Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Educational Research Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/edurev

Thematic Review

Student teachers’ professional identity: A review of research

T
contributions
Filomena Rodrigues∗, Maria João Mogarro
Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Twenty-two empirical studies on student teachers' professional identity were selected for this
Professional identity review. In this paper we present important implications for current and future research on stu-
Student teachers dent teachers' professional identity by focusing on the discussion of key-issues associated with it.
Initial teacher education We also discuss the studies’ contributions and implications for initial teacher education and fu-
Higher education
ture research. Based on this discussion, we present a working definition of professional identity
and consider which are the current emerging research issues.

1. Introduction

Research in the field of Education and Teacher Education has emphasized the importance of professional identity (Beauchamp &
Thomas, 2009; Beijaard, Meijer, & Verloop, 2004; Pillen, Beijaard, & Brok, 2013). Identity development is a fluid and changeable
social process that involves individual and collective perception and differentiation (Sherry, 2008). Due to its multifaceted and
complex nature, the review of studies that focus on professional identity shows its evolution, current trends and which areas remain
uncharted. Hence, with this paper, we intend to pinpoint research contributions regarding student teachers’ professional identity by
reviewing twenty-two articles that were published in the last ten years.
We start by presenting some contributions from prior reviews, and the methodological procedures and limitations of this review.
Then, we discuss the reviewed studies’ definitions of professional identity, key-issues that are associated with it, major findings and
contributions and implications for initial teacher education (ITE) and future research, ending this paper by proposing a working
definition of professional identity.

2. Contributions from prior reviews

As a starting point, we looked for articles on professional identity in some high impact journals, including those that exclusively
publish analytic reviews, literature reviews and states of the art in the field of Education. We found eight articles (Avraamidou, 2014;
Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009; Beijaard et al., 2004; Gee, 2000; Izadinia, 2013; Johnston, 2012; Luehmann, 2007; Trede, Macklin, &
Bridges, 2012), which will be used throughout this paper to inform, complement or substantiate our own review.
Some of these prior reviews have identified the use of identity as a lens from a theoretical perspective. On the one hand, Gee
(2000) and posteriorly Beauchamp and Thomas (2009, p. 175) have recognized that identity “can be used as a frame or an analytic
lens” through which one can scrutinize different aspects of teaching, integrating influences and confronting tensions and contra-
dictions. Avraamidou (2014), on the other hand, based on Luehmann’s (2007) ideas for science teacher education, discussed the use

∗
Corresponding author. Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013, Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail addresses: filomenarodrigues@campus.ul.pt (F. Rodrigues), mjmogarro@ie.ulisboa.pt (M.J. Mogarro).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100286
Received 23 November 2018; Received in revised form 27 April 2019; Accepted 17 July 2019
Available online 26 July 2019
1747-938X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286

Table 1
Search criteria and key-words used in databases.
Databases Search Criteria Key-Words

ScienceDirect Title Identity

Professional identity
Student teacher
Key-words Identity
Professional identity
Taylor & Francis Online Title Identity
Student teacher
Key-words Professional identity
Student teacher
Anywhere in the text Secondary student teacher
Springer Link Title Identity
With the exact phrase Student teacher
Sage Journals Title Identity
Key-words Professional identity
Abstract Student teacher

of identity as a “lens for teacher preparation” (p. 152) as way to understand learning and development processes.
From a more practical standpoint, some authors (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009; Luehmann, 2007; MacLure, 1993) argue that
identity can also be a resource, i.e., an organizing element that teachers use to explain, justify and make sense of themselves in
relation to others when given the opportunity to create and narrate their stories. With a similar viewpoint, Johnston (2012) sates that
identity provides a tool that enables a deeper understanding of an individual.
In both perspectives (theoretical and methodological), the complexity of teacher identity is always present and intertwined with a
set of different components and attributes which are challenged by several factors within multiple contexts (Avraamidou, 2014).
Moreover, identity has also been identified as an emerging field, a research area and a process (Avraamidou, 2014; Beijaard et al.,
2004) and ITE seems to be the ideal starting point for an ongoing professional identity development (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009).

3. Methodology

Using key-words we have searched for articles on secondary student teachers’ professional identity on databases that include some
of the most prestigious and well ranked journals in the fields of Education and Teacher Education. Used databases and respective
search criteria are listed in Table 1. Though always using advanced search in all databases, key-words and search criteria could not be
exactly the same, because they needed to be adjusted to the specificities of the search engines existing Boolean operators from each
database. For this reason, on ScienceDirect and Taylor & Francis Online databases several runs of searches were required. We used
multiple criteria simultaneously in each search.
These searches were done in the beginning of 2018. Search results showed only three articles were prior to 2007, therefore we
decided to limit our search to journal articles that were publish from January 2007 until December 2017. Afterwards, we made a pre-
selection by examining the title and abstract of each search results and discarded the articles that were not related to student teachers’
professional identity. Using Excel, we created a list of the remaining articles and made a second selection by inspecting their
methodology section and rejected all articles that: (a) were not associated to initial teacher education (ITE); and (b) despite being
related to ITE, were only focused on primary or childhood education.
By applying these criteria, we reduced the number of articles to 22. A schematic representation of this selection process can be
found in Fig. 1. Afterwards, we analyzed the articles according to the following questions:

• How is professional identity defined?

