PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 1 CHE572-2014

1. APPROXIMATE DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR SMOOTH, RIGID

SPHERICAL PARTICLES

(a) Stokes’ Law Region (strictly for Rep<0.2, but may be used for
Rep1)
24  f Uod p
CD  where Re p 
Re p f

(b) Intermediate Region (1<Rep<500)

CD  18.5 Re p0.6

(c) Newton’s Law Region (500<Rep<2x105)

CD  0.43

(d) Turbulent Region (Rep>2x105)

CD  0.11

2. TERMINAL VELOCITY IN FREE FALL OR RISE

Two dimensionless groups derived from the standard drag curve


4 d p f  p  f g
3
  f vT d p
CD ReT2  where ReT 
3 f 2 f

CD 
4 g f  p   f 

ReT 3  f2v T3

Curves for CDReT2 and CD/ReT are given in Fig. 2

 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 2 CHE572-2014

The three flow regions based from Stoke’s Law

(i) For spherical particles

Laminar region (Ret < 0.2)

   f gdv2 24
v T ,ST  , dp < 33 m; CD 
p

18 f Ret

 Turbulent region, (Ret >1000)

4  p   f gdv
v T ,N  . , dp > 1500 m
3 0.43 f

CD  0.43

 Transition region, 0.2 < Ret < 1000

 f  p   f gd v3
4
CD Ret2 
3

or

CD 4  p  f f

Ret 3  f2 v T3

Generally,

4  p   f d v g
CD  .
3  f v T2
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 3 CHE572-2014

(ii) For non-spherical particles

 For laminar region, Ret < 0.2

K ST  p   f gd v2
v T ,ST 
18 f


where K ST  0.843 log and d v  1.13d p
0.065
 Turbulent region, Ret > 1000

4  p   f gdv
v T ,N  .
3 K N f

where K N  5.31  4.88

 Transition region, 0.2 < Ret < 1000

  0.43    1000  Ret  0.43

K TR  K ST    . 
  N   
K 1000  0.2  KN

vT  K TR vT Sphere
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 4 CHE572-2014

Standard Drag curves from Stoke’s Law

Fig. 1: Drag Coefficient, CD versus particle Reynold’s

number, Rep
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Alternatively, the following equations can be used to form a

computer program (Clift, Grace & Weber, Bubbles, Drops and
Particles, Academic Press.

Range Correlation
C Re2
ReT  D T
24
CDReT2  73; ReT  2.37

 1.7569 x10  4 CD ReT2  2

 6.9252 x10 7 C Re 
D
2 3
T

 2.3027 x10 10 C Re 

D T
2 4

73 <CDReT2  580 log10 ReT  1.7095

2.37 <ReT  12.2 
 1.33438 log10 CD ReT2 

 0.11591 log10 C D ReT2 
2

580 <CDReT2  1.55 x 107 log10 ReT  1.81391

12.2 <ReT  6.35 x 103  
 1.34671 log10 CD ReT2

 0.12427 log C Re 
10 D
2 2
T

 0.006344 log C Re 
10 D
2 3
T

1.55 x 107 <CDReT2  5 x 1010 log10 ReT  5.33283

6.35x103 <ReT  3 x 105  
 1.21728 log10 CD ReT2

 0.19007 log C Re 
10 D
2 2
T

 0.007005 log C Re 
10 D
2 3
T
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 6 CHE572-2014

CD/ReT
CDReT2

Terminal velocity Reynolds number, ReT

2
Fig. 2: CDReT and CD/ReT as a function of Reynolds number
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 7 CHE572-2014

3. FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH PACKED BEDS

(a) For incompressible fluids:

P  150
1   f Uo H
2
 1.75
1   f Uo H
2

3 2
d sv 3 d sv

 = voidage (-)
Uo = superficial gas velocity (m/s)
dsv = equivalent surface/volume diameter (m)
f = gas density (kg/m3)
H = height or length of bed (m)

(b) For compressible fluids:

P  150
1   2  f GH  1.75 1    HG 2
3  f d sv
2
3  f d sv

G   f Uo

 f = mean viscosity of fluid (Ns/m2)

G =, mass flux of fluid (kg/m2.s)
 f = mean density of fluid (kg/m3)
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 8 CHE572-2014

4. FLUIDIZATION

(a) Geldart’s Classification of Powders (1973)

10000

B
p - g (kg/m3)

D
1000

A
C
100
10 100 1000 10000
Particle size, (m)

Fig. 3: Particle Classification according to Geldart (1973)

PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 9 CHE572-2014

(b) Minimum fluidization velocity

Wen-Yu equation (1966), for dpi > 100 m

f
U mf 
 f dv

1135.7  0.0408 Ar 1 / 2  33.7 
 f  p   f gd sv3
where Ar 
 2f

Ar = Archimedes number (-)

f = fluid density (kg/m3)
p = particle density (kg/m3)
f = fluid viscosity (Ns/m2)
dv = equivalent volume diameter (m)
dp = particle diameter (m)
dsv = equivalent volume/surface diameter (m)

