CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)

MICROPROCESSOR-BASED/DDC FUNDAMENTALS
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITIONS

BACKGROUND
Computer Based Control
Direct Digital Control

ADVANTAGES
Lower Cost per Function
Application Flexibility
Coordinated Multifunction Capability
Precise and Accurate Control
Reliability

CONTROLLER CONFIGURATION

TYPES OF CONTROLLERS
Zone-Level Controllers
System-Level Controllers

CONTROLLER SOFTWARE
Operating Software
Application Software
Direct Digital Control Software
Energy Management Software
Optimum Start
Optimum Stop
Night Cycle
Night Purge
Enthalpy
Zero Energy Band
Load Reset
Duty Cycle
Distributed Power Demand
Building Management Software

CONTROLLER PROGRAMMING
General
Programming Categories
Configuration Programming
System Initialization Programming
Data File Programming
Custom Control Programming
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Analyze Control Application
Partition Into Control Loops
Determine Inputs and Outputs
Design, Write, and Compile Program
High-Level Language
Problem-Oriented Language
Assembly Language
Debug, Install, Enter Data Files, and Test

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Zone-Level Controllers
Example 1. VAV Cooling Only
Example 2. VAV Cooling with Sequenced Electric Reheat
System-Level Controllers
Example 1. Hot Water Converter
Sequence of Operation
System Schematic
Control Program Logic Analysis
Pump Control
Steam Supply Valve Control
Control Program Logic Diagram
Example 2. Discharge Control of Cooling Coil with Damper Sequencing
Sequence of Operation
System Schematic
Control Program Logic Analysis
Optimum Start-Stop Control
Minimum Outdoor Air Damper Control
Maximum Outdoor Air Damper Control
Cooling Valve Control
Control Program Logic Diagram

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INTRODUCTION
This section discusses the types of microprocessor-based controllers used in commercial buildings. These
controllers measure signals from sensors, perform control routines in software programs, and take corrective
action in the form of output signals to actuators. Since the programs are in digital form, the controllers perform
what is known as direct digital control (DDC). Microprocessor-based controllers can be used as standalone
controllers or they can be incorporated into a building management system utilizing a minicomputer or a
personal computer (PC) as a host to provide additional functions. A stand alone controller can take several
forms. The simplest generally controls only one control loop while larger versions can control from eight or ten
to 30 or 40 control loops. As the systems get larger, they generally incorporate more programming features and
functions. This section covers the controller as a stand-alone unit.

DEFINITIONS
Analog-to-digital (A/D)
Converter - The part of a microprocessor-based controller that changes analog input values to a
digital number for use by the microprocessor in executing software programs. The
analog input values typically come from temperature, pressure, humidity, or other types
of sensors or transducers.

Application software - Programs that provide functions such as direct digital control, energy management,
lighting control, event initiated operations, and other alarm and monitoring routines.

Digital-to-analog (D/A)
Converter - The part of a microprocessor-based controller that changes digital values from a
software program to analog output signals for use in the control system. The analog
signals are typically used to position actuators or actuate transducers and relays.

Direct digital control - A control loop in which a digital controller periodically updates a process as a function
of a set of measured control variables and a given set of control algorithms.

Microprocessor-based
Controller - A device consisting of a microprocessor unit, digital inputs and outputs, A/D and D/A
converters, a power supply, and software to perform direct digital, programmable logic
control and energy management routines in a HVAC system.

Operating software - The main operating system and programs that schedule and control the execution of all
other programs in a microprocessor-based controller. This includes routines for
input/output (I/O) scanning, A/D and D/A conversion, scheduling of application
programs, and access and display of control program variables.

System-level controller- A microprocessor-based controller that controls centrally located HVAC equipment
such as variable air volume (VAV) supply units, built-up air handlers, and central chiller
and boiler plants. These controllers typically have an expandable I/O device capability, a
library of control programs, and may control more than one mechanical system from a
single controller.
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Zone-level controller - A microprocessor-based controller that controls distributed or unitary 14VAC

equipment such as VAV terminal units, fan coil units, and heat pumps. These controllers
typically have relatively few connected I/O devices, standard control sequences, and are
dedicated to specific applications.

BACKGROUND
COMPUTER BASED CONTROL

Computer based control systems have been available as an alternative to conventional pneumatic and electronic
systems since the mid 1960s. Early installations required a central mainframe or minicomputer as the digital
processing unit They were expensive, and application was limited to larger buildings. Reliability was also an
issue since loss of the central computer meant loss of the entire control system. Advances in micro-technology,
particularly in large scale integration (LSI), provided answers to both the cost and reliability issues. Introduction
of microprocessors, i.e., a computer on a chip, and high-density memories reduced costs and package size
dramatically and increased application flexibility (Fig. 1). Microprocessor programs include ell the arithmetic,
logic, and control elements of larger computers, thus providing computing power at a cost/performance ratio
suitable for application to individual air handlers, heat pumps, VAV terminal units, or the entire equipment
room. Microprocessor-based controllers allow digital control to be distributed at the zone level, or equipment
room level, or they can control an entire building.

Fig. 1. Evolution of Distributed Digital Control.

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Inherent in microprocessor-based controllers is the ability to perform direct digital control. DDC is often used in
place of conventional pneumatic or electronic local control loops. There are several industry accepted
definitions of DDC. DDC can be defined as "a control loop in which a digital controller periodically updates a
process as a function of a set of measured control variables and a given set of control algorithms".
A more detailed definition is provided in the ASHRAE 1987 Systems and Applications Handbook. "A direct
digital controller receives electronic signals from sensors, converts electronic signals to numbers, and performs
mathematical operations on these numbers inside the computer. The output from the computer takes the form of
a number, and can be converted to a voltage or pneumatic signal to operate the actuator. The digital controller
must sample its data because the computer must have time for other operations besides reading data. If the
sampling interval for the digital controller is chosen properly, no significant degradation in control performance
will be seen due to sampling." In this definition, sampling means that the computer periodically reads all the
inputs, recalculates the program using the new data, and adjusts the outputs accordingly.
In each of these definitions the key element for DDC is digital computation. The microprocessor unit (MPU) in
the controller provides the computation. Therefore, the term digital in DDC refers to digital processing of data
and not that sensor inputs or control outputs from the controller are necessarily in digital format Nearly all
sensor inputs are analog and most output devices are also analog. In order to accept signals from these 1/O
devices, A/D and D/A converters are included in the microprocessor-based controller. Figure 2 shows several
inputs and outputs. The microprocessor usually performs several control functions.

