (M2M) communication is a subset of IoT that works on the principle of

using wireless networks to connect devices to each other, and to the internet, with reduced
human interaction. This is evolving and now supports multiple vendors. There is increased
inter-operability between different vendors. [ CITATION GSM14 \l 1033 ].

IoT is an evolution from the normal mobile networks that connects more of laptops and
smartphones. IoT interconnects ‘things. This has been applied in cars, buildings, cameras,
consoles and smart meters. This is the definition of a “Connected Life” [CITATION
GSM14 \l 1033 ].

The uptake of M2M and IoT has massively increased, indicating a change in how we do
things, from a manual way, to a machine oriented more of working.

Figure 2-10: Update of M2M from 2012-2018 ([ CITATION Sta19 \l 1033 ]

19
The socio-economic impact of the connected life in 2017 can be summarized as below:
[CITATION GSM14 \l 1033 ]

a) One million – the total number of lives to be saved in Sun-Sahara Africa by mHealth
over the next five years.
b) One in Nine – the number of lives saved in road accidents over the next five years
due to mobile enabled car-emergency service.
c) A week back every year, given by smart devices.
d) $400billion saved in 2017 in healthcare as a result of mobile healthcare
e) 40 million people, equivalent to Kenyas population, that will be fed annually due to
telematics and prevented food wastage.
f) 190 million children will have access to education due to the invention of
mEducation.

Figure 2-11: Internet of Things industry sector categories [CITATION GSM14 \l 1033 ]

2.4.3 Smart Meters

Information, Communication and Technology (ICT) on its own has been a driver to major
changes in the way we do things. In scenario, the long wait of heading to a supermarket to
check on the prices of items has been remodeled to the concept of online shopping.
[ CITATION Mun13 \l 1033 ]

Smart meters can be defined as connected meters that have been developed to replace
existing manual-operation-mode meters currently in operation. These meters cover three

20
main aspects, Gas, Electricity and Water reading. The functionality of the smart meters
retains the same concept of the old meters, i.e. recording of consumption, only that the smart
meters automatically propagate your readings to the supplier, without having to send a
resource to manually do the readings.[ CITATION Kop08 \l 1033 ]

They provide the metering data, status outputs and alert signals. They are embedded with a
Meter Interfacing Unit (MIU) that store the meter readings and status in the internal memory,
which can be later retrieved by the Data Connection Unit (DCU). This data is then sent back
to the WSP via broadband connection or General packet radio service (GPRS)[CITATION
Ele \l 1033 ].

The AMR consists of two main units [CITATION Wat1 \l 1033 ]:

i. AMR Master Station – this hosts the application and database servers, the
communication equipment and workstations.
ii. AMR Outstation – this is the smart meter equipped with the MIU, DCU,
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and the communication equipment. They also
are equipped with back up batteries.

21
 Figure 2-12: Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) System [CITATION Wat1 \l 1033 ]

An AMR master station serves the outstation. It is made up as below:

i. Local work station – A PC that is set up to monitor and control the system, display
alarms, display information and reporting.
ii. Application and database server - this logs the data, alarms and monitors and
troubleshoots the network. It is also responsible for information distribution, time
synchronization and interfaces to the intranet and internet.
iii. Time Synchronization server – this acquires GPS time and provides time sync for the
central equipment.
iv. VPN, 3G/4G/LTE modem – this hosts the IP based communication and offers
communication the outstation.

[CITATION Wat1 \l 1033 ]

The outstation hosts the device and sensors. It is made up of:

i. Communication equipment – this can be a router or a modem that manages the IP

communication and communication back to the master station.
ii. Programmable logic controller (PLC) – this also manages IP based communication,
sends alarm status of the outstation and provides communication for the self-healing
function.

22
 iii. The Data connection unit (DCU) – this is a bus setting, that provides an open m-bus
for communication. It sends alarms and logs to the outstation
iv. Meter interfacing unit (MIU) – this is the smart ‘meter’. It acquires pulse and flow
from the water meter. It is responsible for generating alarms of the device status.
v. Water meter – this registers water count, which is then picked up by the MIU.
vi. Backup battery panel – this is fitted with a power back up, that picks up in case of a
power failure. The main aim is to ensure the device is always online and data is being
captured.

[CITATION Wat1 \l 1033 ]

Figure 2-13: Components of an AMR outstation[CITATION Wat1 \l 1033 ]

2.4.4 Security concerns

IoT and M2M has enabled massive inter-connection of devices. With this network, security
issues are bound to massively increase.

Devices that were previously working independently have now been joined to an IoT
network. This means more data is gathered, transmitted and interpreted.

There are four main types of security attacks:

1. Low-level attack – mainly launched by script-kiddies and non-experienced hackers.

In this attack, the hacker tries to infiltrate the network, but is not successful.
2. Medium-level attack – the attacker will simply eavesdrop on the communication, but
will not alter data.
3. High-level attack – the attacker has access to the data, and proceeds to modify and
alter the data. This undoes the integrity of the data.

