Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….5
Conclusion …………………………………………………..............................45
Conclusion………………...................................................................................85
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..86
Bibliography………………………………………………….……………….88
4
Introduction
7
Chapter 1 The history and different types of abbreviations
sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master and
‹exacɔbate› for exacerbate. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of
an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy
subwardenɔ y ɔmзde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y
thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ. In the 1830s in the
United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a fad. For example,
during the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain,
abbreviating became very trendy. The use of abbreviation for the names of
"Father of modern etymology" J. R. R. Tolkien and his friend C. S. Lewis, and
other members of the Oxford literary group known as the Inklings, are
sometimes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a
fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally
popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence. After World
War II, the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other
punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the
8
Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it
more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American
counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a
British organization of secret agents called the "Special Operations, Executive"
— "S.O., E" — which is not found in histories written after about 1960. But
before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form.
In French, the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the
abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for
"monsieur" while "Mme" is that for "madame". Like many other cross-channel
linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule
themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously.
Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it
difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with
periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to use periods in two-word
abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or
television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the
use of periods in abbreviations completely.Minimization of punctuation in
typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for
the many users of carbon-film ribbons, since a period or comma consumed the
same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.Widespread
use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the Internet during
the 1990s allowed for a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due
largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as
instant- and text messaging. SMS for instance supports message lengths of 160
characters at most (using the GSM 03.38 character set). This brevity gave rise to
an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese, with which 10% or
more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated.
9
1.1 The origin of the English abbreviation and its development
12
OK
"OK" is an English expression, pronounced identically, and it appears in
almost all the areas and in all the languages of the world, although it is difficult
to say that it is actually a word or how it is originated. Whether you are in
China, India, Great Britain or Italy, it is enough to say "OK" and the meaning of
affirmative expressions will be clear to everyone.Until recently, both in English-
speaking countries and the rest of the world, the famous acronym today can hear
from the mouth of the Heads of State and Government, and also in the pages of
literary history, awarded with the Nobel Prize. Incredible destiny for the word
that has emerged from the wrong "spelling". In fact, the acronym first appeared
in an article published back in 1839. in the list of the Boston Morning Post in
which he referred to the person who says "OK", short for "all correct". Mistake
was not at all unusual for that time when there were few people that knew how
to read and write. However, there are other theories about the origin of the
acronym "OK" and they do not all come from America. Specifically, the
language of Aristotle, "Ola Kala" means "all is well", and even the Greeks had
used to shorten the term of "OK". In Germany, "Ohne Korrektur", translated
"without corrections", also shortened the same way. Swedes, however, use the
term "Oc aye" (oh yes), which is pronounced just like "okay", and is not
necessary to abbreviate it. The British public broadcaster BBC has recently
devoted an entire appendix famous acronym. "This is a very unusual word that
sounds like an abbreviation, an acronym. But it would make its strange
appearance could be the reason for her huge popularity.
However, the expression "OK" can now be heard and read almost
anywhere. For U.S. President Barack Obama, he has become almost a byword,
and British purists began to use it, like David Cameron. Those who have read
"The Road" Cormac McCarthy could notice a series of dialogues between father
and son who are completing with "OK". [ www.wikipedia.com]
13
1.2 The different types of abbreviations
c). combine form, i.e. the first letter of the first word and the full meaning of the
second one.
Economic section connected with money, stock exchange. There are such
abbreviations which depend to economy and may be read only by financiers.
You can abbreviate more than one word into an acronym using the first letter of
each word and pronouncing the letters as a word. AIDS and NATO demonstrate
this type of abbreviation, although you do not have to write not all acronyms in
capital letters. Laser and scuba both stand for terms that people rarely use in
their full forms, nor are they generally capitalized.
Acronyms by I.V.Arnold
Because of the ever closer connection between the oral and the written forms of
the language it is sometimes difficult to differentiate clippings formed in oral
speech from graphical abbreviations. The latter often pass into oral speech and
become widely used in conversation .During World War I and after it the
14
custom became very popular not only in English-speaking countries, but in other
parts of the world as well, to call countries, governmental, social, military,
industrial and trade organisations and officials not only by their full titles but by
initial abbreviations derived from writing. Later the trend became even more
pronounced, e. g. the U.N., the U.N.O., MP. The tendency today is to omit full
stops between the letters: GPO (General Post Office). Some abbreviations
nevertheless appear in both forms: EPA and E.P.A. (Environment Protection
Agency). Such words formed from the initial letter or letters of each of the
successive parts of a phrasal term have two possible types of orthoepic
correlation between written and spoken forms.
The last example shows that acronyms are often homonymous to ordinary
words; sometimes intentionally chosen so as to create certain associations. Thus,
for example, the National Organisation for Women is called NOW. Typical of
acronymic coinages in technical terminology are:
15
Radar — for radio detection and ranging.
The other subgroup consists of initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading
retained, i.e. pronounced as a series of letters. They also retain correlation with
prototypes. The examples are well-known:
16
OTT – over the top
UK – United Kingdom
The use of the initial letters of a name or expression as an abbreviation for it,
each letter being pronounced separately, as in BBC, RSVP, RSPCA, etc.
Initializes are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations.
When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are
closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used.
When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form
of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a rule
pronounced in the shortened form.
17
b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO
etc.
c) Initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such
initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for
Automated School System).
Some initializes can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by
different ways of word building:
a) Affixation, e.g. AWA Lism, ex-rafer, ex- POW, to warfare, AID So phobia etc.