Baeyens & Geldart (1974), for dpi < 100 m

 f 
0.934
g 0.934d 1p.8
U mf 
p

1110  0f.87  0f.066

PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 10 CHE572-2014

(c) Bed expansion of a liquid fluidized bed

Richardson and Zaki (1954) equation

U o  vT  n

Khan and Richardson (1989)

4.8  n   dp 
0.27

 0.043Ar 0.57 1  2.4  
n  2.4  D  

dp = Particle diameter (m)

D = Diameter of vessel (m)
n = Exponent for Khan & Richardson equation (-)
 = mean voidage (-)
Uo = Superficial fluid velocity (m/s)
PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 11 CHE572-2014

5. ENTRAINMENT

(a) Elutriation rate constant, Ki∞

i. For dpi<100 m, Uo<1.2 m/s, use the correlation from

Zenz and Weil (1958)

1.88
K i  Uo 2  Uo
2

 1.26x10 
7
2
when < 3x10-4 m6/kg2
 gUo  gd pi  p  gd pi  p
2

1.18
K i  Uo 2  Uo
2

 4.31x10 4  2
when > 3x10-4 m6/kg2
 gUo  gd pi  p  gd pi  p
2

ii. For larger particles and higher velocities, use the correlation
from Geldart (1979)

5.4vT
K i
 23.7 e Uo

 gU o

(b) Rate of entrainment, Ri for dpi

d
Ri   M B x Bi   K ih* Ax Bi
dt
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 12 CHE572-2014

(c) Mass fraction in bed, xBi

  K ih At 
x Bi  x Bio exp 
 MB 

or

Fx Fi
x Bi 
K ih A  F  Rt 

Ki∞ = elutriation rate constant for size above TDH (kg/m2s)

g = gas density (kg/m3)
p = particle density (kg/m3)
dpi = particle diameter (m)
Uo = superficial gas velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
vt = terminal velocity of particle size dpi (m/s)
xBi = mass of size fraction dpi in bed (-)
xBio = initial mass of size fraction dpi in bed (-)
xFi = mass of size fraction dpi in feed (-)
Rt = total rate entrainment (kg/s)
A = cross sectional area (m2)
F = feed rate (kg/s)
t = time (s)
MB = total mass in bed (kg)
PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 13 CHE572-2014

(d) Entrainment flux, Eh

For entrainment flux when the gas offtake is at any height, h

above the bed surface:

From Wen and Chen(1982)

E h  E   Eo  E  exp ah

where

Eh = Entrainment flux of solids at gas offtake (kg/m2 s)

E∞ = Entrainment flux of solids when gas offtake is
above TDH(F) (kg/m2 s)
Eo = Entrainment flux of solids at bed surface (kg/m2 s)
a = overall decay constant -
h = distance above the bed surface (m)

(e) Transport Disengagement Height (TDH)

i. Coarse particle

(Soroko et. al, 1969)

TDH  1200H Re1p.55 Ar 1.1

for;
Reynold’s number : 15<Rep<300
Archimedes number : 19.5<Ar<6.5
Packed bed height : H<0.5 m
Particle diameter : dp = 0.7 to 2.5 mm
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 14 CHE572-2014

ii. Fine particle

(Horio et. al, 1980)

TDH  4.47d Bvs

0.5

dBvs = equivalent sphere diameter of a bubble at bed

surface

(Fournol et. al, 1973)

2
Uo
TDH  1000
g

(Amitin et. al, 1968)

TDH  0.851.2 7.33  1.2 log10 U o 

6. HOPPER DESIGN

H   crit
B
bg

B = minimum hopper outlet dimeter (m)


H   = 2  (conical outlet) (-)
60
b = bulk density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
crit = critical unconfined yield stress (N/m2)
PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 15 CHE572-2014

Hopper flow factor values for conical channels, =30o

Hopper flow factor values for conical channels, =40o

PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 16 CHE572-2014

Hopper flow factor values for conical channels, =50o

Hopper flow factor values for conical channels, =60o

 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 17 CHE572-2014

7. PNEUMATIC TRANSPORT

(a) Saltation velocity:

1
      1
2
 4M 10  g  / 2 D  2  
U salt  S

 f  
 

MS = mass flowrate (kg/s)

g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
f = gas density (kg/m3)
D = pipe diameter (m)
 = 1440dp + 1.96 (-)
 = 1100dp + 2.5 (-)
dp = particle diameter (m)

(b) Choking velocity:

Punwani correlation

2250 D  CH
4.7
 1
U CH
 vT 
Gs
and  g0.77   
 CH  p 1   CH   UCH 
2

 v T 
  CH 

CH = voidage at choking (-)