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Fig. 2. Digital Controller.

ADVANTAGES
Digital control offers many advantages. Some of the more important advantages are discussed in the following.

LOWER COST PER FUNCTION

In general, microprocessor and memory costs keep coming down while inherent functionality keeps going up.
Compared to earlier systems, physical size of the controller is also reduced while the number of discrete
functions is increased. Digital control, using a microcomputer-based controller, allows more sophisticated and
energy efficient control sequences to be applied at a lower cost than with conventional controls.

APPLICATION FLEXIBILITY

Since microprocessor-based controllers are software based, application flexibility is an inherent feature. A wide
variety of HVAC functions can be programmed and, in addition, the controller can perform energy management
and/or building management functions. Changes in control sequences can easily be accommodated through
software whether dictated by system performance or by changes in the owner's use of the facility.

COORDINATED MULTIFUNCTION CAPABILITY

Although basic environmental control and energy management operate as independent programs, it is best to
have them incorporated as an integrated.program in order to provide more efficient control sequences.
For:example, a good way to reduce energy demand might be to anticipate peak load periods and reset chiller
temperatures upward rather than to abruptly shed loads. Likewise, sensing the temperatures of several zones to
determine the average demand, or the zone with the greatest demand for cooling, will provide improved
efficiency and control over merely sampling a representative zone for a chiller reset program. An added feature
is that the sensors providing zone comfort control can serve a dual function at no added cost.

PRECISE AND ACCURATE CONTROL

Proportional control has the inherent problem of offset. The wider the throttling range is set for control stability,
the greater the offset. With the microprocessor-based controller, the temperature offset can easily be corrected
by the simple addition of integral action. For even more accurate control over a wide range of external
conditions, the adaptive control algorithm, available in some microprocessor-based controllers, can be
employed. With adaptive control, control parameters are automatically adjusted as conditions vary. The need
for manual fine tuning for seasonal changes is eliminated.

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RELIABILITY

Digital controllers are conservatively designed and often incorporate self-checking features so they notify the
operator immediately if anything goes wrong. Input and output circuits are filtered and protected from
extraneous signals to assure reliable information to the processor.

CONTROLLER CONFIGURATION
The basic elements of a microprocessor-based (or microprocessor) controller (Fig. 3) include:
- The microprocessor
- A program memory
- A working memory
- A clock or timing devices
- A means of getting data in and out of the system

Fig. 3. Basic Microprocessor Controller Configuration.

For automatic control, components are added to the basic configuration for multiplexing and signal conditioning
of inputs and outputs (Fig. 4). In addition, a communications port is not only a desirable feature but a
requirement for program tuning or interfacing with a central computer or building management system.

Fig. 4. Microprocessor Controller Configuration for Automatic Control Applications.

Timing for microprocessor operation is provided either by an internal or an external clock. The clock operates
in the microsecond range (Fig. 5) controlling execution of program instructions.

Fig. 5. Distance Traveled in One Microsecond (1/1,000,000 Sec).

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The clock controls the timing for the reading of each input, each control logic calculation, and the updating of
each output. Inputs are read about once a second and the readings stored for use in the control logic
calculations. The timing of these calculations is sometimes adjustable with more critical functions calculated
more frequently. Calculation results are stored and read about once a second to update the outputs. When a
microprocessor controls many control loops, each loop is updated at least every few seconds.
Program memory holds the basic instruction set for controller operation as well as for the application programs.
Memory size and type vary depending on the application and whether the controller is considered a dedicated
purpose or general purpose device. Dedicated purpose controllers normally have standard programs and are
furnished with read only memory (ROM) or programmable read only memory (PROM.) General purpose
controllers often accommodate a variety of individual customer programs and are supplied with field-alterable
memories such as electrically erasable, programmable, read only memory (EEPROM) or battery-backed
random access memory (RAM). Memories used to hold the program for a controller are considered to be
nonvolatile, that is, they retain the program data during power outages.
Program memory is arranged into addressable words. Each word contains a set of binary digits or bits that
occupy one storage location. Program memory can be configured to handle word lengths from 4 to 32 bits
depending on the microprocessor used and the internal address and data bus structure. A typical 4K (4096
words) memory board for a byte (8-bit word) oriented processor is shown in Figure 6A. This board contains 16
integrated circuit (IC) memory chips each with 256 bytes of memory. Each of the memory circuits is
individually selectable by the processor. Once the individual circuit is selected, any of the 256 8-bit words can
be addressed and used. For example, if Location 000 of IC Number 1 is read (Fig. 6B), the current data is
00010101 in binary notation. This is one byte or 8-bit word. Controllers with memory capacities of 256K or
512K (8-bit) words are common.

Fig. 6. Typical Microprocessor Memory.

Read-write, random access memory used for temporary storage of data is called working memory. A portion of
working memory is often configured as a series of registers or accumulators. These registers hold interim
calculation results and temporarily hold input and output data. Data is brought into the working memory
through an input multiplexer (Fig. 4). The input multiplexer periodically samples sensor inputs and presents
them one input at a time to the A/D converter. The A/D converter changes the analog values to a digital number
for storage in the microprocessor registers used in executing the program. Sampling rates are selected which are
faster than the program process time so that the calculation program always has the latest information.

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All input signals, whether analog or digital, undergo conditioning Fig. 4) to eliminate the adverse affects of
contact bounce, induced voltage, or electrical transients. Time delay circuits, electronic filters, and optical
coupling are commonly used for this purpose. Analog inputs must also be linearized, scaled, and converted to
digital values prior to entering the microprocessor unit. Resistance sensor inputs can also be compensated for
leadwire resistance. Linearizing can be done by electronic curve-matching techniques, but it is more common to
use a stored interpolation table (Fig. 7). The table allows conversion of resistance to a temperature for a specific
sensor type. The same table is used for all sensors of that type so it appears in memory only once. Scaling is the
process of picking a portion of the full range of the sensor that is to be presented to the A/D converter for
conversion to a digital value. Resolution can be improved by using only the portion of the range required for the
application. In a scaling example, if a 0 to 60oC sensor is used to sense temperatures from 30 to 50oC, the zero
point is established at 30oC and the maximum value at 50oC. This provides a full range A/D conversion of 20
kelvin span and a threefold improvement in resolution overuse of the full 60 kelvin span.