23
 4. Extremely High-level attack – the attacker performs network unavailability attack,
such as DDOS, jamming the network, compromising user data and even destroying
the equipment firmware.

[ CITATION Raz17 \l 1033 ]

Issues associated with security can be grouped as below:

Unauthorized monitoring and personal information leakage – safety accounts for the
most important part of a smart system. This calls for a large number of sensors to be installed
for monitoring. For example, a smart home will have smart meters, fire monitoring, baby
monitoring, smart entry systems and safety breaking systems. These systems continuously
collect data. In a situation where this data is accessed by hackers, they can have access to
personal information and cause damage.[ CITATION Raz17 \l 1033 ].
To control this threat, systems need to apply smart end to end data encryption to avoid
unauthorized access. This can be done by inclusion of (Service socket layer) SSL certificates
for web access. It must be applied to the sensors, gateways, communication equipment and
servers.
This should also be merged by implementing Authentication, Authorization and Accounting
modules (AAA) in development. This ensures only those allowed to access these devices
have the ability to. It also adds the ability to monitor and track what is being done by the
users. [CITATION Gal \l 1033 ]

Denial of service (DOS) and Distributed Denial of service (DDOS) – a situation where an
attacker targets a device and sends messages to fill the bandwidth making the devices
unavailable. An attacker may gain access to the smart devices and send bulk messages such
as Clear To Send (CTS) / Request To Send (RTS) or flood with ping packets of high packet
size. This ultimately increases the latencies and makes the devices unavailable. An attacker
may as well use this attack to close down on other smart systems available in the home,
rendering all of them unreachable.[ CITATION Raz17 \l 1033 ].
The Mirai Botnet (aka Dyn Attack) of 2016 is the worst recorded IoT DDOS attack. This was
launched on Dyn, a service provided, that rendered the internet shutting down, affecting
webpages such as Twitter, Netflix, Reddit and CNN[ CITATION IoT17 \l 1033 ].
To avert this scenario, Authentication should be put in place, accurately and well configured.

24
This enables detection of unauthorized access and denial of entry.
This should be accompanied by rate limiting configured systems. Rate-limited systems are
those that deny packets of certain size, observed to be bulky and potential cause of system
availability. This also works hand in hand with denial of ping packets from the IoT enabled
smart devices. [ CITATION Iht17 \l 1033 ]

Data security – this covers the aspect of manufacturers being able to collect data from smart
devices, about their customers and using it to analyze the habits. This accounts for lack of
data privacy for the users. This can be treated as a silent-level attack and users are not aware.
[ CITATION Raz17 \l 1033 ]
This can be enforced by ensuring devices produced by manufacturers have passed the
security checks on privacy and user information access.[CITATION GSM14 \l 1033 ]

Lack of common standards – due to the availability of different manufacturers and vendors,
there is no specific standard that can be distinguished. This leads to flaws such as permitted
and non-permitted internet access; acceptable devise uses and lack of a developing guideline.
Most of the IoT, M2M and smart meters are lab-coded devices using open source languages,
and this can pose a vulnerability due to lack of standardization. [ CITATION Raz17 \l 1033 ].
The solution to lack of standardization is the implementation of a body that implements a
framework, and all vendors have to produce industry standard devices.

System, Application and Network vulnerabilities - these expose the challenge of smart
devices. System vulnerabilities focus on the whole IoT system, ranging from design to inter-
operability.
Application security highlights the challenges for the IoT applications including the storage
servers, and the customer end of the devices.
Network security is concerned with securing the communication channels between various
equipment, communication to the servers and transport of information via the communication
channels. [ CITATION Raz17 \l 1033 ].

2.5 Evaluation Framework

Evaluation can be defined as an objective process of understanding how an invention was
implemented, what effects it had for whom, how and why.[ CITATION UKI18 \l 1033 ]

25
In order to implement a change, automation or rollback, an evaluation framework needs to be
understood and defined on the impact of the change. [ CITATION UKI18 \l 1033 ]

In this paper, we will highlight the three major types of evaluation: Process, Impact and
Economic evaluation.

2.5.1 Process Evaluation

A process can be defined as a series of actions taken to achieve a particular goal. This
focuses on the qualitative and quantitative methods of analyzing and evaluating the
financing, resourcing, perceptions and quality of a recommended framework.[ CITATION
UKI18 \l 1033 ].

A process evaluation documents the programs development and operation, and it further
analyzes the reasons for successful and unsuccessful performance, with a key on potential
replication. This evaluation is referred to as the Circles of Care (COC). [CITATION Bes \l
1033 ].