-J
Why don’t you come and P.G. with me? (A. Wilson) Here P.G. is an
abbreviation for paying guest. Like all nouns they can be used attributively:
BBC television, TV program, UN vote. [Sylvia Chalker .,Edmund Weiner., 1994,
p.75].
b) (omni)bus, (tele)phone
At times, the word you use is an abbreviation of a longer word. When you’ve
dropped the first portion of a word, e.g. bus or phone, you’ve used an apheresis.
People use the shortened form of these so often that people don’t realize that
there is more to the word, like omnibus. . [Sylvia Chalker and Edmund
Weiner.,1994,p.23]
Russian scientist I.V.Arnold in his books classified clipped in such way. The
generally accepted one is that based on the position of the clipped part.
According to whether it is the final, initial or middle part of the word that is cut
off we distinguish final clipping (or apocope (from Greek apokopto ‘cut off’)),
initial clipping (or aphesis, i.e. apheresis(from Greek aphaeresis ‘a taking
away’)) and medial clipping (or syncope (from Greek syncope ‘a cutting up’)).
19
1. Final clipping in which the beginning of the prototype is retained, is
practically the rule, and forms the bulk of the class: e.g. ad, advert:
advertisement, coke: coca-cola, ed: editor, fab: fabulous, gym: gymnastics or
gymnasium, lab: laboratory, mac: mackintosh, ref: referee, veg: vegetables, and
many others.
2. Initial-clipped words retaining the final part of the prototype are less
numerous but much more firmly established as separate lexical units with s
meaning very different from that of the prototype and stylistically neutral
doublets,
e.g. cute adj, n (Am): acute, fend v: defend, mend v: amend, story n: history,
sport n: disport, tend v: attend. Cases like cello: violoncello and phone:
Telephone where the curtailed words are stylistically synonyms or even variants
of their respective prototypes are very rare.
Neologisms are few: e.g. chute: parachute. It is in this group that the process of
assimilation of loan words takes place.
3. Final and initial clipping may be combined and result in curtailed words with
the middle part of the prototype retained. These are few and definitely
colloquial:
It is worthy of note that what is retained is the stressed syllable of the prototype.
Curtailed words with the middle part of the word left out are equally few. They
may be further subdivided into two groups:
(a) Words with a final-clipped stem retaining the functional morpheme: maths:
mathematics specs: spectacles;
It is a special form of the phonetic process called aphaeresis, for which, from its
frequency in the history of the English language, a distinctive name is useful.
[Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner., 1994, p.79]
This term, which was introduced by J.A.H.Murray, editor of the New English
Dictionary, (the first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary) in 1880 was used
in the diachronic study of English; in phonetics the phenomenon it covers would
be treated as an aspect of elision.This term could be a source of confusion, as the
only difference between this and apheresis lies in the syllable being dropped.
When you say, “I danced with Mike ‘cause he’s nicer than Ted,” that first
apostrophe indicates that you’ve used an aphesis. You have dropped the
unstressed vowel at the beginning of the word “because”. Most of these occur in
casual speech and not intentionally in a written piece, outside of
dialogue.Aphesis is the dropping of an unstressed vowel from the beginning of a
word: 'cause (because), 'cept (except). [ J.A.H.Murray., 1880,p.45]
Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case, sometimes starting
with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by
letter.Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus.
21
Blending.By I.V.Arnold there is a specific group that has attracted special
attention of several authors and was even given several different names: blends,
blending, fusions or portmanteau words.The last term is due to Lewis Carroll,
the author of “Alice in Wonderland” and “Through the Looking Glass”. One of
the most linguistically conscious writers, he made a special technique of using
blends coined by himself, such as chortle v = chuckle + short, mimsy adj =
miserable + flimsy, galumph v = gallop + triumph, slithy a< slimy+lithe.1
Humpty Dumpty explaining these words to Alice says “You see it’s like a
portmanteau — there are two meanings packed up into one word.” Blends may
be defined as formations that combine two words and include the letters or
sounds they have in common as a connecting element. Blends, although not very
numerous altogether, seem to be on the rise, especially in terminology and also
in trade advertisements.Comparing with this we can write the definition which is
shown in the Oxford Dictionary of Grammar. Blending - a word, phrase or
construction formed by the merging of parts of two other linguistic elements.a)
morphology. Examples of lexical blends (also called blend words, word blends)
are:
Syntactic blends include such structures as I would have liked to have done it. =
I would have liked to do it + I would like to have done it.
e.g. Neither claim impressed us, nor seemed genuine. = Neither claim
impressed us or seemed genuine + The claims neither impressed us nor seemed
genuine.
I do not dare, refuse = (modal) I dare not refuse + (ordiary verb) I do not dare to
refuse. .[ Arnold I.V.,1986. p.293 ].
22
Contract.Shorten (a word, syllable, etc) by omitting or combining some
elements.
E.g. ain’t. A contracted form of are not, used also for am not, in the popular
dialect of London and elsewhere.A contraction refers to a type of abbreviation
that includes the first and last letters of a full word: amt., Mr.
2. A shortened form of a word that can be attached to another word the two
words together. Also called abbreviated form, contracted form or short form.
Contractions are made by putting an apostrophe in place of the letters left out as
in “can’t” for ‘can not’, “I’d” for ‘I would’, “she’s” for ‘she is’. Some very
common verbs often get tacked onto the end of pronouns to make constructions:
“is” & “has” become “–’s”, “are” becomes “–’re”, “have” becomes “–’ve”,
“would” and “had” become “–’d”, “will” becomes “–’ll” & so on. Also, ‘not’
becomes “n’t” when you tack it onto something ‘did not’ – “didn’t”, ‘should
not’ – “shouldn’t” & so on. All these shortened versions are particularly popular
in everyday usage.