• What are the key issues associated with professional identity?
• What are the studies' major contributions and findings to the overall knowledge?
• What are the implications and suggestions made by these studies for teacher education, teacher educators and future research?
It is worth mentioning that this review is circumscribed to journal articles, it is limited to our focus of analysis and it is restricted
both to the number of databases consulted and characteristics of Boolean operators of those databases. Other similar concepts from
the field of Psychology, such as vocational or occupational identity, were deliberately not considered. Also, the search was primarily
centered on studies that have been published in leading journals. Therefore, despite adding to the quality of the arguments, other
articles on these topics may exist and are not be considered here. Furthermore, we recognize that unpublished work (such as doctoral
dissertations and conference presentations) and other published work (books, book chapters and conference proceedings) could also
have valuable contributions to this sort of analysis but we opted not to consider them here. However, this review provides a sig-
nificant contribution to the knowledge in field of education, as it summarizes the research about professional identity in teacher
education that was published in leading journals over the last ten years.

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F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of analyzed articles per database.

4. Professional identity: striving for a definition

Many of the selected articles present a theoretical framework on identity and/or professional identity (sometimes denoted as
teacher identity) and are based on previous definitions and concepts presented by other authors. However, only few authors clearly
state the definition they have adopted in their research (e.g. Melville, Bartley, & Fazio, 2013; Pillen et al., 2013). On the one hand,
Martínez-de-la-Hidalga and Villardón-Gallego (2016) do not present a theoretical framework in their article and although some issues
regarding professional identity are briefly mentioned in the introduction, no theoretical discussion is made on the concept, and no
definition is presented either. Pedretti, Bencze, Hewitt, Romkey, and Jivraj (2008) present a theoretical foundation relating identity
with science, technology, society and environment (STSE), but they also do not present any definition of professional identity.
Likewise, Lanas and Kelchtermans (2015) mention the importance of self-reconstruction for the development of teacher ideal, but
there is no definition of teacher identity in their article. On the other hand, Chong and Low (2009) opted to define identity before
defining professional identity and despite the absence of the term professional identity, this notion is underlying the definition of
identity given by Melville et al. (2013). The absence of a definition in several works was also noted by Beijaard et al. (2004), and
Beauchamp and Thomas (2009). The major features of the theoretical foundations that substantiate the definitions of identity and/or
professional identity presented in the selected articles are summarized in Table 2.
Some authors (Avraamidou, 2014; Beijaard et al., 2004) have recognized that the construct of teacher professional identity has
been conceptualized and framed within several theoretical underpinnings. Our review supports this viewpoint. Overall, fifty-four
different reference works were used to theoretically substantiate the definitions presented in the selected articles (Table 2). Not-
withstanding, some of these works are used in more than one article, such as: (a) Beijaard et al. (2004), cited in six articles; (b).
Wenger (1998), mentioned in five articles; (c) Flores and Day (2006), stated in four articles; (d) Coldron and Smith (1999) used in
three articles; and (e) Beauchamp and Thomas (2009), Cooper and Olson (1996), Day, Kington, Stobart, and Sammons (2006), Gee
(2000), MacLure (1993), Sachs (2005) and Smagorinsky, Cook, Moore, Jackson, and Fry (2004) referred in two articles. Erikson
(1968, 1974) and Zembylas (2003, 2004) are cited in articles, but the references used are from different years. Therefore, many
definitions focus on the same issues.
Besides professional identity (defined in 19 of the 22 articles) and identity (used in three articles), the following theoretical key-
concepts are also explored in more than one article: reflection, self, emotions, ITE, learning, professional knowledge and perceptions
of teaching. Agency, collaboration, professional development, professional image, professionalization and relation between theory
and practice are some of the other theoretical concepts described in the articles. In their review, Beauchamp and Thomas (2009) and
Trede et al. (2012) have also identified self, emotion, narratives, discourse, reflection and agency as the key-issues associated with
professional identity. Izadinia’s (2013) review focused on reflection, learning communities, prior experiences and methodologies
used. Luehmann (2007) stressed the challenges on identity constitution during ITE and Avraamidou (2014) considered that reforms,
subject matter knowledge, competence, performance, recognition, life histories, context and professional development frame pro-
fessional identity.
Considering the definitions presented in Table 2, professional identity is clearly associated with the interactions that occur in a
professional context. But what is the core of a professional identity? We cannot attempt to answer this question without mentioning