The process used by COC is:

i. Participant observation – this involves observation of the key stake holders in the
process. The stakeholders can be defined as the vendors, support staff, distribution
team and the end consumers.
In this state, the responsibility of the evaluator is known to the stakeholders and to the
community, ensuring credibility and trust is maximumly achieved. [CITATION Bes \l
1033 ].
ii. Content analysis – this refers to the systematic analysis and review of written
documents and feedback produced by the COC stakeholders, including the volunteers
and the community.
This includes analysis of the timelines, budgets, promotional materials, minutes of
meetings, proposals and recognitions. The focus is on the idea being communicated
and how it will impact the research. [CITATION Bes \l 1033 ]
iii. Situational analysis – this is used to perform a SWOT (Strength, Weakness,
Opportunities and Threats) for the framework. The questions asked are:

26
 - What are the organizations internal and external strength?
- What are the organizations internal and external weaknesses?
- What opportunities are present in the organization and the environment
surrounding?
- What are the internal and external threats that would massively affect our efforts?

iv. In-House survey – this is the quantitative aspect of the evaluation framework, that
would be the difference between situational analysis and in-house survey. It involves
asking the stakeholders satisfaction at different points of the project

[CITATION Bes \l 1033 ]

2.5.2 Impact Evaluation

Impact evaluation focuses on the impact i.e. positive, negative, intended and unintended, of a
project, a program, a change or a policy on a target sect. it proceeds to also quantify the
impact on the stated population [ CITATION Whi17 \l 1033 ].

In this case, impact evaluation will analyze the cost, trust, efficiency and security of the
consumers, in relation to the introduction of smart meters, in comparison to the same
variables using traditional meters.

While project evaluation focus on the success and failure of implementation of a project,
impact evaluation defines the impact of a project on peoples lives and why/why not.
[ CITATION Swi19 \l 1033 ]. Project evaluation will focus on the failure and success of
smart water pumps, as impact evaluation focuses on the footprint to stakeholders of the same.

Impact valuation is important for two key reasons:

Monitoring data – this is focused in observing whether there is an impact of a decision over
time. This validates the project worthiness.

Impact evaluation – this measures the rate of change observed since the inception of a
project or an idea.

[ CITATION Swi19 \l 1033 ]

27
Figure 2-14: Why conduct an impact evaluation [ CITATION Swi19 \l 1033 ]

The sample size, both participants and non-participants, in an impact evaluation should be
large enough, to ensure the accuracy of the measure. This also ensures the feedback is a true
evaluation, and not just a coincidence. [ CITATION Swi19 \l 1033 ].

The main factors to consider includes the projects impact extent, to ensure that the project
touches a reasonably large population and the outcomes measurability within a reasonable
time frame. [ CITATION Swi19 \l 1033 ]

2.5.3 Economic Evaluation

Economic evaluation is based on the Cost-Effective Analysis (CEA). This compares the cost
and outcomes of two or more alternatives. In medicine, this compares the health cost
outcome, such as cost per disease avoided, cost per death and additional expected life.
[ CITATION Lew13 \l 1033 ]. This ensures that decisions are not made based on
assumptions, emotions and feelings.

In economic evaluations we analyze:

Cost Analysis – this is a deep analysis of the resources being used. This includes the
determination of cost incurred in comparison to the output achieved.

28
In development, the cost-output relation can be calculated as:
C = f (S, O, P, T)

Where, C =cost, S = Size of the firm, O = output, P = Price and T = Technology

[ CITATION Sma18 \l 1033 ]

Cost Minimalization – focus is on choosing the least costly outcome. Cost minimization
analysis (CMA) compares the outcome of two or more products and selects the least costly
outcome. [ CITATION Bro10 \l 1033 ]

Cost Consequence – Cost consequence analysis (CCA) compares the cost of implementing a
project with its consequences. In health for example, we analyze the consequence of
implementing a medical solution to the health outcomes, quality of cost and cost saving.
[ CITATION Rtv16 \l 1033 ].

Cost Effectiveness – this determines if the value of an invention justifies its cost. It further
determines the value of an additional outcome based on additional cost. This helps in
decision making on where to allocate more resources [ CITATION Phi09 \l 1033 ].

Cost Benefit – Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) estimates the total of the money value of
benefits to the stakeholders, determining the worthwhile of a project. To achieve this, there
must be baseline, in most units it is money. [ CITATION Cut15 \l 1033 ]

2.6 Gaps identified

Previous works done on this topic have highlighted the different technologies in the market.
Focus has been on implementation of the smart meters available in the market, with an aim
of upgrading the current mode of operation.

Works have been done in the United Kingdom, America and first world countries. The same
strategy above has been applied in Cape Town, South Africa.

In this work, focus will be more on developing an evaluation framework, which will
highlight the process and impact of implementation smart meters. This study will also be
based on Kenya, Kiambu Water & Sewerage company to be specific. This framework can
later be used for analysis and implementation in other local Water Service Providers.