The apostrophe is also use for possessives words showing who or what
something belongs to – either before the final “-s” or if the word already ends in
“-s” then after the “-s”: “Sue’s roommate”, but “Carlos’ brother” and “all the
guys’ cars”
23
which nobody writes with an apostrophe. And you can remember that the
possessive “its” also has no apostrophe.
can’t = cannot
don’t = do not
he’ll = he will
he’s = he is / has
I’m = I am
I’ve = I have
isn’t = is not
it’ll = it will
24
it’s = it is / has
let’s = let us
that’s = that is
we’re = we are
25
weren’t = were not
we’ve = we have
what’s = what is
What Is Translation?The second half of the 20th century has seen the in-depth
study oftranslation, which is sometimes called Theory of Translation, Science
ofTranslation, Translation Linguistics, or even Translatology. It has been
claimed abroad that translation studies began in 1972 with Holmes’s paper
presented at the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics, “The
Name and Nature of Translation Studies”. [R. Steele, T. Threadgold.,1987,
p.347–351]. However; unfortunately, European and American scholars seemed
to have been unaware of the achievements of the Russian school of translation
studies. Works by V. Komissarov, A. Shveitser, A. Fedorov and many others
confirmed the status of translation studies as a discipline of its own even in the
1950s. The main concern of translation theory is to determine appropriate
translation methods for the widest possible range of textsand to give insight into
the translation process, into the relations between thought and language, culture
and speech.
•Specific (or partial, in terms of Holmes) theory of translation that deals with the
regularities of translation characteristic of particular languages - for example,
translation from English into Russian and vice versa.
There are two terms corresponding to the Russian word “перевод”: translation
and interpretation. Those who discriminate between the terms refer the term
‘translation’ to the written text, and the term ‘interpretation’ to oral speech.
27
However, the terms are polysemantic: to interpret might mean “to render or
discuss the meaning of the text” – an outstanding British translation theorist
P.Newmark, for example, states that “when a part of a text is important to the
writer’s intention, but insufficiently determined semantically, the translator has
to interpret”.The term to translate is often referred to any (written or oral)
manner of expression in another language.
A speaker or writer (an author) makes a meaningful utterance called the text and
addresses it to the listener, reader, or receptor, who understands the purport of
29
the text and reacts to it. The translation situation doubles the elements of
communication. The receptor of the original text in turn becomes a translator
who makes a translated text, or target text intended for the receptor speaking
another language:
The source text is the text to be translated. The target text is the end-product; the
translated text.For the translation to be adequate and effective, the target text
should be equivalent to the source text. Indeed, when reading tragedies by
Shakespeare in Russian, the receptor is but seldom aware that the words s/he
sees in the text were not written by Shakespeare but by some other person, a
translator. The form of the target text is new but the purport and the content are
very close to the original. Paradoxically, the better a translator's work, the less
his/her work is observed. The translated text is attributed to the author speaking
another language and this text is used everywhere as if it were the original.
[Рецкер Я., 1974,p.34].
30
original, like a fruit and its skin, the language of the translation envelops its
content like a royal robe with ample folds.»
2. Social functions.
Translation could not have developed without culture. Literature, science, and
philosophy influence translators’ conceptualizations. On the other hand, culture
could not have developed without translation, since translations enrich nations
with the cultural values of other nations.
Translation reflects the source text but it does not copy it. To translate
adequately, a translator must do his or her best to find a proper means of
expression. A translator bears in mind that the receptor has a cultural
background other than that of a receptor of the original text; therefore, s/he has
to be very resourceful in producing the same impact upon the receptor as that of
the source text. Special problems arise in translating dialects, foreign speech,
puns, poetry, etc. And a translator is in constant search for new tools to solve
translation problems.
31
6. Translation is an art and a science.
33
1) The first one is based on who does the translation. These days translation
may be done by a human translator or by computer.
8) Functional style and genre of the text: literary works and informative
texts.
35
On the other hand, computers are restricted to the materials. They can
translate only clichéd texts. They cannot translate unpredictable texts, like
fiction, for example. Usually they provide ‘raw translation’. Another
disadvantage is that they are still rather expensive. They require constant
upgrading, which is usually not cheap. Computer viruses are a serious danger to
work. And computers are not absolutely safe for human health, either.
36
there was something common to all the notes reviewed. This brought to life
recommendations to would-be interpreters on how to take notes in order to
memorize the message and not to interrupt the speaker.
• Only key-words and the so called ‘precision’ words (i.e. words conveying
unique information, e.g., proper names, statistics, etc.) are put down;
• Words are contracted (vowels are omitted, the so-called Arabic approach);
Subject group
Predicate
Object
Interpreting may take place in two directions when the interpreter has to work
for both language participants. This is a two-way, or bidirectional, translation
37
(interpretation) and it requires a special skill of switching the languages to speak
to, suppose, a Russian participant in Russian and to an English participant in
English and not vice versa. A one-way interpreting means translation from one
language only and is usually employed for summit meetings.
Consecutive interpreters are also called linear interpreters, for their translation is
in line with the source text unlike simultaneous translation that overlaps the
original speech.
38
viewing projections on the TV screen. Delegates in the conference room listen
to the target-language version through a headset.
Simultaneous translation may take place not only in the special booth.