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 Table 2
Summary definitions of professional identity and respective theoretical foundations.
Articles
Ballantyne and Grootenboer
(2012)
Beauchamp and Thomas (2010)
Chong and Low (2009)
4
Dahlgren and Chiriac (2009)
Dang (2013)
Gaudelli and Ousley (2009)
Lamote and Engels (2010)
Lanas and Kelchtermans (2015)
Publishing Educational Levels and Areas Professional Identity
Journal
Definition Cited Authors
IJME Level: Primary and Secondary Professional identity is not fixed but is simultaneously stable Beijaard et al. (2004); Lauriala and Kukkonen (2005)
Areas: Music and dynamic. It depends on the current, sociocultural and ideal
F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro
selves, and it is legitimated and influenced by others. It is
formed by the interpretation and reinterpretation of events, and
it can be constituted by sub-identities, particularly in the
beginning of the professional career.
RP Unidentified Professional identity is multifaceted, changeable and unstable; Day et al. (2006); Flores and Day (2006); Sachs (2005);
it is related to the concept of self and it is influenced by Smagorinsky et al. (2004)
professional contexts and the past experiences of teachers as
students themselves.
ERPP Level: Primary and Secondary Identity is chronological, changeable and formed within social Coldron and Smith (1999); Erikson (1974); Knowles (1992);
Areas: Unidentified contexts; it represents the theories, attitudes and beliefs that Mayer (1999); McCormick and Pressley (1997)
individuals have of themselves.
Professional identity is related with the concepts and
perceptions that teachers have of themselves as professionals; it
is not stable, fixed, unitary or imposed, instead it is multifaceted
and influenced by historical, sociological and cultural factors. It
is based on the core beliefs that individuals have on teaching
and being a teacher, which are continuously being formed,
reformed and negotiated through experience.
TTE Level: Upper Secondary Professional identity involves agency and it is formed by sub- Beijaard et al. (2004); Lave and Wenger (1991); Wenger
Areas: Unidentified identities through a continuous process of interpretation and (1998)
reinterpretation of experiences, encompassing both person and
context, and it is developed and negotiated in professional
communities.
TTE Level: Secondary Professional identity is dynamic and filled with tensions. It is Akkerman and Meijer (2011); Smagorinsky et al. (2004)
Areas: English simultaneously unitary and multiple, continuous and
discontinuous, individual and social. Its formation derives from
a constant negotiation of different teaching conceptions.
TTE Professional identity is the skin of the individual. It includes a Unidentified
set of specific characteristics, which were developed during
professional experiences, it is based on personal beliefs. It is an
organ that cannot be changed but is constantly changing and it
is simultaneously restoring, protecting and generating itself.
Therefore, it comprises the meanings that constitute a teacher.
EJTE Level: Lower Secondary Areas: Professional identity is as a multi meaning concept related Cattley (2007); Coldron and Smith (1999); Cooper and Olson
Several unspecified with the concept of self and teachers' role; it is related to the (1996); Verloop (2003)
perceptions that teachers have of themselves and it requires a
continuous and dynamic process of interpretation and
reinterpretation of learning experiences that is influenced by
social interactions and personal, psychologic and social factors.
TTE Unidentified No definition is presented. Non-applicable
(continued on next page)
Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286
 Table 2 (continued)

Articles Publishing Educational Levels and Areas Professional Identity

Journal
Definition Cited Authors

Lim (2011) TTE Level: Secondary Areas: English Professional identity formation involves a continuous process Beijaard et al. (2004); Coldron and Smith (1999); Duff and
of identification, interpretation, reinterpretation and Uchida (1997); Golombek (1998); Kerby (1991); Samuel and
negotiation of self-images, teaching and learning experiences, Stephens (2000); Tsui (2007); Volkmann and Anderson
F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro

and professional roles associated with a certain sociocultural (1998)

Lindqvist et al. (2017)
Mahmoudi-Gahrouei et al. (2016)
Martínez-de-la-Hidalga and
Villardón-Gallego (2016)
Melville et al. (2013)
TTE Level: Lower Secondary Areas:
Several unspecified
APER Level: Unidentified
Areas: English
PSBS Level: Upper Secondary Areas:
Several, including sciences
IJSME Level: Unidentified
and institutional context. This process involves struggles and
tensions which are a result of the integration of the different
perspectives, expectations and professional roles.
Professional identity is dynamic, fluid and multifaceted with a Beijaard et al. (2004); Darby (2008); Flores and Day (2006);
focus on becoming; it involves agency and the negotiation of Lasky (2005); Nichols, Schutz, Rodgers, and Bilica (2017);
contextual and situational aspects, and it is influenced by O'Conner (2008)
personal values, efficacy, engagement, emotions, knowledge
and beliefs.
There is not a consensual definition of professional identity. Day et al. (2006); Kelchtermans (2005); Moshman (1998)
Usually, it refers to the way teachers see themselves
professionally as a result of how they interpret the continuous
interactions that occur in professional contexts. It is shaped by
the interactions that are established between personal,
professional and situational dimensions.
No definition is presented. Non-applicable
Within a post-structural stance, identity is unstable; it is a Helms (1998); MacLure (1993); Sfard and Prusak (2005);