29
2.7 Conceptual Framework
The suggested framework was derived from the study on the feasibility of the
implementation of smart meters in high income areas in South Africa [ CITATION Mwa17 \l
1033 ] as well as the theoretical literature review done in this chapter.

The contrive for the successful adoption of Smart Meters isolates to the below conceptual
framework:

Figure 2-14: Conceptual framework (Source: Author)

System Importance – This refers to the need for a system to replace the traditional existing
one. It captures the weaknesses of the current system and the solution to the flaws. This is

30
merged with performance expectancy, isolating the need for the system to be able to deliver
as required.
System Quality – This is the standard of the new system, and the degree of excellence of the
system including availability, performance metrics, data management, process management
and possessive success. The quality of the system leads to the social influence by
underscoring the concept of social confidence in a working system.
Trialability – this is the extent to which the perceived system has been previously
implemented, including the success and failure rates. It also underscores the modification
done since implementation to curb challenges experienced. This also identifies the ease and
accuracy of use by defining the tests already done showing usability, trust and accuracy in
the system.
Financial Freedom – this underscores the concept of inaccurate water bills. Relying on the
accuracy of use, consumer confidence is built on the justification of accurate billing, which
includes pay per use and accurate bills. This also points to security concerns where
consumers are concerned with their personal information security in a system.
Environmental care – in relation to the Carbon Dioxide emission in data gathering, concern
is raised to justify the adoption will curb the use of fuels to obtain and release information
from the meters to the WSP then relay to the consumers.
Brand trust – this is the overall confidence in the WSP. This includes the confidence that the
company is reading and releasing accurate meter readings, billing accurately and can offer a
justification to every charge. It related to the consumer belief in the system.

The evaluation framework will factor in the above aspects in the model.

2.8 Chapter Summary

This chapter has introduced the history of meter and metering process, the traditional meters
and the evolution to smart meters. It has also explained the mode of operation of traditional
metering, the billing and the challenges experienced.

This chapter has also covered embedded systems, internet of things and automation and the
impact and security challenges. We have also defined evaluation frameworks, which is the
main objective of this paper and introduced the conceptual framework for the motivation of
the study.

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

31
3.1 Introduction
This chapter will define the research methodology in use for this project. It will also highlight
the research design, population and sampling, data collection methods, validity of the data
collected, research procedures to be undertaken, ethical considerations in place and the
method of data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The purpose of a research is to gain new insights on a phenomenon[ CITATION Wil07 \l
1033 ]. A research design is used to enforce the fact that evidence collected will adequately
address the research problem[ CITATION Rah17 \l 1033 ]. A research method can be
classified as either:

Qualitative – this is used to collect in-depth knowledge about a topic, and assumes that a
single entity represents the group. This is mainly used when the researcher aims at
developing a theory on a specific field[ CITATION Rah17 \l 1033 ]

Quantitative – this method involves fresh collection of data from a large population and
analysis of the data. This method is used when the researchers want to quantify
data[ CITATION Rah17 \l 1033 ].

Research design can also either be:

Exploratory study – this study aims at mainly exploring the research question, without the
intention of offering a final solution to the problem. This study is used to conducts a study on
a topic that is not well known and the researcher explores varying depths of the topic. An
example is a researcher working on the role of corporate social responsibility on customer
behavior [ CITATION Dud18 \l 1033 ].

Descriptive Study – this study helps provide answers on who, when an, where and how in
relation to a particular research problem. This is concerned with obtaining information on a
phenomenon, and describe what exists with respect to variables in a condition. This research
aims at answering “What is” and not “Why” a phenomenon exists. [ CITATION Dud18 \l
1033 ].

32
Causal study – this study focuses on the cause-and-effect relationship. This is used to study
patterns and relationships between variables, and experiments are the most proficient method
in causal study. An example is a study on the effects of re-branding on the levels of customer
loyalty. [ CITATION Dud18 \l 1033 ].

This study takes the Descriptive study approach. The main focus is to understand the impact
of introduction of smart meters, the advantages, disadvantages, success and failure and create
an evaluation and implementation framework for the implementation of Automated Meter
Reading (AMR).

In addition, this study took the quantitative research type. This was motivated by the need to
gather data from a large sample and analyze in the view of developing an evaluation and
implementation framework that is applicable to consumer needs and not a view of a limited
number of Staff and Consumers.