There is also whispered interpreting (or chuchotage) where the interpreter sits
between the participants and whispers his/her translation to them. This type of
translation is often used in a business meeting.
The simultaneous interpreter can get the source text in written form,
which does not make his/her job easier, since the interpreter has to do
simultaneously three jobs: read, listen and interpret. It is a most strenuous task,
for the interpreter has to be watchful of the speaker deviating from the text.
Translators have time to polish their work, while interpreters have no time
to refine their output
Translators can re-read their texts, they do not have to memorize big
segments, while interpreters are able to listen to the text but once
Никита грозил: «Покажу тебе кузькину мать.» – Nikita threatened, “I’ll put
the fear of God into you!” The Russian sentence is low colloquial, whereas the
English one, though it describes a similar situation, has another stylistic
40
overtone, a rather pious one. [Коммисаров В.Н.,Рецкер Я.И.,Тархов В.И.,
1965, p.134].
When the Russian sentence is used not in its phatic (i.e. contact supporting)
function but in the expressive function (as an interjection) to express the
speaker’s amazement. [Shveitser A.D, 1988, p.57]
41
1) Equivalents, that is regular translation forms not depending upon the context
(they include geographical names, proper names, terms): the Pacific Ocean –
Тихий океан, Chiang Kai-shek – Чан Кайши, hydrogen – водород.
According to the language level, there exist various types of literal translation:
1)on the sound level: this type of literal translation results in the so called
“translator’s false friends”, that is words similar in sounds but different in
meaning: conductor – not кондуктор, but дирижер; herb – not герб, but
лекарственная трава; computer silicon chips – not компьютерные
силиконовые чипсы, but кремниевые чипы компьютера.
3) on the semantic level: giving the primary meaning of the word or its part,
whereas a semantic transformation is required: But outside it kept on raining. -
*Но снаружи шел дождь, which is incorrect. Or подполковник - *subcolonel,
the word not existing in English.
42
4) etymological errors: disregarding language changes. Words acquire new
meanings over time and use: There, there, don’t cry. - *Там, там, не плачь.
5) following the style of the source text: different registers require different
language means. Thus, to use the example by V. Komissarov, to a Russian, who
got accustomed to brief and abrupt structures in the weather forecast, an English
weatherman’s sentence can sound like a poem line: Mist covered a calm sea in
the Strait of Dover last night. – Туман покрывал спокойное море в Па-де-
Кале прошлой ночью. Therefore, to produce the same impact upon the receptor
as does the original, the translator has to partition the English sentence and make
it more adaptable to a Russian: Прошлой ночью в проливе Па-де-Кале стоял
туман. Море было спокойно. [Коммисаров В.Н.,1990,p.217]
We can see that very often literal translation is not necessarily a word-for-word
translation, although it is often associated with a rather negative evaluation of
the translation.
In some works, literal translation is called ‘faithful’ translation – this term does
not necessarily imply the negative connotation of slavish literalism.
43
negative view of this type of free translation, known as adaptation in history of
translation.
44
Conclusion
In First chapter we have reached the main aim, which we had researched in the
work: we distinctively explored the theme that we had analyzed and marked all
the ways and particularities, and gave the general characteristics to
abbreviations.
To reach our aim we have defined the functions of abbreviations; analyzed the
existing categorizations and types of the abbreviations; made the analytical
review of English abbreviations, and the new modern style of abbreviatians. The
theoretical part of the investigation which includes very interesting information
for students, self-studied can be recommended for widening vocabulary and
development of speech and knowledge of English language.
The shortening is very useful in the society. We face to them on the newspapers,
advertisements, street posters, magazines, periodicals, television, radio all of
them are the mass media and of course at everyday communication.
The abbreviation is very wide theme to investigate; it has many types and
tendencies for today.
45
Chapter 2 Peculiarities of abbreviations translation from English into
Russian
Based on the level of their usage, abbreviations can be divided into three
groups:
Of the same type is the word OK (all correct). Normally, in translation this type
of abbreviation is lost.
Blends are either transferred into the target language (through transcription /
transliteration (smog – смог), explained (brunch – плотный поздний завтрак;
coffee-zilla < coffee + Godzilla – очень крепкий кофе), or substituted by an
analog (physed – физкультура).
When translating abbreviations, one should pay attention to the style of the text.
Whereas in English abbreviations are mostly neutral and can be used both in
formal and informal speech, in Russian abbreviations are strongly separated by
styles. For example, clippings are typical of very formal style: тяжмашстрой,
совнархоз, универсам; these require explanatory translation, which is
sometimes combined with transcription. In informal speech, abbreviations with
affixes are widely used: телик, видик, велик. As often as not, similar words
exist in English: telly, bike. For видик, there is a shortened form, video (from
video set).
47
Before suggesting a TL equivalent, it is important to find out the precise
meaning of the word. Care should be taken of words that differ in various
varieties of English, like the informal adjective dinky< which in British English
means “small and attractive”: a dinky little bag, while in American English it
has the antonymous meaning of “too small and often not very nice”: It was a
really dinky hotel room.
The term “state” in political terminology of the USA can have two meanings
“государство” и «штат». Both the state and Federal authorities are bent on
establishing a police state. In the first case the term “state” stands in one row
with an adjective “federal” and means “правительство штатов” in contrast to
“правительство всей страны”. In the second case “state” is used in the
meaning of “государство”. Terms which are widely known, are often used in
the text in a shortened form:
E.g. Youth is also virtually excluded from congress, the average age of members
of the Senate being 56 years and of the House 51 years.