5
Pedretti et al. (2008)
Pillen et al. (2013)
Schepens et al. (2009)
Area: Sciences dynamic and intersubjective process that is constantly being Wenger (1998); Zembylas (2003)
developed by the teachers' continuous discourses, experiences
and emotions within their work context and it translates to their
sense of self while being materialized as stories that people tell
themselves and others.
SE Level: Unidentified No definition is presented. Non-applicable
Area: Sciences
EJTE Level: Primary and Secondary Professional identity is unstable, dynamic, active and Beauchamp and Thomas (2009); Beijaard et al. (2004);
Areas: Unspecified changeable, and it is influenced by personal characteristics, Cooper and Olson (1996); Flores and Day (2006); Hong
school history, previous experiences and professional contexts. (2010); MacLure (1993);
According to a socio-psychologic stance, professional identity Olsen (2008); Rodgers and Scott (2008); Schepens et al.
development is an integrative process of knowledge, beliefs, (2009)
attitudes, personal norms and values, on the one hand, and
demands of ITE institutions and schools, including inherent
values and standards of the profession, attempting to find
personal and professional balance, on the other hand.
ES Level: Pre-school, Primary and Professional identity is dynamic, contextualized and involves Beijaard et al. (2004); Erikson (1968); Mead (1934); Tickle
Secondary agency; it is influenced by (current and past) experiences, (2000)
Areas: Unspecified personal conceptions and expectations, and it is related to the
concept of self and to what individuals consider important
within their professional context. The formation of a
professional identity is a continuous process of interpretation,
reinterpretation and integration of personal and professional
viewpoints of being and becoming a teacher, dependent on the
interactions between individuals and environment.
(continued on next page)
Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286
 Table 2 (continued)

Articles Publishing Educational Levels and Areas Professional Identity

Journal
Definition Cited Authors

Stenberg (2010) RP Unidentified According to a socio-cultural and hermeneutic perspective, Smith and Sparkes (2008)
professional identity is related with the concept of self and its
the formation focuses on personal experiences and dwells on a
F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro

narrative construction through interactions with the outside

Sutherland and Markauskaite
(2012)
Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2010)
world.
HE Unidentified (the idea that The self-perception of an individual is its professional identity. Gee (2000); Irby (2011); Olesen (2001); Renninger (2009);
several areas are involved is Hence, the latter depends on the perceptions of the relations Sims (2011); Wenger (1998)
underlying) that individuals establish with and within their professional
community. Professional identity is one of several identities that
an individual has and it is continuously being developed
throughout time. It is not coherent or stable, instead
professional identity is fragmented and changeable, evolving
from the cognitive and affective processes that occur within a
certain culture and context. Professional identity is developed
with the acquisition of knowledge and skills, personal values
and features, and professional habits.
TTE Levels: Unidentified A teacher's professional identity relates to the self-knowledge Wenger (1998)
Areas: All that he/she has of him/herself in teaching related situations and
the relations that are established within professional practice
between feelings of belonging and learning experiences.
Professional identity development is a continuous learning

6
process where behaviour, creation of related meaning and social
context interact.
Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2012) EJTE Levels: All Professional identity entails self-knowledge in teaching Geijsel and Meijers (2005); Wenger (1998)
Areas: Unspecified related situations, relationships developed within professional
practice, feelings of belonging and learning experiences; its
formation is a continuous learning process, where professional
experience is re-thought according to a background of
interactions between emotions and knowledge.
Yuan and Lee (2016) TTE Levels: Primary and Secondary Professional identity depends on an individual's perception of Beauchamp and Thomas (2009); Day et al. (2006); Flores and
Areas: English his/her actions, his/her understanding of the profession and the Day (2006); Gee (2000); Goodson and Cole (1994); Lee and
place s/he occupies in society. Therefore, this identity is fluid, Yin (2011); Sachs (2005); Zembylas (2004)
dynamic and multifaceted. It is formed through sociocultural
situated practical experiences and it depends on the complex
negotiation between professional experiences and external
factors. Thus, it has an intellectual, rational, social, political and
emotional nature.
Zhu (2017) JET Unidentified Professional identity formation is a multiple, contextualized, Bullock (2013); Zembylas and Schutz (2009)
fluid and dynamic process that is centered in emotions, which
are catalysts for actions that enable identity development.

Note. APER: Asia Pacific Education Review; EJTE: European Journal of Teacher Education; ERPP: Educational Research for Policy and Practice; ES: Educational Studies; HE: Higher Education; IJME: International
Journal of Music Education; IJSME: International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education; JET: Journal of Education for Teaching; PSBS: Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences; RP: Reflective Practice; SE:
Science & Education; TTE: Teaching and Teacher Education.
Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286
F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286

Fig. 2. Different issues that constitute and influence professional identity.