Fig. 7. Interpolation Table for -40 to +70oC Platinum Sensor.

Performance and reliability of temperature control applications can be enhanced by using a single 12-bit A/D
converter for all controller multiplexed inputs, and simple twowire high resistence RTDs as inputs.
A/D converters for DDC applications normally range from 8 to 12 bits depending on the application. An 8-bit
A/D converter provides a resolution of one count in 256. A 12-bit A./D converter provides a resolution of one
count in 4096. If the A/D converter is set up to provide a binary coded decimal (BCD) output, a 12-bit converter
can provide values from 0 to 999, 0 to 99.9, or 0 to 9.99 depending on the decimal placement. This range of
outputs adequately covers normal control and display ranges for most HVAC control applications. D/A
converters generally range from 6 to 10 bits.
The output multiplexer (Fig. 4) provides the reverse operation from the input multiplexer. It takes a serial string
of output values from the D/A converter and routes them to the terminals connected to a transducer or valve and
damper actuator.
The communication port (Fig. 4) allows interconnection of controllers to each other, to a master controller, to a
central computer, or to local or portable terminals.

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TYPES OF CONTROLLERS
Microprocessor-based controllers can control at two levels in commercial buildings: the zone level and the
system level. See Figure 8.

Fig. 8. Zone- and System-Level Controllers.

ZONE-LEVEL CONTROLLERS

Zone-level controllers typically control HVAC terminal units that supply heating and cooling energy to
occupied spaces and other areas in the building. They can control VAV terminal units, fan coil units, heat
pumps, space pressurization equipment, laboratory fume hoods, and any other zone control or terminal unit
device. Zone-level controllers are also applied to smaller air handlers, packaged heating/cooling units, and heat
exchangers with relatively few connected I/O devices and standard control sequences. Design of a zone-level
controller is usually dictated by the specific requirements of the application. For example, the controller for a
VAV box is frequently packaged with an integral damper actuator and has only the I/O capacity necessary to
meet this specific application. On the other hand, a zone-level controller for a packaged heating/cooling unit
might have the controller packaged in the thermostat housing (referred to as a smart thermostat or smart
controller).

SYSTEM-LEVEL CONTROLLERS

System-level controllers are more flexible than zone-level controllers in application and have more capacity.
Typically, system-level controllers are applied to systems in equipment rooms including VAV central supply
systems, built-up air handlers, and central chiller and boiler plants. In addition, they often have capacity to
provide zone control functions. Control sequences vary and usually contain customized programs written to
handle the specific application requirements.
The number of inputs and outputs required for a system-level controller is usually not predictable. The
application of the controller must allow both the number and mix of inputs and outputs to be variable. Several
different packaging approaches have been used (Fig. 9):
- A. Card cage with plug-in function boards.
- B. Field-programmable I/O boards.
- C. I/O extension boards.
- D. Master slave I/O modules.
Using these techniques, the 16- to 32-point controller can be expanded to 64 or more inputs and outputs and can
handle multiple control loops and multiple functions, i.e., DDC, energy management, monitoring, alarm
detection, and other functions.
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Fig. 9. System-Level Controller Packaging.

Zone- and system-level controllers should be equipped with a communications port. This allows dynamic data,
setpoints, and parameters to be passed to either a local operator terminal, a central building management
system, or to other controllers. Data passed to other controllers allows sensor values to be shared and interaction
between zone-level programs and system-level programs to be coordinated. For example, night setback and
morning warm up can be implemented at the zone-level controller based on setpoint information received from
the system-level controller.

CONTROLLER SOFTWARE
Although microprocessor-based controller hardware governs, to some extent, how a controller is applied,
software determines the functionality. Controller software falls basically into two categories:
1. Operating software which controls the basic operation of the controller.
2. Application software which addresses the unique control requirements of specific applications.

OPERATING SOFTWARE

Operating software is normally stored in nonvolatile memory such as ROM or PROM and is often referred to as
firmware. Operating software includes the operating system (OS) and routines for task scheduling, I/O
scanning, processing priority interrupts, A/D and D/A conversion, and access and display of control program
variables like setpoints, temperature values, parameters, and data file information. Tasks are scheduled
sequentially and interlaced with I/O scanning and other routine tasks in such a way as to make operation appear
almost simultaneous. However, an external event, such as an alarm or a request to execute an energy
management program, can require that normal operations be suspended until the higher priority task is serviced.
These requests are processed by priority interrupt software. The interrupt causes the current operation to cease,
and all data held in registers and accumulators pertinent to the interrupted programs is temporarily stored in
memory. Once the interrupt request is processed, all data is returned to the proper registers, and the program
resumes where it left off. Multiple levels of prioritized interrupts are provided. The effect of these interrupts is
transparent to the application that the controller is controlling.

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APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software includes direct digital control, energy management, lighting control, and event initiated
programs plus other alarm and monitoring software typically classified as building management functions. The
system allows application programs to be used individually or in combination. For example, the same hardware
and operating software can be used for a new or existing building control by using different programs to match
the application. An existing building, for example, might require energy management software to be added to
the existing control system. A new building, however, might require a combination of direct digital control and
energy management software.

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL SOFTWARE

DDC software can be defined as a set of standard DDC operators and/or high-level language statements
assembled to accomplish a specific control action. A key element in most direct digital control programs is the
PID algorithm. Adding the integral element to proportional control eliminates offset by shifting the proportional
band. This assures that setpoint and control point are the same under varying load conditions. The derivative or
rate action can further stabilize control by reducing overshoot and undershoot when load conditions change
rapidly. The derivative function is not often used because it is not needed and is difficult to set unless adaptive
control is available. The type of application determines whether to use proportional control alone, proportional
plus integral, or the full PID algorithm. For further information, refer to Control Fundamentals 77-1210.
While the P, PI, or PID function provides the basic control action, there are many other operators that enhance
and extend the control program. Some typical operators are shown in Table 1. These operators are computer
statements that denote specific DDC operations to be performed in the controller.
The use of preprogrammed operators saves time when writing control sequences and makes understanding of
the control sequence the equivalent of reading a pneumatic control diagram. See the control program logic
diagram examples in the TYPICAL APPLICATIONS section. The alternative to using preprogrammed
operators is to write an equivalent control program using the programming language furnished for the
controller.