Here we can see the usage of shortened term “House” instead of full term “The
House of Representatives”. One and the same term can have different meaning;
it depends on the ideological trend of the text it is used in. The term “idealism”
can be used in philosophical meaning as the name of the outlook, opposed to
materialism, and have positive or negative sense which depends on the
ideological position of an author. But it is more frequently used in positive
sense, correlating directly with the concept ideals- идеалы with the meaning of
serving high ideals.
E.g. The foreign Secretary’s most elaborate and numerous speeches seem to
prove that idealism in his guiding star.
48
Wide usage of personal names, names of companies, geographical names in the
newspaper style make concrete the report and refer the given information to the
certains, persons, institutions or regions. This fact presupposes the Receptor’s
essential preliminary knowledge, which allows him to find the connection
between the name and the naming object.
So, English Receptor knows well even without the context that Park Lane is the
street, Piccadilly Circus is the place, and Columbia Pictures is the film company.
Names of persons and other names are often used in newspaper materials in the
form of abbreviations. These abbreviations can often be unfamiliar to the wide
circle of readers and their meanings are given in the same note or report.
b) Geographical names:
ARV - Antiretroviral
HR - Harm Reduction
TB - Tuberculosis
UN - United Nations
Mrs., Mr., Ms., Prof., Dr., Gen., Rep., Sen., St. (for Saint).
Notice that Miss is not an abbreviation, so we don't put a period after it. Ms. is
not an abbreviation, either, but we do use a period after it — probably to keep it
consistent with Mr. and Mrs.
The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (We invited Messrs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford.) The
plural of Dr. is Drs. [We consulted Drs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford].The plural of
Mrs. is Mmes or Mmes. (with or without the period).
These are standard abbreviations, with periods. The APA Publication Manual
recommends not using periods with degrees; other reference manuals do
recommend using periods, so use your own judgment on this issue. All sources
advise against using titles before and after a name at the same time (i.e., she can
be Dr. Juanita Espinoza or Juanita Espinoza, PhD, but she cannot be Dr. Juanita
Espinoza, PhD). And we do not abbreviate a title that isn't attached to a name:
"We went to see the doctor (not dr.) yesterday."
The Chicago Manual of Style recommends not using a comma to separate the
Jr./Sr./III from the last name, but you should follow the preferences of the
individual if you know those preferences. If you list a "junior" with his spouse,
the "Jr." can go after both names, as in "Mr. and Mrs. Arthur C. Banks Jr." or
"Mr. Arthur C. Banks Jr. and Gloria Banks — but not Arthur C. and Gloria
Banks Jr. You should avoid using a "Jr." or "Sr." when you have only the last
name — Mr. Banks Jr.
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Notice that U.S.A. can also be written USA, but U.S. is better with the periods.
Also, we can use U.S. as a modifier (the U.S. policy on immigration) but not as
a noun (He left the U.S. U.S.A.).
Generally, you would use these abbreviations only in technical writing. There is
a space between the number and the abbreviation. Notice that we do not put an s
after such abbreviations even when the plural is indicated. Also, we do not use a
period with such abbreviations except for in. when it might be confused with the
preposition in.
such as IQ (Intelligence Quotient), rpm (revolutions per minute), mph (miles per
hour), and mpg (miles per gallon).
Such abbreviations are acceptable even in formal academic text and may be used
without periods.
h) Words used with numbers: He left at 2:00 a.m. She was born in 1520 B.C.
Either lower or upper case letters can be used with A.M., a.m., P.M., p.m. The
abbreviation B.C. (before Christ) is used after the date; A.D. (anno domini, "in
the year of the Lord") appears before the date. The abbreviations B.C. and A.D.
are sometimes replaced with B.C.E. (before the Common Era) and C.E.
(Common Era), both used after the date (although one must add that those
abbreviations are neither widely used nor commonly understood). Sometimes
you will see 790 BC and AD 78 written without periods and written in SMALL
CAPS. Note that many style books are now recommending SMALL CAPS for
all appearances of acronyms, such as NAACP or NCAA. The effect of this
practice is to allow the acronym to blend more smoothly with the rest of the text.
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It is considered bad form to use these abbreviations without a specific number
attached to them: "We'll do this in the a.m." or "We'll do this tomorrow a.m."
etc. (et cetera — and so forth), i.e. (id est — that is), e.g. (exempli gratia — for
example), et al. (et alii — and others).
The abbreviation i.e. (i.e., that is) is often confused with other abbreviations
(e.g., e.g.). The i.e. generally is used to introduce matter that is explanatory as
opposed to being the name of an example or list of examples. If you can say for
example as a substitute for the abbreviation, you want to use e.g., not i.e. Do not
italicize or underline these abbreviations. Most sources recommend avoiding the
use of Latin abbreviations except within parenthetical notes and some sources
say not to use Latin abbreviations at all (use the English terms instead) except
within citations or reference lists. The Chicago Manual of Style recommends
using a comma after i.e. or e.g. in order to set off those abbreviations as
introductory modifiers. Other resources say not to bother with the comma, but
the comma makes good sense.
