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Contents
Q. “Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of inscriptions and
coins.” Discuss. .............................................................................................................................................. 1
“The Indus Civilization had an abrupt end.” Discuss the statement and explain how the Indus
Civilization could influence Indian culture in its later history.(200 Words) ....................................... 4
Write a short essay on: “Mauryan municipal administration.” ............................................................. 5
Give a brief account of the social and economic conditions of the Later Vedic Aryans. ................... 6

Q. “Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of

inscriptions and coins.” Discuss.
Ans:

An ancient text does not necessarily offer a simple or direct reflection of the society of its time. Information
has to be teased out with care along with other archaeological evidences like inscriptions and coins to make
historical inferences.

Inscriptions as a source of history

 Compared with manuscript of texts, inscriptions have the advantage of durability.

 They are usually contemporaneous to the events they speak of and their information can be
connected to a time and place.
 Changes and additions made to them can usually be detected without great difficulty.
 Compared to literary sources, which tend to give a theoretical perspective, inscriptions often reflect
what people were actually doing.
 Inscription are a valuable source of information on political history. The geographical spread of a
king’s inscriptions is often taken as indicating the area under his political control. But discovery of
inscriptions depends on chance and not all the inscriptions inscribed during a king’s reign need
necessarily be found. Furthermore, movable inscriptions are not always found in situ, i.e., in their
original place.

The earliest royal inscriptions do not contain much geographical material, but later ones generally do.
Their prashastis give details about the history of dynasties and the reigns of kings. Of course, there are
problems:

 Royal inscriptions naturally tend to exaggerate the achievements of the ruling king. Sometimes,
confusion is created when a genealogy mentions kings with the same name, or when different
inscriptions contradict each other on particular details.
 Sometimes genealogies skip names, for instance, in the case of Skandagupta and Ramagupta, who
are ignored in Gupta genealogies because they did not come within the direct line of succession of
the later ruler.
 There are cases where inscriptions of different dynasties make conflicting claims. For instance, a
Gurjara-Pratihara inscription states that king Vatsaraja conquered all of Karnataka. However, the
contemporary Rastrakuta king claims in his inscriptions to have defeated Vatsaraja and to have

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ruled over the Karnataka area. Wherever possible, details of political events given in inscriptions
have to be cross-checked.
 Inscriptions have also been used as a major source of information on political structures and
administrative and revenue systems. Inscriptions shed light on the history of settlement patterns,
agrarian relations and class and caste structures.
 Inscriptions provide dateable information on the history of religious sects, institutions, and
practices. Donative records help identify the sources of patronage enjoyed by ancient religious
establishments. They also give glimpses into sects and cults that were once important but did not
leave any literature of their own e.g., the Ajivika sect and the yaksha and naga cults.
 Inscriptions can help identify and date sculptures and structures, and thus throw light on the history
of iconography, art, and architecture. They are also a rich source of information on historical
geography. In fact, the location of several ancient Buddhist monastic sites such as Kapilvastu has
been fixed on the basis of inscribed monastic seals.
 Inscriptions reflect the history of languages and literature and a few refer to the performing arts. For
example, the 7th century Kudumiyamalai inscription gives the musical notes used in seven classical
ragas. Inscriptions from Tamil Nadu refer to the performing of various kinds of dances. The pillars
of the eastern and western gateways of the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram have label inscriptions
describing the dance poses of 108 sculpted figures carved on them, quoting verses from the
Natyashastra of Bharata.
 Inscriptions has to be read and analysed carefully and its content can then be compared with those
of other inscriptions and with information from other kind of sources.

Coins as a source of history

 In the course of circulation, coins are subjected to wear and tear and their weight gradually
decreases. This fact enables numismatists to arrange them in a chronological sequence.
 Coins provides clue to several important historical processes. They are linked to monetary history,
which includes an analysis of the production and circulation of coinage, the monetary value attached
to coins, and the frequency and volume of issues. Monetary history is in turn an important aspect of
the history of exchange and trade.
 The legends on coins give information on the history of languages and scripts.
 The wide distribution of Kushana coins indicates the flourishing trade . The ship on certain
Satavahana coins reflects the importance of maritime trade in the Deccan during this period. Roman
coins provide information on Indo-Roman trade. The few coin series issued by guilds indicate the
importance of these institutions.
 Coins are often to indicate levels of economic prosperity (or the lack of it) or the financial condition
of ancient states. Historians interpret the debasement of coins as an indication of a financial crisis
for example in the time of the later Guptas. However, in a situation where the supply of precious
metals is restricted or reduced, alloying or debasement can be a response to an increase in the
demand for coins created by an increase in the volume of economic transactions.
 Dates appear rarely on early Indian coins. Exceptions are western Kshatrapa coins which give dates
in the Shaka era and some Gupta silver coins which give the regnal years of kings. Whether dated
or undated, coins discovered in archaeological excavation often help date the layers. An example is
the site of Sonkh near Mathura, where the excavated levels were divided into eight periods on the
basis of coin finds.
 As important royal message-bearing media, coins form a vital source of political history. The area
of circulation of dynastic issues is often used to estimate the extent and frontiers of empires.