Table 1. Typical DDC Operators.

Operators Description
Sequence Allows several controller outputs to be sequenced, each one
operating over a full output range.
Reversing Allows the control output to be reversed to accommodate the
action of a control valve or damper actuator.
Ratio Translates an analog output on one scale to a proportional
analog output on a different scale.
Proportional, integral, and Provides proportional, integral, and derivative control.
derivative
Analog controlled digital Allows a digital output to change when an analog input reaches
output an assigned value. Also has an assignable dead band feature.
Digital controlled analog Functionally similar to a solenoid valve or electric-pneumatic
output relay. One state of the digital input selects one analog input as
its analog output; the other state selects a second analog input
as the analog output.

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Analog controlled analog Similar to the digital controlled analog output except that the
output value and direction of the analog input value selects one of the
two analog signals for output.
Maximum input Selects the highest of several analog input values as the analog
output.
Minimum input Selects the lowest of several analog input values as the analog
output.
Delay Provides a programmable time delay between execution of
sections of program code.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

Microprocessor-based controllers can combine control and energy management functions in the controller to
allow sensor and data file sharing and program coordination. Figure 10 illustrates the relationship of energy
management system (EMS) programs, HVAC sensor and actuator data files, direct digital control programs, and
time schedules for a single HVAC system controller.
Control contentions can occur if the programs are not coordinated. For example, the enthalpy program might
call for closing the outdoor air damper to a minimum while the DDC control program attempts to keep the
damper open to maintain the mixed-air temperature. Similarly, the time schedule or optimum start/stop program
must be coordinated with the duty cycle program so that one program does not undesirably override the other.

Fig. 10. Relationship of DDC and EMS Programs, HVAC Sensor Files, and Time Schedules.

One method of coordinating requests and resolving control contentions is to set up a command and residual
priority system that controls the override capability of the various programs. When a program issues a
command, it leaves a residual priority number at the commanded point. The next program to issue a command
must have a command priority number higher than the residual priority number left at the commanded point.
For the enthalpy program contention example previously discussed, the DDC program could be assigned a
command priority of 6 and a residual priority of 6, and the enthalpy program a command priority of 15 and
residual priorities of 15 for the minimum outdoor air (OA) position and 6 when reverting to local control. See
Figure 11.
With these assignments, the enthalpy control program could override the DDC program because of higher
command priority (15 versus 6). However, the DDC program could not override the enthalpy program residual
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priority of 15 for minimum OA until the enthalpy program reverted to local control and left a residual priority
of 6.
Similar command and residual priorities are set up to coordinate other program requests. The command and
residual priority system is transparent to overall program operation and provides efficient control by the EMS
system.

Fig. 11. Command and Residual Priority Example.

A summary of energy management programs possible for integration into microprocessor-based controllers
follows.

Optimum Start
Based on measurements of indoor and outdoor temperatures and a historical multiplier adjusted by startup data
from the previous day, the optimum start program (Fig. 12) calculates a lead time to turn on heating or cooling
equipment at the last possible moment to bring temperatures to proper level by the time of occupancy. Outdoor
air dampers and ventilation fans should be inactive during pre-occupancy warm-up periods. For weekend
shutdown periods, the program automatically adjusts to provide longer lead times. This program adapts itself to
seasonal and building changes.

Fig. 12. Optimum Start.

Optimum Stop
The optimum stop program (Fig. 13) uses stored energy to handle the building load to the end of the occupancy
period. Based on zone temperatures that have the greatest heating and greatest cooling loads, and the measured
heating and cooling drift rates, the program adjusts equipment stop time to allow stored energy to maintain the
comfort level to the end of the occupancy period. This program adapts itself to changing conditions.
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Fig. 13. Optimum Stop.

Night Cycle
The night cycle program (Fig. 14) maintains a low temperature limit (heating season) or high temperature limit
(cooling season) during unoccupied periods by cycling the air handling unit while the outdoor air damper is
closed.

Fig. 14. Night Cycle.

Night Purge
The night purge program uses early morning outdoor air to precool the building before the mechanical cooling
is turned on. Outdoor temperature, outdoor dewpoint, and space temperature are analyzed. One hundred percent
outdoor air is admitted under the following typical conditions:
1. Outdoor air above a summer-winter changeover point such as 10oC.
2. Outdoor temperature below space temperature by a specified or determined differential.
3. Outdoor air dewpoint less than 15oC.
4. Space temperature above some minimum for night purge such as 24oC.

Enthalpy
The enthalpy program (Fig. 15) selects the air source that requires the least total heat (enthalpy) removal to
reach the design discharge-air dry-bulb temperature. The selected air source is either the return air with a
selectable minimum amount of outdoor air or a mixture of outdoor and return air as determined by local control
from discharge-air or space temperature measurement. Measurements of return-air enthalpy and return-air dry
bulb are compared to outdoor air conditions and used as criteria for the air source selection.

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Fig. 15. Enthalpy Decision Ladder.

Zero Energy Band

The zero energy band (Fig. 16) program provides a dead band where neither heating nor cooling energy is used.
This limits energy use by allowing the space temperature to float between minimum and maximum values. It
also controls the mixed-air dampers to use available outdoor air if suitable for cooling. On multizone fan
systems with simultaneous heating and cooling load capability, reset controls the hot and cold deck setpoints.

Fig. 16. Zero Energy Band.

Load Reset
The load reset program (Fig. 17) assures that only the minimum amount of heating or cooling energy is used to
satisfy zone temperature requirements. Samples of zone temperatures are taken and the zone with the greatest
load is used to reset the temperature of the heating or cooling source.

Fig. 17. Typical Load Reset Schedules.