Latin abbreviations
AD (anno Domini) (indicating years numbered from the supposed year of the
birth of Christ)
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circa – about, approximately;
Abbreviate "Saint" in U.S. place names, as in St. Louis and St. Petersburg,
Florida, and the St. Lawrence River. For the same word in other countries, you
might have to consult a good dictionary (one that contains place names):
St./Saint Martin's in the Fields, Saint Moritz, Saint Lucia, Mont-Saint-Michel,
Saint Petersburg (Russia). When the word Saint is used to refer to a holy person,
spell out the word — Saint Theresa, Saint Francis of Assisi. If an institution is
named after a saint, spell out the word Saint unless you have some reason to
save space — Saint Francis Hospital, Saint Joseph College, Saint Joseph's
University. It is wise, as always, to consult the actual institution. Colleges,
universities, and hospitals named after Saint Mary are about evenly divided
between St. and Saint, but in formal situations, Saint seems to be favored more
frequently.
(In formal academic prose it is considered bad form to abbreviate words simply
to save space, time, or energy.)
- Days of the week or months of the year (in the normal flow of text).
- People's names such as Chas. (for Charles) or Jas. (for James), unless those
abbreviations have come to be accepted as nicknames for those particular
individuals.
Except in the business of formally citing material you've used in research, it's a
good idea not to use et al. when you mean "and others." And don't use etc. as a
lazy person's way of getting out of work. Spell out the word versus unless you're
reporting game scores, when you would use vs.; when you're citing legal
documents, use the abbreviation v.
One of the most often asked questions about grammar has to do with the choice
of articles - a, an, the - to precede an abbreviation or acronym. Do we say an FBI
agent or a FBI agent? Although "F" is obviously a consonant and we would
precede any word that begins with "F" with "a," we precede FBI with "an"
because the first sound we make when we say FBI is not an "f-sound," it is an
"eff-sound." Thus we say we're going to a PTO meeting where an NCO will
address us. We say we saw a UFO because, although the abbreviation begins
with a 'U," we pronounce the "U" as if it were spelled "yoo." Whether we say an
URL or a URL, it depends on whether we pronounce it as "earl" or as "u*r*l."
Acronyms and abbreviations are such a huge part of the language, but
sometimes we forget how important they are.
Today we’re going to take most common English acronyms and abbreviations
that every English learner should know.
FYI
RSVP
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RSVP – this is a French word, most native English speakers don’t know what
this means in French, but we use it for… to reserve, make a reservation for a
party, so, to respond. It means Répondez S’il Vous Plaît.
ETA
AKA
FAQ
ATM
ATM means Automated Teller Machine, but also At the Moment, which is more
like Internet speech, or text.
TBA
TBA – To Be Announced
TGIF
RIP
P.S.
PS, what you write at the end of letters, Post Script [English. In Latin: Post
Scriptum]
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ESL, like when you see it with English, English as a Second Language
DIY
ID
ID. It means your Identification. This is what you present when you go to a bar,
if you look like you’re underaged.
IQ
GMO
GMO means Genetically Modified Organism, so make sure you don’t eat
GMO’s.
PC
PC – Personal Computer
PR
PR – Public Relations
SOS
SOS, what you might see if you’re stranded or stuck on a desert island, you
might write in the sand SOS – Save Our Souls. This is to get help.
AWOL
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AWOL means Absent With out Leave. Leave is to have permission to leave, to
be on vacation. So, this comes from the military. You might say this when you
have a friend or somebody that’s missing, so that person is AWOL.
MIA
POW
AD & BC
So, AD, which means past the year 0, like, we’re in 2014 AD. AD means Anno
Domini, which is a Latin word.
CE & BCE
BC is Before Christ. But nowadays they’re using CE for the modern era, so,
we’re in 2014 CE, which is AD, which is secular, not really attached to religion.
And then BCE is Before Common Existence, it’s the same as BC.
So, sometimes when you’re writing, or you’re reading, you might see IE, which
means in other words. So, in Latin, I’m not going to try to pronounce this, but
here it is on the screen.
E.g.And EG, which means for example, and here it is in Latin. So, you might
use those in writing, and you might recognize this when you’re reading
something.
DOB
So, DOB means Date of Birth. You might see this on an application.
OCD
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OCD means Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, so it’s a mental disorder.
MD
HR
HR means Human Resources, and DOA means Dead on Arrival. You might
hear this in like a police show or something.
So, to finish, I’m going to give you 3 colloquial ones, which I think are pretty
interesting, but they’re a little bit more relaxed than the other ones.
BYOB
So, the first one is BYOB. You might see this on an invitation to a party. This
means Bring Your Own Beer. Bring Your Own Beer or Bring Your Own Booze,
which is another word for alcohol.
OG
SOL
And the SOL, which means Shit Out of Luck. Shit Out of Luck. It means that
you are out of luck and you have no chance.