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However, coins often circulated beyond the borders. They also sometimes continued to circulate for
some time after a dynasty faded from power.
 Coins are important source for the political history of India between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE. Most of
the Indo-Greek kings are known almost entirely from their coins. Coins also offer information on
the Parthians, Shakas, Kshatrapas, Kushanas, and Satavahanas. Coins found in various parts of
north and central India mention kings whose names end in the suffix ‘naga’, about whom little is
known from other sources.
 Coins also offer information on ancient political systems. The term gana on coins of the
Yaudheyas and Malavas points to their non-monarchical polity. City coins are suggestive
of the importance and possible autonomy of certain city administrations.
 Sometimes, numismatic evidence offers more than just the names of kings and provides
biographical details. For instance, the only specific detail we know about the life of the
Gupta king Chandragupta I is that he married a Lichchhavi princess, and this detail comes
from coins commemorating the marriage. Coins have helped prove that a Gupta king
named Ramagupta ruled between Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. The performance
of the Ashvamedha sacrifice by Samudragupta and Kumargupta I is recorded on coins. The
archer and battleaxe coin types of Samudragupta tell us about his physical prowess, while
the lyrist type, which shows him playing the vina, represents a completely different aspect
of his personality.
 The depiction of deities on coins provides personal religious preferences of kings, royal
religious policy, and the history of religious cults. For instance, representations of Balarama
and Krishna appear on 2nd century BCE coins in Afghanistan, indicating importance of the
cults of these gods in this region. The depiction of a great variety of figures from Indian,
Iranian, and Graeco-Roman religious traditions on the coins of the Kushana kings is
generally interpreted as a reflection of their eclectic religious views. But it can equally be
read as evidence of the many religious cults prevailing in their empire and the wide range
of religious symbols through which the Kushanas chose to legitimize their political power.

Conclusion

A meticulous and skillful analysis of the sources is the foundation of history. The various literary
and archaeological sources like inscriptions and coins have their own specific potentials and
limitations. Interpretation is integral to analysing the evidence from ancient texts, archaeological
sites, inscriptions, and coins. Whether several sources are available, their evidence has to be
correlated for a more comprehensive and inclusive history of ancient India. However, given the
inherent differences in the nature of literary and archaeological data, it is not always easy to
integrate them into a smooth and seamless narrative.

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“The Indus Civilization had an abrupt end.” Discuss the statement and explain
how the Indus Civilization could influence Indian culture in its later history.(200
Words)
The Indus Valley Civilization(IVC) flourished between about 2600 and 1800 BC before it collapsed into
regional cultures at the Late Harappan stage. Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge,
and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were. Between 1900 and 1700 BC, this great civilization started
to fall apart. Trade with Mesopotamia stopped. Archaeological evidence shows how things got worse.
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro was built over. The city mounds got overcrowded. Drains blocked up.
Some traders even hid their valuables under the floors of their houses! People stopped repairing old homes.
Perhaps the rulers lost control of their cities. Farmers in the Indus Valley went on living in their
villages. Only the cities fell into ruins.

Natural disasters did have a role to play. While sites in Indus valley may have got worn due to repeated
episodes of naturally occurring floods, sites in Ghaggar-Hakra were affected due to gradual desiccation.
Former ones like Mohenjodaro, Harappa show gradual decline while the latter like Banawali, Kalibangan
show sudden end in city life. Over time wind, rain and floods wore some of the mud-bricks away.

Perhaps due to over exploitation of resources, overgrazing etc would have led to drastic environmental
changes. There is no evidence of war or mass killings. If there was some invasion it would have left some
traces in archaeological records. New research put malaria, tuberculosis and leprosy as other reasons for
city’s ultimate demise.