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Duty Cycle
The duty cycle program (Fig. 18) recognizes that air handling equipment is sized for design load conditions and
need not run continuously except at design temperatures. This program cycles equipment on and off at
conditions other than design, without loss of comfort. To assure that comfort conditions are maintained, space
temperature feedback is used to adjust the off time from a preset minimum to a preset maximum. When comfort
limits are exceeded, duty cycling is discontinued. To prevent excessive cycling of equipment, minimum on and
off times are programmable.

Fig. 18. Typical Duty Cycle Application.

In duty cycle applications where multiple loads are involved, the cycle periods of the loads should be staggered
to achieve load leveling.
NOTE: Duty cycling should not be used in conjunction with load reset or on variable airflow systems.

Distributed Power Demand

The distributed power demand program (Fig. 19) is only applicable to microprocessor controllers with
intercommunications capability. The demand program is resident in a single controller which monitors the
electrical demand and transmits the required load shed or restore messages to other controllers on the
communications bus or within the network. Each individual controller has prioritized shed tables so that when a
message to shed a specific number of kilowatts is received it can respond by shedding its share of the load. The
basic demand program normally utilizes a sliding window demand algorithm and has provision for sequencing
so that the same loads are not always shed first when a peak occurs.

Fig. 19. Typical Power Curve Over Four Successive Demand Intervals.

It should be noted that there is interaction between the power demand program, duty cycle program, time
schedule programs, and optimum start and stop programs. Therefore, a priority structure program is necessary
to prevent control contentions.

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BUILDING MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

Microprocessor-based controllers are used extensively as data gathering panels (DGP) for building management
systems. See Building Management System Fundamentals 77-1224. Since a microprocessor-based controller is
already in place to provide DDC and EMS functions, many sensors and data files can be shared with building
management system (BMS) functions. The distribution of many BMS functions into controllers throughout the
premises increases the overall system reliability. The following BMS software is normally included in the
controller.

Alarm lockout - Permits designated alarm points to be locked out from reporting process depending on
the status of another point, e.g., discharge temperature alarm can be locked out when fan
is off and during initial start-up periods.
Alarm monitoring - Scans all analog and digital points and tests for alarm status. Sets of high and low limits
for analog inputs are stored in the controller.
Communications
module - Controls transmissions between other controllers and between controllers and a central
computer based on an established bus protocol.
Global points - Allows designated points to share their data with other bus connected devices.
Run time - Accumulates equipment on or off time and transmits totals periodically to the central
system. On-off cycle counting can also be accumulated as a maintenance indicator.
Alarm annunciation occurs if run time or cycle count limits are exceeded.
Time and event
programs - Initiates a predetermined series of control actions based on an alarm condition, a point
status change, time of day, or elapsed time. Points acted upon can be resident in any
controller.

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 CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)

CONTROLLER PROGRAMMING
GENERAL

The term programming as it pertains to microprocessor-based controllers relates primarily to setting up the
controller for the given application. Zone-level thermostats and controllers require initialization, selection of
control algorithms and parameters, definition of control sequences, and establishing reference data bases. For
zone-level controllers, the programming effort can be as simple as selecting the applicable control sequence
from a library of programs resident in the controller. For highly customized applications, usually encountered at
the system controller level, a problem oriented language or a subset of a high-level language can be used to
definecontrol loops and sequences.
The means of entering a program can vary from a keypad and readouts on the controller to an operator terminal
in a large centrally based computer configuration. Sophistication of the entry device is directly related to how
well defined and fixed the control application is compared to the degree of customization or end-user
modifications required. If considerable customization or modification is required, data entry could require a
centrally based computer.

PROGRAMMING CATEGORIES

Programming of microcomputer-based controllers can be subdivided into four discrete categories:

1. Configuration programming.
2. System initialization programming.
3. Data file programming.
4. Custom control programming.
Some controllers require all four levels of program entry while other controllers, used for more standardized
applications, require fewer levels.

CONFIGURATION PROGRAMMING

Configuration programming consists of selecting which preprogrammed control sequence to use. It requires the
selection of hardware and/or software packages to match the application requirements. Configuration
programming can be as simple as selecting a specific controller model that matches the specific application
requirements, or it can require keyboard selection of the proper software options in a more complex controller.
Universal type controllers, typically applied as zone-level controllers for VAV or other terminal units, are
usually preprogrammed with several control sequences resident in memory. In these cases, configuration
programming requires selecting the proper control sequence to match the application through device strapping
or keyboard code entry.

SYSTEM INITIALIZATION PROGRAMMING

System initialization programming consists of entering appropriate startup values using a keypad or a keyboard.
Startup data parameters include setpoint, throttling range, gain, reset time, time of day, occupancy time, and

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 CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)
night setback temperature. These data are equivalent to the settings on a mechanical control system, but there
are usually more items because of the added functionality of the digital control system.

DATA FILE PROGRAMMING

Data file programming may or may not be required depending on whether the controller is a fixed-function or
variable-function device. Zone-level controllers are typically fixed function since the applications and control
sequences are generally standardized. In these controllers, the input terminals are dedicated to a specific sensor
type and range, and the output terminals are dedicated to a control relay or specific type of actuator. The need
for data files is minimized. The processor always knows what to look for as it scans those points, and it knows
how to process the data.
System-level controllers are variable-function and are more universal in application. These controllers must be
able to perform a wide variety of control sequences with a broad range of sensor input types and control output
signals. System-level controllers require more extensive data file programming. For the controller to properly
process input data, for example, it must know if the point type is analog or digital. If the point is analog, the
controller must know the sensor type, the range, whether or not the input value is linear, whether or not alarm
limits are assigned, what the high and low alarm limit values are if limits are assigned, and if there is a lockout
point. See Figure 20. If the point is digital, the controller must know its normal state (open or closed), whether
the given state is an alarm state or merely a status condition, and whether or not the condition triggers an event
initiated program.

POINT ADDRESS CHANNEL 01, GROUP 02,

POINT 10
POINT TYPE REGULAR OR CALCULATION
SENSOR TYPE PLATINUM (-20 - 40oC)
PHYSICAL TERMINAL 16
ASSIGNED
USE CODE COLD DECK DRY BULB
o
ENGINEERING UNIT C
DECIMAL PLACES FOR XXX.X
DISPLAY
HIGHLIMIT 21.00
LOW LIMIT 4.00
ALARM LOCKOUT POINT POINT ADDRESS
POINT DESCRIPTOR COLD DECK TEMPERATURE
ALARM PRIORITY 3

Fig. 20. Typical Data File for Analog Input.