Korthagen (2004) and his onion model. For the author, identity comprises the individual's mission and core qualities. This idea
underlies the analyzed articles' definitions. Moreover, these articles add to the definition proposed by Beijaard, Verloop, and Vermunt
(2000), which was focused on meanings and considered professional identity as a portrayal of “who or what someone is” (p.750).
According to the analyzed articles, at the core of a professional identity are the meanings, but also the perceptions, images and self-
knowledge student teachers have of themselves and the profession (e.g. Chong & Low, 2009; Gaudelli & Ousley, 2009; Lim, 2011).
These depend on the constant interpretation, reinterpretation, negotiation and integration of personal (individual) and professional
(educational) relationships (e.g., Mahmoudi-Gahrouei, Tavakoli, & Hamman, 2016; Schepens, Aelterman, & Vlerick, 2009). There-
fore, professional identity involves struggles and tensions and is influenced by past and present, teaching and learning experiences,
historical, sociological and cultural factors and personal and psychological characteristics (e.g., Beauchamp & Thomas, 2010; Dang,
2013; Lamote & Engels, 2010; Lim, 2011). Consequently, it has a fragmented, dynamic, multidimensional, changeable and inter-
subjective nature (e.g., Melville et al., 2013; Sutherland & Markauskaite, 2012). Fig. 2 summarizes and emphasizes the connections
between these issues.
Some authors claim that the nature of professional identity is simultaneously stable and unstable, unitary and multiple, con-
tinuous and discontinuous. Others, say it is constituted by sub-identities (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012; Dahlgren & Chiriac, 2009;
Dang, 2013). By being focused on becoming, its development depends on a continuous learning process (e.g., Lindqvist, Weurlander,
Wernerson, & Thornberg, 2017; Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2010, 2012). Also, the analyzed articles show that professional identity is
related to the following issues: self, agency, emotions (which act as catalysts for agency), personal values, beliefs, knowledge, skills
and efficacy (e.g., Pillen et al., 2013; Zhu, 2017). This analysis confirms some of the features highlighted by previous reviews, adding
to the importance of images, self, agency, emotions and knowledge. It also surfaces other features, such as, learning, individual
perceptions, values, beliefs and skills. This review also shows that some of the related concepts are used in other social sciences areas,
such as Philosophy and Psychology.

5. Expanding knowledge: studies’ contributions and major findings

This section focuses on the selected articles’ research contributions. After analyzing their major findings, we concluded they
revolved around the following four key-issues, which we used to structure this section: (a) emotions; (b) professional stance; (c)
supervision; and (d) reflection. It is noteworthy that with the exception of supervision, all the remaining issues are contemplated in
the theoretical framework of several articles, where they appear related to professional identity.

5.1. The role of emotions: feelings, concerns, stresses and tensions

Previous literature reviews have stressed the role of emotions in shaping professional identity (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009).
“Researchers argue that STs undergo positive and negative changes in their perceptions of and attitudes toward different aspects of
their teaching profession as they go through their teaching experiences” (Izadinia, 2013, p. 703). In this paper, we look at what the
authors of the selected articles studied, namely feelings, concerns and tensions, and how it influences professional identity. Chong
and Low (2009) mention that student teachers’ reasons for choosing the teaching profession were related to both altruistic (social)

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F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286

and intrinsic (personal) factors, viewing extrinsic factors (material benefits) as less important. In the beginning of ITE, student
teachers show strong positive attitudes towards teaching and the teaching profession. However, these fade throughout the ITE
program. The authors attribute this change to a better awareness of professional reality due to practicum.
Student teachers feel anxious in the beginning of ITE. According to Zhu’s (2017) study, all participants describe having felt mixed
feelings during practicum, feeling both proud and frustrated. They expressed feelings of guilt and regret due to: (a) relations between
knowledge and pedagogical skills; (b) teacher's role and relations with pupils (lack of awareness of the bureaucratic component of
teaching); (c) student teachers' responsibilities during practicum. Consequently, they refer having experienced a shock with reality.
Major tensions and ethical dilemmas identified by student teachers from various studies were related to: (a) autonomy and control
(caring for students vs. Being authoritarian); (b) the bureaucratic component of teaching (private life vs. Work); (c) prejudices,
ideologies and conflicts related with ways of teaching (personal vs. Others); (d) skills and lack of curricular flexibility; (e) the dialogic
relation between cutting-edge teaching methods vs. A more traditional way of teaching, understanding that a student-centered
approach is not always possible; (f) lack of support from peers and feelings of belonging and exclusion; and (g) unawareness of pupils’
previous knowledge and need to adopt diverse teaching pedagogies for pupils with different knowledge levels (Cf. Dang, 2013;
Pedretti et al., 2008; Pillen et al., 2013; Zhu, 2017).
Classroom experiences are pivotal for student teachers' learning. According to Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2010, 2012), these class-
room experiences can generate both positive and negative emotions, which are related to student teachers' (high) expectations
towards professional practice. On the one hand, most positive emotions are related with pupils, especially when student teachers
successfully implement a certain teaching and learning strategy. On the other hand, negative emotions are related to: (a) student
teachers' frustration, which happens when they do not understand the reasons for their lack of success; (b) the lack of cooperation
between cooperating teachers and university supervisors and their inconsistent and contradictory opinions about teaching-learning
strategies; and (c) the lack of positive feedback. Pillen et al. (2013) also identified negative emotions related to impotence, awareness
of weaknesses, annoyance and insecurity. Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2012) showed that negative experiences are more significant and
more easily memorized by student teachers. Conversely, positive emotions stimulate critical thinking and problem-solving abilities.
Hence, as stated by Beauchamp and Thomas (2009), ITE programs should “prepare new teachers for the challenges of developing
strong professional identities in positive ways” (p. 186). Despite discussing tensions and conflicts, Izadinia (2013) mentions that one
of the shortcomings of the studies she reviewed is the absence of negative emotions. As shown, these negative emotions are con-
sidered in some of the studies we reviewed, adding knowledge to Izadinia's review.
According to Lindqvist et al. (2017), daily recurrent anguishing situations (e.g. fear of failing, time management, responsibility for
pupils’ success, being questioned) cause more stress than sporadic anguishing situations (e.g. violence). The authors affirmed that
feelings of professional inadequacy (impotence, limited action, uncertainty, which were also identified by Pillen et al., 2013) result
from these situations. They showed that to cope with these feelings of professional inadequacy student teachers use strategies of
acceptance and postponing, such as: (a) modifying professional ideals; (b) asking for support from more experienced teachers; and (c)
expressing the need of acquiring more professional experience.
Overall, student teachers' concerns are related to the learning environments they can provide their pupils and the need to un-
derstand what these pupils have learned (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2010). Fear of failing is one of the factors that most concerns student
teachers (Lim, 2011; Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2010). These results show the crucial role emotions play in social learning, influencing the
development of professional identity (as shown by: Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2012; Yuan & Lee, 2016). Also, the ethical and emotional
dimensions inherent to practical experiences show the complexity and volatility of student teachers’ professional identities and why
they tend to find it difficult to consider themselves as teachers (Alsup, 2013; Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2010; Zhu, 2017).