Even after the Harappan culture had broken up (decline), people migrated with its art, agriculture and
possibly social organization. The religion of Hinduism seems to have links with the ancient Indus religion.
Indus Valley people believed water was holy, and Hindus believe they are 'purified' in a religious way
when they bathe in the sacred River Ganges. The cow and bull are sacred animals in India. Farmers still
'terrace' hills slopes to grow crops, the way Indus Valley farmers did. Many people in India and Pakistan
wear jewellery much like that made in Indus Valley cities 4,000 years ago. On the whole the present culture
of India is a composite product from a result of fusion of several cultures where the contribution of Indus
Valley civilization is of utmost importance.

Indus Civilization's influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have
been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre
Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the
earliest evidence for cremation; a practice dominant in Hinduism today. Seal from harappa, with a man
surrounded by animals named as pashupati seal possibly indicates toward the primitive form of Shiva and
a large number of terracotta figurines assumed as "mother goddess" and female goddess associated with
fertility are also found.

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Write a short essay on: “Mauryan municipal administration.”

Ans:

Megasthenes’ account of municipal administration

Megasthenes has given a vivid description of the administration of Pataliputra where he

mentions six committees of five members each, in charge of the following aspects:-

(a) Industrial arts;

(b) the entertainment and surveillance of foreigners;
(c) maintaining records of birth and death;
(d) trade and commerce (inspecting weights and measures, etc);
(e) supervising the public sales of goods;
(f) the collection of taxes on merchandise sold in the market.

Ashokan inscriptions

It mentions the nagalaviyohalaka- mahamatas who were associated with municipal

administration.

The Arthashastra
(a) It gives information about an officer called the nagaraka who had sthanikas and gopas under
him.

(b) It mentions high officials like Samaharta (Chief collector of revenue and who maintained the
accounts) and Sannidhata (treasurer and also in charge of royal stores).

(c) It also mentions about officers like dauvarika (chief of palace attendants), the antaravamshika
(chief of palace guards), and adhyakshas (departmental heads).

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Give a brief account of the social and economic conditions of the Later Vedic
Aryans.
Ans:

Compared to the Rig Veda Samhita, later Vedic literature reveals greater complexity in social life and
economic activities.

Agriculture:

 Agriculture increases in importance. Cereals such as barley (yava), wheat (godhuma), and rice
(vrihi) are mentioned, and there are several references to agricultural operations such as sowing,
ploughing, reaping, and threshing.
 The Atharva Veda has charms to ward off pests and to avert drought, reflecting the anxieties that
farmers must have had.

Rights over Land:

 Land was occupied by extended families, and the clan seems to have exercised general rights over
land.
 The institution of private property in land had not yet emerged.

Labour:

 The household was the basic unit of labour.

 Slaves were not used for productive purposes to any significant degree, and there are no words for
hired labour.

Gifts:

 Hymns in praise of gifts (dana-stutis) in the later books of the Rig Veda refer to generous presents
of cows, horses, chariots, gold, clothes, and female slaves made by kings to priests.
 This indicates the items valued in society, the concentration of wealth in the hands of rulers, and the
relationship and exchanges between kings and priests.

Gift of land:

 The earliest references to the gift of land occur in later Vedic texts, but the attitude towards this
practice was still ambivalent.
 The Aitareya Brahmana suggests that the king should gift 1,000 pieces of gold, a field, and cattle to
the Brahmana who anoints him. Yet the same text tells us that when king Vishvakarman Bhauvana
wanted to make a gift of land as dakshina to his Brahmana priest Kashyapa, the earth goddess
herself appeared before him and said that no mortal should give her away. A similar story occurs in
the Shatapatha Brahmana in the context of the performance of the sarvamedha sacrifice.

Use of Iron:

 The earliest literary references to iron in the Indian subcontinent are found in later Vedic literature.
 The terms krishna-ayas, shyama, and shyama-ayas (the black or dark metal) in the Yajur
Veda and Atharva Veda clearly refer to this metal.