CUSTOM CONTROL PROGRAMMING

Custom control programming is the most involved programming category. Custom control programming
requires a step-by-step procedure that closely resembles standard computer programming. A macro view of the
basic tasks is shown in Figure 21.

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 CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)
Analyze Control Application
The systems analysis step in writing a custom control programs requires that the control engineer thoroughly
understand the process controlled. The output of the systems analysis is normally a system drawing and a
concise and clearly stated sequence of operation.

Partition Into Control Loops

The next step is to partition the entire process into individual control loops. Control Fundamentals 77-1210
defines a control loop as a process in which a controller compares the measured value of a controlled variable to
a desired value or setpoint. The resulting output of the controller goes to an actuator that causes a control agent
to lessen the deviation between actual and desired values (Fig. 22). Control loops can be complex when
limitcontrol is needed or when several actuators are controlled in sequence to maintain the controlled variable.
At this step a flow chart should be drawn showing all relationships influencing the controlled variable between
the controller and actuators.

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 CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)

Fig. 21. Custom Control Program Development.

Fig. 22. Simple Control Loop.

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 CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)

A typical central fan system may require several control loops including various combinations of:
- Discharge-air temperature control
- Mixed-air temperature control
- Hot-deck temperature control
- Cold-deck temperature control
- Humidity or dew-point control
- Ventilation control
- Supply fan static pressure control
- Return fan airflow control

Determine Inputs and Outputs

The next step in custom control programming is to determine the inputs and outputs associated with each
control loop. This establishes the data file associated with the program.

Design, Write, and Compile Program

The actual process of designing and writing the control loop programs can be very complex, or a relatively
straightforward procedure, depending on the language processing software provided for the controller. As
discussed in CONTROLLER CONFIGURATION the microprocessor-based controller understands instructions
only at the most elementary language level, i.e., strings of is and Os or machine code. Because of this, language
processing software is often used. This software translates the instructions of a control program written in an
easier-to-use high-level language into actual machine code. The terms compiler, assembler, or interpreter are
used to describe types of language processing software packages. The assembler is normally associated with a
lower level assembly language while the compiler or interpreter is normally associated with a higher level
language. Problem-oriented language is another type of language processing package that tends toward the
higher level.

High-Level Language
The further the programming language is from machine code or the closer it is to human language, the higher
the level of the language. BASIC, Fortran, and Pascal are examples of high-level languages used with
microprocessor-based controllers. These languages are all written with statements resembling English of
common mathematical symbols. In practice, the full instruction set of these high-level languages is seldom used
for custom control programming. Instead, a subset of applicable expression: and operators is often furnished
and supplemented with subroutines for frequently used functions, e.g., the PID algorithm. Using a subset makes
learning the programming language easier and also conserves memory.
A control program written in a high-level language must be compiled, that is, converted from -source code
(written statements) to object code (machine language) before it is usable by the controller. The compiler can be
written in the specific code for the microprocessor and resident in the microprocessor-based controller itself. In
this case the compiler is termed a self compiler. The compiling of custom control programs is usually done on a
host machine. Then either the object code, or an intermediate code which can be easily translated to object code,
is loaded into the controller. The host machine, in most cases, is either a stand-alone PC, portable PC, or the PC
or minicomputer utilized as the central computer in a building management system.
Portable programming devices, including portable PCs, are often used for loading programs into controller
memory. In the case of a building management system, the communications link can be used to down-line load
programs from a higher level processor into the controller. Intermediate code is often used with down-line
loading programs because of greater efficiency, and these codes eliminate the need to take the central computer
offline when loading programs. The down-line load process is interlaced with the normal, central operating
functions without appreciable degradation of system performance. Each controller in systems of this type has a
resident translator software package that converts the intermediate code to object code.
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Problem-Oriented Language
Problem-oriented languages, sometimes used for writing custom programs, are custom software packages
tailored to the requirements of a specific vendor's controller. Control sequences are built by selecting
preprogrammed control blocks, for example the PID algorithm, and linking them with other control blocks.
Although this process requires little or no knowledge of programming, it is time consuming and somewhat
prone to error since control blocks are usually called one block at a time.

Assembly Language
Assembly language is close to machine code. It uses a set of mnemonics each being two or three machine
language bytes. Assembly language is more efficient in memory utilization and it executes faster than a high-
level language. It also takes a more highly skilled person to write the control program with a detailed
knowledge of the characteristics of the particular microprocessor. Assembly language programs, like high-level
language programs, must be converted from source code to machine code to make them usable in the controller.
A software package called an assembler is used for this conversion. Like the compiler, an assembler requires a
considerable amount of memory and is not usually resident in the controller.

Debug, Install, Enter Data Files, and Test

Regardless of the custom control program used, each program must be debugged to assure proper operation.
When programs are written on a host machine, special debug and simulation programs are frequently employed
prior to installing the program in the controller. Debug programs test for syntax (language) and procedural
errors. Simulation programs allow inputs and outputs to be simulated and a static test of the program to be run.
After debug and error correction, the program and associated data files are loaded into the controller and a full
system check is made under normal operating conditions to assure proper operation.

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TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
ZONE-LEVEL CONTROLLERS

Zone-level controllers can be applied to a variety of types of HVAC unitary equipment. Several control
sequences can be resident in a single zone-level controller to meet various application requirements. The
appropriate control sequence is selected and set up through either a PC for the system or through a hand-held
operator's terminal. The following two examples discuss typical control sequences for one type of zone-level
controller used specifically for VAV air terminal units. For further information on control of terminal units,
refer to Individual Room Control Applications 77-1233.

EXAMPLE 1. VAV COOLING ONLY

In a pressure independent VAV cooling only air terminal unit application the zone-level controller controls the
primary airflow independent of varying supply air pressures. The airflow setpoint of the controller is reset by
the thermostat to vary airflow between field programmable minimum and maximum settings to satisfy space
temperatures. On a call for less cooling, the damper modulates toward minimum. On a call for more cooling, the
damper modulates toward maximum. The airflow control maintains the airflow at whatever level the thermostat
demands and holds the volume constant at that level until a new level is called for. The minimum airflow setting
assures continuous ventilation during light loads. The maximum setting limits excessive use of cool air and/or
noise during heavy loads.