5.2. Professional stance: image, role, skills and development

According to Lamote and Engels (2010), student teachers begin ITE advocating student-centered approaches, showing openness to
change and cooperation. Before practicum, student teachers lack confidence in their professional skills, but show confidence in their
classroom management skills because they underestimate the complexity of the teaching profession. During and after practicum,
student teachers show less confidence in their classroom management skills and, despite still defending student-centered approaches,
they do not advocate them so vehemently. This shows the vulnerability of professional identities in the first contacts with practicum.
There is a clash between the use of a more student-centered approach (where the teacher is a facilitator) and a more traditional
viewpoint of teaching (where the teacher is a knowledge transmitter and the students are recipients), which student teachers ex-
perienced throughout their school trajectories (Pedretti et al., 2008; see also:; Chong & Low, 2009; Lamote & Engels, 2010; Lindqvist
et al., 2017).
Nevertheless, student teachers tend to see themselves as learning promoters, referring the need to have more practical experience
and foster relationships with colleagues to develop themselves professionally (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2010; Mahmoudi-Gahrouei
et al., 2016). This might happen because, according to Martínez-de-la-Hidalga and Villardón-Gallego (2016), most student teachers
change the images they had on teachers and teaching during ITE (especially during practicum). They become more aware of the
teacher's professional profile, the complexity of the profession, the importance of teachers as promoters of social changes and the
changes in paradigm regarding the teacher's role and the teaching and learning methodologies he/she uses.
However, Dahlgren and Chiriac (2009) consider the relation student teachers establish between ITE and their professional role to
be unclear, which means there is a gap between education and professional practice. This perception is substantiated by the diffi-
culties some student teachers show in articulating theory and practice, demonstrating a meagre integration of their professional role,
which also contributes to the difficulty they feel in considering themselves teachers as they play at the same time both the role of

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student and teacher (Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2010). Changes in student teachers’ perceptions throughout the ITE program show the
composite nature of the professional identity development process (Lamote & Engels, 2010, p. 16; these authors use the expression
erratic process, but we prefer to view it as a complex process and emphasize its composite nature instead).
Ballantyne and Grootenboer (2012) and Gaudelli and Ousley (2009) address the relation between disciplinary content and the
individual understanding of the profession, as an identity negotiation between musician and teacher. As student teachers engage with
practicum, the relations between both identities are increased and strengthened, especially with supervisory support.
Identity work refers to “the actions that individuals take and the relationships they form (…) at any given [contextualized]
moment” (Calabrese-Barton et al., 2013, p. 38). Stenberg (2010) results show that identity work has the potential to promote
professional development. However, the author stated that identity work did not promote the expected professional development
because: (a) some student teachers (consciously or unconsciously) may not be open to change; and (b) individual beliefs, values and
comprehensions are unconscious and affective, thus are hard to define, expose and change.
According to Schepens et al. (2009), ITE influences student teachers' self-efficacy, commitment and professional orientation. The
degree of preparation felt by student teachers at the end of the ITE program is the variable that most influences their self-efficacy as
teachers and their sense of responsibility. Commitment is also influenced by the support they receive from their supervisors. Pre-
existent personality trades and motivations are the factors that most influence self-efficacy, commitment and professional orientation
because they enable the integration of learning (from ITE) in the student teacher's identity.
The results of the aforementioned studies emphasize the importance of practicum in the process of becoming a teacher because it
is the place where student teachers develop their professional stance. They also show the importance and influence of professional
relationships for student teachers’ development and professional identity constitution. These issues will be further explored in the
next section.