Use of iron in agriculture:

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 The Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajur Veda mentions ploughs driven by 6 or even 12 oxen.
 The Atharva Veda mentions an amulet born of a ploughshare, smitten away with a knife by a skilful
smith.
 The reference to the smith and the fact that iron is definitely known in the Atharva Veda suggest
that the ploughshare in question was made of iron.
 In the context of implements used in the ashvamedha sacrifice, the Shatapatha Brahmana connects
iron with the peasantry.
 The term ayovikara kushi in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi has been translated as ‘iron ploughshare’.
 Early Buddhist texts belonging to c. 600–200 BCE contain several references to iron.
 The Suttanipata refers to many objects made of ayas.
 Especially important is a simile that mentions a ploughshare that has got hot during the day, and
which was thrown into water. This seems to be a reference to the process of quenching iron objects.
 All these references suggest that between c. 1000 BCE and 500 BCE, the use of iron in agriculture
had become prevalent in the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper and middle Ganga valley.

Crafts and occupations:

 Later Vedic texts mention various kinds of artisans, such as carpenters, chariot makers, bow-and
arrow makers, metal workers, leather workers, tanners, and potters.
 There is a long list of crafts and occupations in the list of victims in the purushamedha sacrifice,
described in the Vajasaneyi Samhita and the Taittiriya Brahmana. These include the following:
doorkeeper, charioteer, attendant, drummer, mat maker, smith, ploughman, astrologer, herdsman,
maker of bowstrings, carpenter, wood-gatherer, basket maker, jeweller, vintner, elephant keeper,
and goldsmith.
 Vocations mentioned in other later Vedic texts include those of the physician, washerman, hunter,
fowler, ferryman, servant, barber, cook, boatman, and messenger.

Mode of transportation:

 Wagons drawn by oxen were probably the most frequent mode of transport.
 Chariots (rathas) were used for war and sport, and people rode on horses and elephants.
 Boats are mentioned, but it is not clear whether they were for riverine or sea travel.
 Trade, coinage and urbanisation:
 The extent of trade is not certain.
 Exchange was still via barter, as there is no clear reference to coinage.
 The general milieu as can be gathered from the texts is a rural one, although towards the end of the
period, there are traces of the beginnings of urbanism—the Taittiriya Aranyaka uses the
word nagara in the sense of a town.

Education and Learning:

 Although only philosophical and religious texts of the time have survived, these allude to other
branches of learning.
 The Chandogya Upanishad gives a list of subjects of study including the Veda, itihasa, purana,
spiritual knowledge (brahma-vidya), grammar, mathematics (rashi), chronology (nidhi), dialectics
(vakovakya), ethics (ekayana), astronomy, military science, the science of snakes, and knowledge of
portents (daiva).
 Later Vedic texts only indicate how sacred knowledge was imparted.
 importance was attached to the relationship between teacher and pupil and to oral instruction.

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 The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to the upanayana ceremony, which initiated the young boy into
brahmacharya—the stage of celibate studenthood.
 Education—of whatever kind—seems to have been largely restricted to elite males.

Leisure:

 The leisure pastimes mentioned in later Vedic texts are similar to those referred to in the family
books of the Rig Veda.
 Chariot racing and dicing were popular, as were music and dancing.
 Lute players, flute players, conch blowers, and drummers are mentioned. So are musical
instruments such as the cymbals (aghati), drums, flutes, lutes, and a harp or lyre with 100 strings
(vana).
 The term shailusha, mentioned among the victims in the purushamedha in the Vajasaneyi Samhita,
may mean an actor or dancer.
 The Yajur Veda mentions a vansha-nartin (pole-dancer or acrobat).

Food:

 Apupa was a cake mixed with ghee, or made out of rice or barley.
 Odana was made by mixing grain variously with milk, water, curds, or ghee; beans, sesame or meat
were sometimes added.
 Karambha was a porridge made of grain, barley or sesame.
 Rice was sometimes fried, or else cooked with milk and beans.
 Yavagu was a gruel made out of barley.
 Milk products such as curds, sour milk, and butter were consumed.
 Meat was eaten on special occasions, such as when honouring guests.
 There are references to an intoxicating beverage called sura. The soma plant had become difficult to
obtain, so substitutes were allowed.

Clothes:

 People wore woven cotton clothes.

 Clothes made of woollen thread (urna-sutra) are also mentioned often, and were probably made of
sheep’s wool or goat’s hair.
 There is mention of turbans and leather sandals.
 Ornaments:
 Ornaments such as nishka were worn around the neck, and jewels or conch shells were worn as
amulets to ward off evil.
 The Brahmana texts frequently mention the prakasha —either an ornament of metal or a metal
mirror

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