3.3 Population and Sampling Design

3.3.1 Population
The population in focus are the field agents who are tasked with collecting meter readings
from the traditional meters, staff and the Water Service Provider in charge of billing and
those in charge of billing dispute resolution and the Consumers.
The sampling method in use will be random sampling for more accurate and unbiased
information feedback.
3.3.2 Sampling Design
3.3.2.1 Sampling Frame
A sampling frame is defined as the set of source materials from which a sample is selected.
This identifies particular members in a target population to be interviewed in a survey. A
huge consideration in sampling frame selection is the identification of the relationship
between the sample population and the entire unit of selection.[ CITATION Tur03 \l 1033 ].
This sampling frame focused on 68 out of the total number of Staff of 212 for the survey.
This represented 32.07% of the staff. The sampling frame selection was divided as per table
3-1 below:
This sampling frame for the customers involved a total of 250 customers out of the total of
1447, representing 17.27% as per table 3-2 below.

33
 No Total Sample
. Role Number Respondents
1 Senior Leadership 10 3
2 Field Agents 120 25
3 Junior Data Clerks 12 3
4 Senior Data Clerks 8 5
5 Billing Clerks 22 14
6 Finance Clerks 6 4
7 Customer Care Agents 30 12
Bill Conflict Resolution
8 Team 4 2
  Total 212 68

Table 3-1: Staff Sampling Frame (Source: Author)

Total
No Number of Sample
. Location Residents Respondents
1 Kiambu 400 60
2 Ruaka 300 40
3 Banana 300 50
4 Ndenderu 269 38
5 Gachie 178 62
  Total 1447 250

Table 3-2: Customers Sampling Frame (Source: Author)

3.3.2.2 Sampling Techniques

Sampling can widely be classified into two techniques;
Probability/Random sampling – in this sampling, every entity has an equal chance of being
included in the sample. This has the best freedom against bias but happens to be costly and
time consuming. This produces the best sample and can be generalized, although a lot of
effort is required due to the randomness.[ CITATION Tah16 \l 1033 ]
Non-probability/Non-random sampling – mainly associated with case studies, this
sampling is qualitative and focuses on a specific sample. A clear rationale is used for
inclusion into the case. These require less effort as the sample is already pre-determined,
requires less time to finish up and are not as costly. This however, is easily faced with sample

34
bias and the conclusion cannot be graded as an efficient representation of the population.
[ CITATION Tah16 \l 1033 ]
This study takes the probability sampling to infer to the results. This is due to the intentions
of the conclusions to be drawn, that require all classes of life, education levels, financial and
employment nature to be factored in.
The conditions to qualify for the sampling were:
Staff sample:
 Must be an employee (permanent, temporary, intern or contractor) at Kiambu Water
& Sewerage Company Limited
 Must belong to either of the eight teams to be sampled
 Must be a willing participant
 Must be of sound mind, and not influenced by any motives
Consumer sample:
 Must be a customer of Kiambu Water & Sewerage Company Limited
 Must be a willing participant
 Must have used the service for at least 3 months prior to the survey
 Must be of sound mind, and not influenced by any motives

3.3.2.3 Sample size

Calculation of sample size is determined by two factors, whether the target population is
known or whether it is unknown. The sample size is also influenced by the purpose of the
study and the risk of selecting a bad sample, and the sampling error.[ CITATION Isr92 \l
1033 ]
The level of precision determines the margin of error and is often expressed as a percentage,
mainly ±5 percent. The confidence value is expressed as the average of a repeat sample,
which represents a true feel of the feedback.[ CITATION Isr92 \l 1033 ]
This study takes a confidence level of ±7% in the sampling.

Figure 3-1: Confidence level table [ CITATION Isr92 \l 1033 ]

35
Where a=assumption of normal population is poor, the entire population should be sampled
3.4 Data Collection Instruments
Data collection instruments vary on the population size, case study and the intended output of
a project. They vary from:
Face-to-face interviews – they are intense, laborious and tasking but are the best way of
collecting data, especially where emotional reaction is observed. They are preferred when the
subject matter is not personal, the questions are complex and the interview is lengthy
[ CITATION Mat09 \l 1033 ]
Telephone interviews – they are economic depending on the sample availability via
telephone, and if the questionnaire is reasonably short. This is inappropriate for a busy
respondent. They are often recorded and the interviewer can replay for accurate
feedback[ CITATION Mat09 \l 1033 ]
Questionnaires – they are cheaper, quicker and widespread. They can be distributed on
paper, posted to respondents or set up on Google Forms. They are scalable as they cover a
large audience and provide a chance for user anonymity. They are however curbed by
dishonest responses, differences in understanding and interpretation of the questions, hard to
convey emotions and skipped questions [ CITATION Mat09 \l 1033 ]
This study takes in place the value of paper questionnaire. These questionnaires will be
distributed to the consumers on bill payment, invoking a more honest feedback to the process
experienced. To the staff, the questionnaires will be administered over lunch and break times
to avoid affecting normal staff productivity. They will also be anonymous and collected at a
single drop off point to avoid fear of victimization.
3.5 Reliability and validity
Reliability is defined as the measurement that reverts with consistent and equal values of
feedback. This indicates how error-free the measurements were conducted, and indicates
freedom of bias. Validity is defined as the degree to which the instrument of data collection
measures what it was designed. This means the instrument correctly measures the concepts
under study. [ CITATION Moh17 \l 1033 ].
The reliability and validity in this project will be achieved by the selection of unbiased
sample frame, well-structured questionnaires and using of a good sample size.
3.6 Research Procedure
This research will be undertaken in two steps. The first step will be to analyze the challenges
facing traditional meters and water reading process. This will involve data analysis from a
questionnaire given to staff and customers.
We will then review three case studies of successful and failed smart water meter
implementation with an aim to identify the challenges experienced and the successful paths
traded. The case studies will be global and a local study.