5.3. Role models and scaffolding: the importance of supervision

Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2010) draw attention to the importance of supervision and reflection because student teachers do not yet
use professional vocabulary. The study conducted by these authors shows that student teachers’ professional identity is described
through experiences, determining the importance of learning-by-doing (Melville et al., 2013).
Lamote and Engels (2010) conclude that previous experiences and school memories influence student teachers' images of the
teaching profession, showing the influence of role models in professional identity (this influence was also shown by: Cochran-Smith,
2003; Chong & Low, 2009; Lamote & Engels, 2010; Lindqvist et al., 2017). According to Lanas and Kelchtermans (2015) implicit
norms also influence professional identity. Moreover, science student teachers' professional identities are dependent on the inter-
pretation they make of their involvement in inquiry activities (Melville et al., 2013). Pedretti et al. (2008) demonstrate that, though
recognizing the importance of STSE approaches, student teachers show little inclination to implement them. Yet, Melville et al.
(2013) demonstrated that the opportunity to participate in structured and supported inquiry activities during ITE increases student
teachers' dispositions to use this kind of activities in their classrooms. Hence, scaffolding can contribute to professional identity
development if it is operationalized through discourses, experiences and emotions, because student teachers’ professional identities
are dependent on the interpretation they make on their involvement in inquiry activities.
Teacher educators are responsible for supporting student teachers and thus impact their professional identity development.
However, according to Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2010), the supervisors' influence on them is very narrow. This may be due to the
negative emotions' student teachers feel when supervisors give them negative feedback and when they receive inconsistent and
contradictory opinions about teaching and learning strategies. These situations might make them disregard what they have learned in
ITE and “teach as they were taught” (Blume, 1971, cited by Lunenberg, Korthagen, & Swennen, 2007, p. 586). However, according to
Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2010), cooperating teachers play a crucial role in student teachers' development because they tend to value
the support from more experienced teachers (Schepens et al., 2009; Sutherland & Markauskaite, 2012). This emphasizes the im-
portance of the supervisors' role as a model for student teachers and the importance of supervision during practicum. A good
supervision during ITE, focused on supporting student teachers’ reflection, contributes to the resolution of their identity conflicts and,
consequently, to their professional development.

5.4. Reflection: an undervalued process

Many student teachers consider classroom observation to be pivotal for understanding teacher's work. However, few value
keeping a diary or recognize the importance of reflection (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2010). According to Sutherland and Markauskaite
(2012), student teachers valued actual experiences over reflection for understanding professional dynamics. Nevertheless, these
student teachers improved their reflective capacity throughout time. Alongside with other experiences, online work seems to have
contributed to this improvement and to the development of their professional identity.
Stenberg (2010) mentions that reflection can be both a process (bound to self-identity and professional identity) and an outcome
(as a tool of analysis). Hence, she proposes four forms (which represent levels) of reflection: (1) routine – focused on self-centered
concerns, without referring any contributions to the development of professional practice; (2) rationalization – centered in specific
situations, it makes no reference to practical changes, but presents a solution for the stipulated issue; (3) dialogic – focused on
students, it mentions limitations and potentialities and how practice can be improved; and (4) transformation – centered on personal
involvement, it states changes in professional practice. Of all these forms of reflection, transformation is the hardest to achieve and
most of the student teachers she studied only showed rationalization. Hence, recognizing its significance for professional and identity

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F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286

development, ITE should emphasize the importance of reflection and support student teachers by promoting their reflective skills.
With a similar viewpoint, Lim (2011) emphasizes the central role teacher educators play in this process, considering that these
reflections should be focused on the student teachers’ beliefs about teaching (Cf. Lanas & Kelchtermans, 2015), as they would
contribute to the development of their professional identity.

6. Major implications for ITE, teacher educators and future research

Not all articles present suggestions for future research, ITE or teacher educators (e.g., Dang, 2013; Lanas & Kelchtermans, 2015;
Melville et al., 2013). Regarding future research, many authors recommend longitudinal studies to understand the evolution of
professional identity throughout ITE (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012; Chong & Low, 2009; Lamote & Engels, 2010; Martínez-de-la-
Hidalga & Villardón-Gallego, 2016; Pedretti et al., 2008; Schepens et al., 2009). For example, Rodrigues and Mogarro (2016) use this
sort of approach to look at two different European realities, analyzing student teachers’ perceptions of professional identity before,
during and after supervised practicum. This enables a deeper understanding of how professional identity is constituted during ITE.
Other authors suggest one of the following areas of research: (a) focus on the relation between student teachers' beliefs and their
practices (Pedretti et al., 2008); (b) determine how the CPPF (Cognitive Product vs. Professional Focus) protocol can be adapted to
other professions (Sutherland & Markauskaite, 2012); (c) investigate the quality of ITE, namely regarding its structure and organi-
zation (Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2010); and (d) deepen the understanding of the complexity of teachers' emotions by using observation
methods and physiological measures (Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2012). Based on the arguments provided in the previous section, studies
that focus on relationships and emotions, especially those concerning student teachers' perceptions of their supervisors and super-
visory process, will substantiate a greater comprehension of the influence that these educational actors have on student teachers’
professional identity.
Recommendations for ITE programs are the following: (a) programs should prioritize supporting student teachers' professional
identity development by using inquiry processes that involve discussion and extensive reflection (Chong & Low, 2009; Pillen et al.,
2013); (b) positive and negative experiences ought to be used both in the programs' design and courses, including practicum
(Lindqvist et al., 2017); (c) a more systematic education should be provided by developing activities that promote self-knowledge and
are centered in the discussion of genuine experiences (encouraging the exploration of student teachers' values, beliefs, and critical
understanding) that mold professional identity (Stenberg, 2010); (d) clearly express the connections between ITE and the society
where teaching will take place, which can contribute to more adequately prepare student teachers to cope with the stress that arises
from society's expectations and their own professional beliefs (Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2010). Dahlgren and Chiriac (2009, p. 998) even
left us with a quest to find out how ITE programs can be built to better contribute to student teachers' and NGT's professional
development.
Although these authors only present suggestions for ITE, there are three articles that make recommendations for teacher educators
as well. Beauchamp and Thomas (2010) and Zhu (2017) suggest: (a) the creation of a pedagogy of identity in ITE that recognizes
(current and emergent) student teachers' identities within the curriculum, assuming its importance for teachers' professional lives;
and (b) the increase of attention from teacher educators to the experiences and dilemmas experienced by student teachers during
practicum, thus supporting the development of coherent professional identities. Lim’s (2011) suggestion refers to an increasing
support towards student teachers' reflection.
Dahlgren and Chiriac (2009) and Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2012) also make suggestions for teacher educators. The first emphasize
that though challenging it is important to find ways to individually stimulate both student teachers' critical reflection regarding their
professional development and their identification with the teacher's professional role. The second propose that teacher educators
stimulate student teachers to express their emotions (namely expectations, insecurities and uncertainties) and recognize their peers,
because this is the fundamental component of self-regulation.