& - and
@ – at
0 – nothing
2DAY – today
2nite – tonight
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4 – for
a - a / an
a/noon – afternoon
b - be
b4 – before
bc – because
bf – boyfriend
bk - back
bro - brother
bt – but
c - see
d8 - date
dnr - dinner
ez - easy
f8 - fate
gf - girlfriend
gr8 - great
hols - holidays
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hv - have
I - I, it
its - it is
kds – kids
l8 - late
l8r - later
m8 - mate
ne1 – anyone
plz – please
ps - parents
qt - cutie
r - are
sis - sister
skul - school
smmr - summer
u - you
wr - were
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cul - see you later
gonna – going to
goin – going
jk - just kidding
l8r – later
Mo – moment
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mte - my thoughts exactly
MU - I miss you
NP - no problem
sth – something
wanna – want to
XLNT – exellent
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:-) smiling
:-* kiss
:-0 shocked
:") blushing
:-|:-| deja vu
<:3 )~ mouse
:@) pig
:-" whistling
;-) wink
:-@ screaming
O:-) saintly
@}-}}—rose
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camcorder = camera + recorder
emoticon=emotion + icon
Pakistan = Panjab, Afghania, Kashmir and Singh, and the final part of
Baluchistan;
% - percent
*- note
.com – commercial
@ - at (in commerce)
Aug. – August
CD – compact disc
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CDC – The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Co. – corporation
Dem – democrat
Dems – democrats
Fri – Friday
Gov – government
GP –general practitioner
Inc. – incorporated
Laptop – notebook PC
LW – long wave
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McEnroe – Mac Enroe
Mon – Monday
MP – member of Parliament
N – North
No. – number
Nov. - November
Oct – October
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p.r. – public relations
QC – quiet comfort
Rep – republican
Sen. – Senator
Sept. – September
Truckin’ – trucking
VP – vice president
Wed – Wednesday
Xcel – excellent
®- registered trademark
©- copyright
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2.3 The problems of abbreviations translation from English into Russian
Abbreviations are one of the most difficult to understand and translate the
elements of foreign special texts. A full understanding of condensed lexical units
is only possible with excellent knowledge of the subject, which is devoted to
specific text, and in the case where the reader know in advance the value of
acronyms used in the text. Familiarity with basic laws and principles of
education abbreviation cuts significantly simplifies the task of understanding
and transfer rate.When using abbreviations commonly used term "decoding",
which is usually understood as:
But the significance of the reduction is not always the same as the correlate.
Therefore, the "decoding" - not only the establishment of a correlate, but also
determine the value of the reduction in the specific context.
1. Analysis of the context; in most cases the reductions at the first use here in are
usually accompanied by deciphering.
The British academic and professional texts significant place occupies the
various types of cuts. Since they operate independently recorded in
lexicographical sources and are often better known than their sources (radar –
радар, sonar – сонар, laser – лазер), they can be considered lexical units of
scientific and technical language. In the English language, and reductions in
sound and graphics, can be divided into abbreviations and acronyms.
The main task of acronyms - it saves speech and written text. When pronouncing
the acronym of playing time several times shorter than its corresponding
concept, and when writing the savings even more impressive. However, the
benefits of such savings are only good as long as the abbreviations are clear
interlocutors and their interpreter.
The abbreviations are formed from the initial letters of words significant phrase:
AA (antenna array) антенная решетка RWM (read-write memory)
оперативная память, kVA (kilovolt-ampere) киловольт-ампер. When
pronouncing their names on the letters of the stress it falls on the last letter.
Letters reduction can be written with the points, but in modern English are
usually avoided.
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These are the terms, reducing radar, laser, maser. Note that the translation
correspondences of these units in the Russian language are these acronyms, not
wordy terms: radar (Radio Detectionand Ranging – радиообнаружение и
определение расстояния), laser (Light Amplificationby Stimulated Emission of
Radiation – оптический квантовый генератор), maser (Microvave
Amplificationby Stimulated Emissionof Radiation – микроволновое усиление с
помощью индуцированного излучения). These abbreviations (acronyms) are
transferred to the Russian language as the new terms by transliteration. These
units are easy to terminology and quickly assimilated into the language.
1. Text (copyrights), which operate only within the text; text (copyright)
reductions are explained in the text or presented in a separate list of
abbreviations in the text.
2. It is generally accepted that recorded in the official handbooks and are part of
the lexical system.
Reduction of the use of long-word and multi-word terms is the result of the
current trend, resulting in the creation of user-friendly pronunciation, reading
and perception of terms, acronyms.
Currently, there are three major trends acronyms translation into Russian:
Transliteration;
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Borrowing the acronym in its original form (a foreign language);
The second trend is the translation into Russian acronym - it is their borrowing
in its original form,
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abbreviations: English. LP-X - «lypoprotein X» corresponds to the Russian
«липопротеин X» – «аномальный липопротеин».
The third trend is the translation into Russian acronym - is the creation of an
abbreviation of the Russian equivalent terms, such as English. AA - «Alcoholics
Anonymous» corresponds to the Russian ОАА – «Общество Анонимных
Алкоголиков»; Eng. A / B - «acid-base ratio» corresponds to the Russian КОС
– «кислотно-основное состояние»;Eng. HDL - «high density lipoproteins»
corresponds to the Russian ЛПВП – «липопротеиды высокой плотности».
When choosing a method of translation must take into account factors such as
the ease of pronouncing and writing in Russian, translation of the acronym
tradition in other languages (if, for example, it has a universal writing in all
European languages), etc. Each approach has advantages and disadvantages, so
you should choose the most appropriate in each case.
The system cuts in any language is an integral part of its general lexical-
semantic system and, therefore, the system cuts in different languages
dissimilar. Quite different frequency of use of specific groups of cuts,
particularly in the English e.g. (exempli gratia),), while in the Russian language
is preferable to use in similar cases, "например". This shows that we should not
strive in each case transmit foreign reduction in Russian as reduced.
2. Descriptive translation cuts its full form. This method is applicable in those
cases where the Russian language does not correspond to the concept, which is
an abbreviation that is inherent in the concept of just another country. An
example might be a PhD (Doctor of Philosophy), which we do not translate as
ДФ, but only as a «доктор философии», or B & B (Breadand Breakfast) -
hotel services including bed and breakfast.
In English, there is a tendency to reduce every term. The Russian language is far
behind in terms of numbers of abbreviations: what is called the term in the
Russian language, the English abbreviation is transformed into:
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LN «liquid nitrogen» - жидкий азот.