36
Data will then be collected using questionnaires to the same sample, in regards to their view
of smart meters, the expectations and the solution expected to resolve the challenges faced.
Conclusions drawn from this study will then be used to develop an evaluation and
implementation framework, that will be used as a guideline to the implementation of smart
meters by Kiambu Water & Sewerage Company Limited.
3.7 Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations in research are rooted back to the Greek philosophy of life. In
research, the ethical codes to life need to be observed. [ CITATION Fou11 \l 1033 ]
In this study, the following aspects of ethics will be observed during data collection, analysis
and recommendation:
Informed consent – this means that the person knowingly and voluntarily gives his consent
to give information. This seeks to prevent victimization, forced feedback, bribery and any
form of coercion to give information.
Respect for Anonymity and Confidentiality – the feedback given will be anonymous,
ensuring no one can be traced back to the response given. The response will also be treated as
confidential, avoiding any information misuse, that can be used to victimize a respondent.
Respect for privacy – in this study, any information given that contains private information
such as religion, beliefs, attitudes and opinions will be treated with privacy ensuring such is
not shared with others.
Special groups and people with disabilities – this research will focus on inclusion for all.
Priority will be given to special groups and the disabled, to ensure their voices are heard and
opinions included.

3.8 Data Analysis Methods

The first type of questions administered in the questionnaire will be Statistical based,
ensuring a specified range of feedback. This can then be documented and interpreted in a
graph and chart format.
The second type of questions will be open-ended questions, that gather the opinions of the
staff and the consumers. This will be interpreted using key-word analysis such as cost, trust
and monitor.
This data will be analyzed using SPSS and conclusions drawn in a tabular, graph, pie chart
and bar charts.
3.9 Chapter Summary
This chapter has introduced the concept of research methodology, research design and the
research process. Population and sampling design have been explained, highlighting the
sampling frame, technique and size. The data collection methods undertaken have been stated

37
explaining the reason behind the selection. We have further defined the reliability and
validity of the data, the research procedure and the ethical considerations. Definition on the
data analysis methods has been introduced and selection choice explained.

CHAPTER FOUR: IMPLEMENTATION ANALYSIS AND

DESIGN

4.1 Introduction
This chapter will cover the implementation, analysis and design of the data collected in
Chapter 3 above. It will explain the analysis done on the collected data, the modelling and
design of the data collected which will lead to the proof-of-concept of the study. Testing will
be done after which the implementation will be defined.

4.2 Analysis
Analysis can be defined as the use of statistics and/or logical techniques to analyze, interpret,
describe, demonstrate and evaluate collected data. It is either a statistical approach involving
one-time synthesis of collected data or an ongoing process of continuous collection and
simultaneous testing. [ CITATION Fac19 \l 1033 ]
The study will interview 68 staff members and 250 customers. The research data collected
aims to shows that Water Loss, OPEX and Loss of Trust in the brand are the main challenges
experienced by the WSP in manual metering process. Data collected will also aim at
revealing Inaccurate Water Readings and Financial challenges, including over quotation in
the bills are the core customer challenges.
The method of data analysis in use will be qualitative to ascertain the viability of adoption of
the new technology, including the expected challenges to the automated metering system.
This method is similar to the one used in the study on the feasibility of adapting advanced
metering technology in high income areas in South Africa.[ CITATION Mwa17 \l 1033 ]
The conceptual model for the research and analysis of the data will factor in the below
models[ CITATION Gha12 \l 1033 ]:
Performance expectancy: this is the extent to which a user believes using the new
technology will aid in improving their job performance. This is usually based on the five
factors of performance expectancy i.e. perceived usefulness, external motivations, job fit,
relative advantages and outcome expectations.
Effort expectancy: this is the extent of ease of use of a system/technology.
Social influence: focus is on the belief of equality, fairness and importance of others in using
the new system. In specific, this highlights the brand trust of the WSP to others. This
includes the social factors, image of the brand, planned behavior and rational action.

38
Facilitating conditions: the variable focuses on the availability of the system and technology
to the user’s intent of use.
Age and Gender: the freedom and ease of use is influenced by the age range. It is perceived
that adaptation of a new technology is easily facilitated by the youth in relation to the elderly.