7. Final considerations

This review shows that only recently ITE started to be a topic of research, especially when it comes to the study of student
teachers' professional identity. Over a decade has passed since the publication of the review done by Beijaard et al. (2004) and we can
still see that there is not a consensus in defining what influences professional identity. Both Beauchamp and Thomas (2009) and
Trede et al. (2012) have argued it is difficult to define professional identity as it is a broad, complex and overarching concept. The
abundance of definitions we found (Cf. Table 2) serves as evidence of this fact, by showing the lack of consensus when defining this
concept. In fact, this concept is located at the borderline of several social sciences (Education, Philosophy, Psychology) and a unique
and distinct discourse within teacher education has not yet been developed so far. This shows that this concept is still hostage of the
other social sciences. Johnston (2012) has even claimed that from a postmodern perspective, identity cannot be defined because any
understanding of this construct cannot be deemed final. However, the different definitions found constitute lenses on the teaching
profession, whose multiple perspectives enable us to perceive the complexity of this phenomenon and the importance of professional
identity constitution at this stage of the student teachers’ professional development, because different perspectives provide distinctive
insights on professional identity. This review revealed that there are different ways of addressing and supporting identity devel-
opment during ITE. Switching between them can contribute to a greater influence of ITE on its constitution and can provide a deeper
insight on its personal and ever-evolving nature.
Our analysis also shows that some of the issues considered in prior reviews are still the major focus of several empirical studies
(such as emotions, reflection and professional development) and suggests the emergence of supervision as new issue being

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F. Rodrigues and M.J. Mogarro Educational Research Review 28 (2019) 100286

considered, both as a promoter of scaffolding and negative emotions. Whether using a theoretical or a methodological lens, or both,
the selected articles emphasize the importance of professional identity throughout ITE.
Therefore, considering all the inputs provided by those articles, we argue that despite constantly evolving throughout professional
life, professional identity is constituted during ITE, and we take the liberty of presenting a working definition of teacher professional
identity, conscious that it is not all-encompassing, nor it can ever be due to all issues and nuances related to it. According to our
analysis, professional identity comprises the perceptions, meanings, images and self-knowledge individuals have of themselves. It is,
therefore, a fragmented, unstable, dynamic, multidimensional, changeable and intersubjective process, which is constantly being
interpreted and reinterpreted by student teachers in their continuous discourses and through the relationships they establish within
professional contexts. Related to self, it involves agency (which is the self in action, according to Danielewicz, 2001) and is influenced
by personal values, emotions, beliefs, (scientific and didactic) knowledge and (pedagogical) skills. It is also influenced by (past and
present) experiences and historical, sociological and cultural factors. Hence, professional identity is constantly being developed
throughout time in a continuous learning process where behaviour, meaning making and social context interact.
The reviewed studies present important implications for current and future research. Many recommendations have been made for
the development of longitudinal studies in ITE, particularly to understand how professional identity evolves. Interviews and ob-
servations were the most recommended forms of data collection. Beijaard et al. (2004) prior review considers the importance of
subject matter for professional identity formation. Some of the analyzed studies emphasize this relation (e.g., Ballantyne &
Grootenboer, 2012; Melville et al., 2013). These findings suggest that different identity issues partake different subject areas. For
example, in Music the concern is the duality of student teachers' professional identity: musician versus teacher. In Sciences the matter
is related to the development of inquiry strategies in the classroom, which are usually contradictory to the strategies' student teachers
experienced when they were students. This suggests that professional identity is not developed in the same way in all subject areas.
Therefore, future studies or reviews could be focused on identifying and comparing major issues that are related to professional
identity development in different subject areas. Furthermore, future research could also be focused on understanding if professional
identity development occurs in the same way for student teachers, beginning teachers and experienced teachers. This could be done
by comparing (written and/or oral) narratives (Cf. Korthagen, 2004; Stenberg, 2010) focused on their (past and present) perceptions
of the profession and their strategies for future professional development. Also using narratives, future research could be designed to
comprehend how teacher educators’ professional identity changes by supervising student teachers.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, I. P. – Portugal (scholarship SFRH/BD/111488/
2015).

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