EXAMPLE 2. VAV COOLING WITH SEQUENCED ELECTRIC REHEAT

In a VAV cooling air terminal unit application with sequenced electric reheat, an adjustable deadband is
provided between the cooling and the reheat cycle. On a call for less cooling, the damper modulates toward
minimum flow. The damper remains at minimum cooling through a deadband. On a call for reheat, the damper
goes from minimum flow to reheat flow to prevent excessively high discharge temperatures and to protect the
rehear elements. In this sequence, the temperature error signal is used in a proportional mode to sequence up to
three stages of electric reheat. See Figure 23. During reheat, the control mode changes to constant volume,
variable temperature.

Fig. 23. Control Sequence for VAV Cooling with Sequenced Electric Reheat.
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SYSTEM-LEVEL CONTROLLERS

System-level controllers are variable-function devices applied to a wide variety of mechanical systems. These
controllers can accommodate multi-loop custom control sequences and have control integrated with energy
management and building management functions. The examples that follow cover direct digital control
functions for a system-level controller.
Where the examples indicate that user entered values are furnished (e.g., setpoint), or that key parameters or
DDC operator outputs will have display capability, this represents sound software design practice and applies
whether or not the controller is tied into a central building management system. Data is entered or displayed in
non-BMS applications by a keypad and display is integral with the controller or by a portable operator's
terminal.

A six-step approach can be used to define and develop custom DDC programs.
1. Develop a system flow schematic as a visual representation of the process to be controlled The
schematic may be provided as apart of the plans and specifications for the job. If not, a schematic must
be created for the system.
2. Write a detailed sequence of operation.
3. Identify sensors and actuators (inputs and outputs) required for control, display, and energy
management.
4. Develop point-to-point installation drawings showing all required piping and wiring connections to and
from the controller including those required for intercommunication.
5. Develop a detailed flowchart of the control sequence using either DDC operators or a programming
logic flow diagram. Programs written totally in a high-level language use the logic flow diagram.
6. Write the program using either DDC operators (Table 1) or high-level language statements. The
examples that follow utilize DDC operators. In any case, there should be a direct and meaningful
correlation between the flowchart and program listings.

The following examples include a sequence of operation, a system schematic, a control program logic analysis,
and a control program logic diagram. These items are prepared specifically for system level controllers
depending on the requirements of the job. The program logic analysis and diagram illustrate the logic required
to implement the required DDC functions.

EXAMPLE 1. HOT WATER CONVERTER

Sequence of Operation
Converter controls (Fig. 24) are energized whenever the hot water pump runs. The hot water pump operates
under automatic control anytime the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature falls below 10oC. The outdoor
temperature at which the pump starts and the differential span before the pump stops again are field adjustable
parameters. The hot water supply pump starter is provided with a hand-off-auto switch for manual override of
the automatic startstop. A PID operator uses the sensed value of the converter discharge water temperature to
modulate the heating supply valve. The setpoint of the PID operator is reset from outdoor air dry-bulb
temperature to maintain a schedule of discharge water temperatures from 35oC at 15oC outdoor dry-bulb
temperature to 60oC at -20oC outdoor dry-bulb temperature. The integral and derivative (ID) elements of the
PID algorithm are enabled by a signal from a flow switch located in the hot water supply line and do not
become active until the supply water temperature falls within the assigned throttling range of the PID operator.
Provision can be made for auto-manual control of the PID setpoint to allow the discharge water to be
maintained at a manually set value. The valve actuator closes the heat source supply valve whenever the pump
is off or the hot water flow ceases.
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 CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)
System Schematic

Fig. 24. Hot Water Converter.

Control Program Logic Analysis

The control program logic (Fig. 25) for the hot water converter consists of two independent control loops which
share a common outdoor air sensor, Analog Input 1. One loop controls the hot water circulating pump, and the
other loop controls the steam supply valve through a PID operator. Refer to Figure 26 for a legend of the
symbols used in Figure 25.

Pump Control
The digitized value of outdoor air Analog Input 1 is input to an analog-controlled digital output (ACDO)
Operator O-1 which can be thought of as equivalent to a pneumatic pressure-to electric (P/E) relay with
adjustable trip point. Parameter Input 9, set at 10oC, determines the pump-on condition by outputting a true, or
Logic 1, when the temperature input value falls to 10oC. Parameter 8, set at 11oC, determines the pump-off
condition by outputting a false, or Logic 0, anytime the outdoor air temperature rises above 11oC. The FALSE
notation on the ACDO operator indicates that the operator is set for reverse acting, and a true, or Logic 1, output
occurs on a fall in temperature rather than on a rise. The pump is controlled through the start-stop relay and can
also be controlled manually via a local hand-off-auto switch.

Steam Supply Valve Control

The converter steam valve is controlled by PID Operator O-2. Inputs to the PID operator are the digitized value
of hot water supply temperature Input Sensor 2, a setpoint value normally determined from AUTO/MANUAL
selection by digitally controlled analog output (DCAO) Operator O-4, and an ID (integral and derivative)
enable/disable signal from the hot water supply flow Input Switch 3. The output of the PID operator is routed
through DCAO Operator O-5 to an electric/pneumatic transducer (E/PT) which provides a proportional air
pressure signal to the valve actuator. The DCAO operator can be thought of as a single-pole, double-throw
electrical switch that is controlled by a digital input, in this case the Logic 1 (ON) or the Logic 0 (OFF), signal
from hot water supply flow switch Digital Input 3. When the pump is off, the fixed value CLOSE from DCAO
O-5 causes the E/PT to output a signal which closes the steam supply valve.
The setpoint (SP) value input to the PID operator is varied in accordance with a schedule determined by Ratio
Operator O-3, subject to the signal routing determined by DCAO Operator O-4 and the auto/manual input
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status. In the auto mode, the signal from the ratio operator is input to the SP input of the PID operator. The ratio
operator puts out a setpoint value which is indirectly proportional to the digitized value of the outdoor air Input
Sensor 1. Parameter assignments 1, 2, 3, and 4 determine the slope of the setpoint schedule to provide setpoint
values of 35oC at 15oC outdoor air temperature and 60'C setpoint at -20oC outdoor air temperature. In the
manual mode, the setpoint comes from the HWS Manual Setpoint value. The ID terms of the PID algorithm are
active only when the hot water supply pump is on, as determined by flow switch Digital Input 3. Pseudo-points
are provided for operator observation of the value of the automatic setpoint (Point 6), the PID output value
(Point 7), and the theoretical valve position in percent open (Point 8).
Control Program Logic Diagram

Fig. 25. Hot Water Converter Logic Diagram.