Figure 4.2: Conceptual model for research[ CITATION Gha12 \l 1033 ]

4.3 Modeling and Design

The proposed evaluation framework was based on the below theories discussed in the
literature review with relation to the problem at hand. These include:

Traditional Meters Manual meter Internet of Things Security Concerns

reading process
Types of meters Revenue leakage Usage data analysis Monitoring of
Aging infrastructure Over billing Process Automation personal
OPEX Job replacement information
Environmental Technical Denial of service
depredation compatibility and Lack of common
Customer ease of use standards
dissatisfaction Data leak
Perceived need System, application
and network
vulnerabilities

This evaluation framework is largely based on the TOE (Technological, Organizational and
Environmental) framework. [ CITATION Hot15 \l 1033 ]This examines features of an

39
organization that influence the adoption of a technology or a change. The framework
identifies the elements as below:

Figure 4.1 Identified elements of the TOE framework [ CITATION Hot15 \l 1033 ]
The technological context analyzes the compatibility of the technology to the organization,
the complexity and the relative advantage of adoption. The organization deals more with the
culture and characteristics of the firm and environmental aspect highlights the external
factors that affect adoption of a new technology, such as the government, competition and
consumer readiness.

40
Figure 4.2: Model for the Adoption of IoT. Source: Rogers (2003)

Expected factors from the findings include Water Loss, OPEX and Lack of Trust in the
brand, Inaccurate Water Readings and Financial challenges, which are further defined as:
4.3.1 Water Loss – the extent in which traditional meters lose water as a result of aging
meters, and out of life meters
4.3.2 OPEX – the manual process of meter reading using agents, dispatching of bills
manually, that can be improved by automation
4.3.3 Lack of Brand Trust – led by increased customer dissatisfaction by the manual
process of inconsistent
4.3.4 Inaccurate Water Readings – this is motivated by erroneous quotation of water bills,
leading to over or under quoting.
4.3.5 Revenue leakage – motivated by some meters being misread, unread or intentionally
ignored
4.3.6 Environmental challenges – caused by Carbon dioxide emission from cars and
motorbikes manifested in burning of fossil fuels during meter reading and bill dispatching.

4.4 Testing
The focus will be on the justification of the evaluation framework analyzing the viability of
adopting smart meters, and automated meter reading for the WSP. To ascertain the viability
of the evaluation framework, a questionnaire will be administered to both the consumers and
the staff of Kiambu Water.

41
The questionnaire will also gather test questions from previously conducted research on
adoption of smart meters in high income areas in South Africa [ CITATION Mwa17 \l
1033 ]. This sampling frame for the questionnaire will focus on 68 out of the total number of
Staff of 212 for the survey. This represents 32.07% of the staff. The questionnaire sampling
frame for the customers will involve a total of 250 customers out of the total of 1447,
representing 17.27%.
The data from the questionnaire will further be subjected to factor analysis. This is a method
of modelling observed variables and covariance structure into latent factors, viewed as broad
concepts that may be used to describe a phenomenon. This will begin by using Principal
factor analysis which will extract the maximum variance and put it in first factor, then extract
more variance and place it in second factor and proceed until the last factor. It will then use
common factor analysis, which will extract common variance and put it in factors.
[CITATION Sta \l 1033 ]

4.5 Conclusion
This chapter has displayed how the researcher was able to validate the data for the evaluation
framework to be proposed through the conducted study. An analysis of the data was carried
out. Modelling and analysis were done, after which testing and evaluation of the
effectiveness was done in relation to the viability of adopting smart meters.

42
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47
48
APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: Questionnaire to staff

The questionnaire will be used by the researcher to collect data for the evaluation of the
viability of adopting smart meters in meter reading automation for Kiambu Water. The data
gathered will be used sacredly for academic research purposes and will be availed to Kiambu
Water on request, in compliance with the United States University, for which the research
was undertaken with partial fulfillment for Masters Degree in Information Systems and
Technology.

DEMOGRAPHICS
Please fill in each question, on the spaces provided where applicable.
PART I:
1. The Division you are working for is ………………………...……………………………
2. What is your gender?
Male [ ]
Female [ ]
3. What is your age bracket?
Below 25 years [ ]
25 to 30 years [ ]
31 to 40 years [ ]
41 to 50 years [ ]
Above 50 years [ ]
4. What is your level of education? (Tick where appropriate)
PhD [ ]
Masters [ ]
Bachelors Degree[ ]
Diploma or equivalent [ ]

I
5. How long have you worked in the company?
Less than 2 years [ ]
2 to 5 years [ ]
6 to 10 years [ ]
More than 10 years [ ]