UCH= choking velocity (m/s)
vT = terminal velocity (m/s)
g = gas density (kg/m3)
p = particle density (kg/m3)
D = pipe diameter (m)
Gs = mass flux solids (kg m-2 s-1)
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 18 CHE572-2014

(c) Pressure drop:

u g2 1   u 2p
P   g  p  Fgw L  Fsw L   p L1   g sin    g Lg sin 
2 2

2fg  g U o
2

where Fgw L  L
D

i. for horizontal flow

2fs  p 1   H u p2
Fsw L  L
D
2
3 g D
u g  u p 

where fs  CD  
8 p d
 up  
and

u p  U o 1  0.0638d p
0.3
 p0.5 
ii. for vertical flow

g
Fsw L  0.057Gs L
D

 = voidage (-)
U = superficial gas velocity (m/s)
ug = gas velocity (m/s)
up = particle velocity (m/s)
fg = gas friction factor (-)
fs = solid friction factor (-)
CD = single particle drag coefficient (-)
L = pipe length (m)
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 19 CHE572-2014

iii. Pressure drop across standard 90o bends:

Assume equivalent to the pressure drop across 7.5 m at
vertical conveying pipe.

8. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Mean composition

N
1
y
N
y
i 1
i

N = number of samples
yi = composition of component

Variance

 y  y
2
i
S2  i 1

N 1

Two-component mixture variance

Completely segregated,  02  p1  p 

p1  p 
Randomly mixed,  R2 
n

p and 1-p are the proportions of two components

n = number of particles in each sample
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 20 CHE572-2014

Mixture Variance

S 2 N  1
 L2 
 2

S 2 N  1
 U2 
12

Differential frequency number distribution

mass of particles in each size range

= number of particles in size range x mass of one particle
 px 3
dm  dn 
6

ρp = particle density
x = arithmetic mean of adjacent sieve size.
 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 21 CHE572-2014

Chi-squared distribution table

P
DF 0.995 0.975 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.001
1 0.0000393 0.000982 1.642 2.706 3.841 5.024 5.412 6.635 7.879 9.550 10.828
2 0.0100 0.0506 3.219 4.605 5.991 7.378 7.824 9.210 10.597 12.429 13.816
3 0.0717 0.216 4.642 6.251 7.815 9.348 9.837 11.345 12.838 14.796 16.266
4 0.207 0.484 5.989 7.779 9.488 11.143 11.668 13.277 14.860 16.924 18.467
5 0.412 0.831 7.289 9.236 11.070 12.833 13.388 15.086 16.750 18.907 20.515
6 0.676 1.237 8.558 10.645 12.592 14.449 15.033 16.812 18.548 20.791 22.458
7 0.989 1.690 9.803 12.017 14.067 16.013 16.622 18.475 20.278 22.601 24.322
8 1.344 2.180 11.030 13.362 15.507 17.535 18.168 20.090 21.955 24.352 26.124
9 1.735 2.700 12.242 14.684 16.919 19.023 19.679 21.666 23.589 26.056 27.877
10 2.156 3.247 13.442 15.987 18.307 20.483 21.161 23.209 25.188 27.722 29.588
11 2.603 3.816 14.631 17.275 19.675 21.920 22.618 24.725 26.757 29.354 31.264
12 3.074 4.404 15.812 18.549 21.026 23.337 24.054 26.217 28.300 30.957 32.909
13 3.565 5.009 16.985 19.812 22.362 24.736 25.472 27.688 29.819 32.535 34.528
14 4.075 5.629 18.151 21.064 23.685 26.119 26.873 29.141 31.319 34.091 36.123
15 4.601 6.262 19.311 22.307 24.996 27.488 28.259 30.578 32.801 35.628 37.697
16 5.142 6.908 20.465 23.542 26.296 28.845 29.633 32.000 34.267 37.146 39.252
17 5.697 7.564 21.615 24.769 27.587 30.191 30.995 33.409 35.718 38.648 40.790
18 6.265 8.231 22.760 25.989 28.869 31.526 32.346 34.805 37.156 40.136 42.312
19 6.844 8.907 23.900 27.204 30.144 32.852 33.687 36.191 38.582 41.610 43.820
20 7.434 9.591 25.038 28.412 31.410 34.170 35.020 37.566 39.997 43.072 45.315
21 8.034 10.283 26.171 29.615 32.671 35.479 36.343 38.932 41.401 44.522 46.797
22 8.643 10.982 27.301 30.813 33.924 36.781 37.659 40.289 42.796 45.962 48.268
23 9.260 11.689 28.429 32.007 35.172 38.076 38.968 41.638 44.181 47.391 49.728
24 9.886 12.401 29.553 33.196 36.415 39.364 40.270 42.980 45.559 48.812 51.179
25 10.520 13.120 30.675 34.382 37.652 40.646 41.566 44.314 46.928 50.223 52.620