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Fig. 26. Symbol Legend.

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 CHAPTER 4 BMS (DDC CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL)
EXAMPLE 2. DISCHARGE CONTROL OF COOLING COIL WITH DAMPER SEQUENCING

Sequence of Operation
The supply fan (Fig. 27) is started and stopped by the optimum start-stop program subject to the return air
smoke detector and mixed air low-temperature sensor. The smoke detector and mixed air low-temperature
sensor are hardwired directly to the supply fan starter circuit. When the supply fan is off, minimum and
maximum outdoor air dampers are closed, the return damper is open, the normally open chilled water valve is
closed, and the PID operator integral and derivative gains are disabled. When the supply fan runs, as determined
by the differential pressure switch, the control system is enabled and the minimum outdoor air damper is
permitted to open during the occupancy period defined by the optimum start-stop program (see Optimum Start/
Optimum Stop). On a rise in discharge temperature, the discharge air PID operator modulates the maximum
outdoor air damper open in sequence with the chilled water valve to maintain the set discharge temperature.
Sequencing is via software with each actuator operating over its full range. The sequencing ranges are field
adjustable parameters. Anytime the outdoor air temperature exceeds 20oC the maximum outdoor air damper
goes to the closed position and the interlinked return air damper opens. The damper changeover temperature
setpoint is a field adjustable parameter.

System Schematic

Control Program Logic Analysis

The program logic for dampers and cooling coil is shown in Figure 28. Refer to the symbol legend in Figure 26.
The logic consists of minimum and maximum outdoor air control loops and a cooling valve control loop
integrated with an energy management optimum start-stop control loop.
The cooling valve and maximum outdoor air dampers are controlled in sequence by PID Operator O-1 to
maintain a fixed cold deck temperature. Inputs to the PID Operator O-1 are the digitized value of the cold deck
temperature Sensor Input 2, a cold deck setpoint value 5, and an integral and derivative (ID) enable/disable
signal from the Digital Input 3 differential pressure switch. The output of the PID operator is fed to two
SEQUENCE operators, O-2 for damper control and O-3 for cooling valve control. Parameters 6 and 7 assigned
to SEQ Operator O-2 indicate that the first part of the PID output range is used for damper control. Parameters 8
and 9 assigned to SEQ Operator O-3 indicate that the final part of the PID output range is used for cooling valve
control.

Optimum Start-Stop Control

The optimum start-stop program, utilizing space temperature input, outdoor temperature input, and the
occupancy schedule, starts the supply fan directly, subject to fan residual priority, with a necessary cool down
lead time to attain desired space temperature at occupancy time. The fan residual priority is determined by the
last valid command. For example, if afire or smoke management program turns the fan off, a high residual
priority keeps it off. All of the fan control is done outside of DDC because the command and residual priority
scheme resolves all contentions for fan operation.

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Fig. 27. Discharge Control of Cooling Coil with Damper Sequencing.

Minimum Outdoor Air Damper Control

When the supply fan is turned on by the optimum start-stop program, the differential pressure switch, Digital
Input 3, is a Logic 1. The Logic 1 is fed to AND Operator O-4 which outputs a Logic 1, or ON command, if the
optimum start-stop program occupancy time has been reached. The minimum damper remains closed during the
warm up period. The ON command goes to Digital Output 11 which controls the solenoid valve air supply to
drive the minimum OA damper full open. When the supply fan is shut down by the optimum stop program,
differential pressure switch Input 3 reverts to a Logic 0 which causes the output from AND Operator O-4 to go
to Logic 0 sending an OFF signal to the E/PR closing the minimum damper.

Maximum Outdoor Air Damper Control

The digitized value of Outdoor Air Sensor 1 is fed to reverse acting ACDO Operator O-5. Because the ACDO is
set to reverse acting, Parameter 2 (19°C) causes the digital output of the operator to be Logic 1 anytime the
temperature value is below 19°C. The Logic 1 output is ANDed with a true or Logic 1 from the supply fan
differential pressure switch Input 3 if airflow is proven. The Logic 1 output of the AND Operator O-6 is
directed to DCAO Operator O-7. A Logic 1 input to DCAO Operator O-7 causes it to transfer so that the output
of the sequence (SEQ) Operator O-2 is routed to the Analog Output 9 E/PT which provides a proportional
pneumatic output to the maximum outdoor air damper. Whenever the digitized value-of outdoor air Sensor
Input 1 is 20oC or higher, the ACDO Operator O-5 output is Logic 0 which causes the output of the AND
Operator O-6 to be a Logic 0. A Logic 0, when ANDed at Operator O-6, produces Logic 0 control signal to
DCAO 0-7 which transfers its output to the CLOSE value. This closes the maximum outdoor air damper
through Analog Output 9 and its associated transducer.

Cooling Valve Control

The output of PID Operator O-1 is fed to SEQ Operator O-3 and then through reversing (REV) operator O-8.
This is routed through DCAO Operator O-9 to the E/PT controlling the cooling valve. DCAO Operator O-9 is
controlled by Digital Input 3 from the supply fan differential pressure switch. When the fan is OFF, the digital
input from the differential pressure switch is a Logic 0 which triggers DCAO Operator O-9 and routes the
CLOSE value to the E/PT to close the cooling valve. When the fan is ON, the PID Operator O-1 output is in
control of the cooling valve.

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Enabling/disabling of the ID terms of the PID operator is determined by the status of the supply fan differential
pressure Switch Input 3. A Logic 1 or fan ON signal enables the ID term; a Logic 0 or fan OFF signal disables
the ID term.

Control Program Logic Diagram

Fig. 28. Discharge Control of Cooling Coil with Damper Sequencing.

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