PART II: Perspective of Weather Meter Reading in Kiambu

6. Please indicate the level which you agree/disagree with the following statements based on
the following rankings by ticking 1,2,3,4,5 as per ranking:
1(Strongly agree), 2(Agree) 3(Don’t Know)4 (Disagree), 5(Strongly disagree)?
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
The current water meter reading
process in Kiambu are satisfactory
The current water meter reading
process in Kiambu can be improved
The current water meter reading
process in Kiambu satisfies the staff
involved

7. Are there challenges experienced in the meter reading process that you think affect
Kiambu Water? If Yes, please state briefly
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. What are the challenges facing the current water meter reading process?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

II
9. Have you heard of or interacted with smart meters? If Yes, Please state your experience
briefly
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. Is there need to adopt smart water meters in Kiambu Water? Please state briefly
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. What are your concerns about adopting smart water meters in Kiambu?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Part III: Framework for Adoption of Smart Meters
Please indicate the level which you agree/disagree with the following statements based on the
following rankings by ticking 1,2,3,4 as per ranking:
1(Strongly agree), 2(Agree) 3(Don’t Know)4 (Disagree), 5(Strongly disagree)?

12. Perceived System Importance (Your opinion on perceived importance of smart meters)
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
Use of smart meters would be
important
Use of smart meters would be
relevant

III
13. System Quality (Your opinion on System Quality of smart meters)
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
The quality of the output I get from
smart meters will be high
14. Compatibility and Trialability (Your opinion on Compatibility and trialability of smart
meters)
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
I think smart meters have been tried
and tested and would fit in the way I
work
I think using smart meters would fit
well with the way that I gather
information
I think smart meters will be
compatible with my lifestyle and
mode of operation

15. Security Concerns (Your opinion on security of smart meters)

Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
Smart meters will ensure protection
my customers information
Smart meters will limit data
transmission to only to authorized
recipients
Smart meters are safe from
eavesdropping and hacking

IV
APPENDIX 2: Questionnaire to Consumers
The questionnaire will be used by the researcher to collect data for the evaluation of the
viability of adopting smart meters in meter reading automation for Kiambu Water. The data
gathered will be used sacredly for academic research purposes and will be availed to Kiambu
Water on request, in compliance with the United States University, for which the research
was undertaken with partial fulfillment for Masters Degree in Information Systems and
Technology.

DEMOGRAPHICS
Please fill in each question, on the spaces provided where applicable.
PART I:
1. What town do you reside? ………………………...……………………………
2. What is your gender?
Male [ ]
Female [ ]

3. What is your age bracket?

Below 25 years [ ]
25 to 30 years [ ]
31 to 40 years [ ]
41 to 50 years [ ]
Above 50 years [ ]
4. What is your level of education? (Tick where appropriate)
PhD [ ]
Masters [ ]
Bachelors Degree[ ]
Diploma or equivalent [ ]

V
5. How long have you been a Kiambu Water customer?
Less than 2 years [ ]
2 to 5 years [ ]
6 to 10 years [ ]
More than 10 years [ ]

PART II: Perspective of Weather Meter Reading in Kiambu

6. Please indicate the level which you agree/disagree with the following statements based on
the following rankings by ticking 1,2,3,4 as per ranking:
1(Strongly agree), 2(Agree) 3(Don’t Know)4 (Disagree), 5(Strongly disagree)?

Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly

Agree Know Disagree
The current water meter reading
process in Kiambu are satisfactory
The current water meter reading
process in Kiambu can be improved
The current water meter reading
process in Kiambu satisfies the
customers involved

7. Are there challenges experienced in the meter reading process that you think affect
Kiambu Water? If Yes, please state briefly
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. What are the challenges facing the current water meter reading process?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

VI
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
9. Have you heard of or interacted with smart meters? If Yes, Please state your experience
briefly
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. Is there need to adopt smart water meters in Kiambu Water? Please state briefly
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. What are your concerns about adopting smart water meters in Kiambu?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Part III: Framework for Adoption of Smart Meters
Please indicate the level which you agree/disagree with the following statements based on the
following rankings by ticking 1,2,3,4 as per ranking:
1(Strongly agree), 2(Agree) 3(Don’t Know)4 (Disagree), 5(Strongly disagree)?

12. Perceived System Importance (Your opinion on perceived importance of smart meters)
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
Use of smart meters would be
important
Use of smart meters would be
relevant

VII
13. System Quality (Your opinion on System Quality of smart meters)
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
The quality of the output I get from
smart meters will be high
14. Compatibility and Trialability (Your opinion on Compatibility and trialability of smart
meters)
Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
I think smart meters have been tried
and tested and would fit in the way I
work
I think using smart meters would fit
well with the way that I gather
information
I think smart meters will be
compatible with my lifestyle and
mode of operation

15. Security Concerns (Your opinion on security of smart meters)

Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly
Agree Know Disagree
Smart meters will ensure protection
my information
Smart meters will limit data
transmission to only to authorized
recipients
Smart meters are safe from
eavesdropping and hacking

VIII