Slower pace of abbreviation in Russian have their own advantages: there is less
difficulty in the perception of health information, and the translation appears
more chances to bring adequate information to the recipient.
Separation of abbreviations for the types to some extent arbitrary, since the
abbreviation -a phenomenon multifaceted and ambiguous. It is generally
accepted abbreviations split into three large groups: the graphics, lexical and
syntactic. The graphical abbreviations distinguish standard and well-known, but
limited functional scope of the semi-official medical records,
The obvious fact that if in writing sublanguage of medicine this class reductions
belongs to the category of graphics, in a professional conversation - a "lexical
abbreviations, which find wide application in essence no different from other
lexical abbreviations".
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it difficult to process the transfer, increasing ambiguity Current perception
abbreviations.
For example, OD - ODs «patients with over dosage of some drug» пациенты,
получившие передозировку лекарства.
We should not forget about the mixed type of lexical abbreviations, which when
translated become a polualfavitizmami or poluakronimami: : DDSO [di:di:sou]
«diamino-diphenylsulphoxide» – диамино-дифенил сульфоксид; TRITC
[tri:ti:.si:] «tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate» – тетраметилродамин
изотиоцианат.Another type is the mixed type token, where one component is
initsializm, the other - the full word: : H disease «Hart.sdisease» болезнь
Харта; L-dopaлеводопа.
Omoakronimy often used for advertising effect, the psychological impact on the
recipient. Thus, they facilitate the work of the translator, prompting him to the
purpose of this object, pointing to its properties, etc. BEST «blitz electroshock
therapy» – электрошоковая терапия и the best – лучший.
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It is noteworthy that the translation omoakronimov plays an important role
denotative meaning of the prototype, its connotative and stylistic nuances. There
will be a great help slang dictionaries, dialect. Thus, the term, we usually
visually perceived, for example, as an adjective herein is a noun, and is
translated as a noun.Choose an adequate reduction in the translation often helps
and the principle of analogy, when the determination of the unknown values are
used for constructing a model similar rate with known value. And, of course,
important role in the translation are the goals, objectives and conditions of cross-
language professional communication.
In areas of use abbreviations can be divided into some pretty bulky aviation
activities:
As can be seen, even from a small amount of the above examples, English
acronyms have different transmission methods in Russian. So, although the
ICAO has translated into Russian, which also could be used as an abbreviation,
however, almost entirely in Russian (except for a pair of "C" - "K") is stored
transliteration.
The well-known and frequently used abbreviations used in flight operations, air
traffic management, etc.
And if the translation of speech does not cause practical difficulties, the
abbreviations are sometimes an insurmountable obstacle. So even a pretty
experienced translators are confused in Russian abbreviations УВД, ОВД,
ОрВД, often carrying a mistranslation, which results in a change of meaning,
loss of time and the emergence of confidence. УВД – управление воздушным
движением, т.е., ATC – Air Traffic Control; ОВД – обслуживание
воздушного движения, т.е., ATS – Air Traffic Service, а ОрВД – организация
воздушного движения, т.е., Air Traffic Management..
Interpreters are faced with messages AFTN and SITA, they know abbreviations
in them constitute a significant part of the text. They begin with the address part
consisting of eight letters in the record AFTN, and seven characters in the
format of SITA. AFTN, essentially being a network to coordinate on issues of
flight operations and air traffic services, uses a common and well-known cuts,
especially in the messages of Air Force :MVT – movement, FPL – flightplan,
ARR – arrival, DEP – departure, DLA – delay, AFIL – airfiledplan, CNL –
cancel, и т.д. Наряду с ними используются множество других, например:
ISO – insteadof, YR – your, ADZ – advise, FLT – flight, N – and, TKS – thanks,
BRGDS – bestregards.
SITA, the decisive mostly commercial work, in addition to the above have their
own abbreviations.
When translating reductions must be considered that the Russian scientific and
technical and professional style abbreviated words are used less often and,
therefore, many British reduction is necessary to deploy full letter word.
denote the boundaries of words and parts of words а/с – aircraft – самолет,
F/C flightcontrol – управление полетами);
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provides additional information to the main (DCS/0 DeputyChief of Staff,
Operations – заместитель начальника штаба по оперативным вопросам). In
parentheses is always some additional information to the main part of the
reduction. Hyphen usually denotes the boundary of words or phrases to
correlate.
Even the least these examples shows how care and attention should be
approached to translate abbreviations. Therefore, we can conclude that
abbreviations simplify life interpreter as much as and complicated.
Conclusion
Having a rich shortening vocabulary enables you to speak good and fluent
English. In order to understand, speak, read and write good English, one needs
to be skilled in them.
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Conclusion
In First chapter we have reached the main aim, which we had researched in the
work: we distinctively explored the theme that we had analyzed and marked all
the ways and particularities, and gave the general characteristics to
abbreviations.
To reach our aim we have defined the functions of abbreviations; analyzed the
existing categorizations and types of the abbreviations; made the analytical
review of English abbreviations, and the new modern style of abbreviatians. The
theoretical part of the investigation which includes very interesting information
for students, self-studied can be recommended for widening vocabulary and
development of speech and knowledge of English language.
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Bibliography
14. Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner., the Oxford dictionary of English
grammar, 1994
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16. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe youth in the Unece
Region: realities, challenges, opportunities. – Geneva and NY, 2003
2. http//www.wordspy.com
3. http://kpfu.ru/docs/F1797492221/Lectures.on.Le_icology1.pdf
4. http://www.neatorama.com/2007/11/26/origins-of-common-
abbreviations/
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