Introduction

Chapter Objectives
• The terms - pressure, specific weight, specific gravity (SG), and
buoyancy
• The difference between atmospheric, absolute, gauge, and differential
pressure values
• Various pressure units in use, i.e., British units versus SI (metric) units
• Various types of pressure measuring devices
• Difference in static, dynamic, and impact pressures
• Laws applied to pressure
• Application considerations
 Introduction
• Pressure is the force exerted by gases and liquids due to their weight,
such as the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the earth and
the pressure containerized liquids exert on the bottom and walls of a
container.
• Pressure units are a measure of the force acting over a specified area. It
is most commonly expressed in pounds per square inch (psi),
sometimes pounds per square foot (psf) in English units, or pascals (Pa
or kPa) in metric units.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Basic Terms
• Density 𝜌 is defined as the mass per unit volume of a material, i.e.,
pound (slug) per cubic foot (lb (slug)/ft3) or kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3).
• Specific weight 𝛾 is defined as the weight per unit volume of a material,
i.e., pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3) or newton per cubic meter (N/m3).
• Specific gravity of a liquid or solid is a dimensionless value since it is a
ratio of two measurements in the same unit. It is defined as the density
of a material divided by the density of water or it can be defined as the
specific weight of the material divided by the specific weight of water
at a specified temperature.
• The specific weights and specific gravities of some common materials
are given in Table 5.1. The specific gravity of a gas is its density/specific
weight divided by the density/specific weight of air at 60°F and 1
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia). In the SI system the density in g/cm3
or Mg/m3 and SG have the same value.
 Basic Terms
• Static pressure is the pressure of fluids or gases that are stationary or
not in motion (see Fig. 5.1). Point A is considered as static pressure
although the fluid above it is flowing
• Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it
impacts on a surface or an object due to its motion or flow. In Fig. 5.1
the dynamic pressure is (B − A).
• Impact pressure (total pressure) is the sum of the static and dynamic
pressures on a surface or object. Point B in Fig. 5.1 depicts the impact
pressure.
 Pressure Measurement
There are six terms applied to pressure measurements:
• Total vacuum–which is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as would be
experienced in outer space.
• Vacuum is a pressure measurement made between total vacuum and
normal atmospheric pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s surface due to the
weight of the gases in the earth’s atmosphere and is normally
expressed at sea level as 14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa.
• Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to a vacuum
and is expressed in pounds per square inch absolute (psia).
• Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to atmospheric
pressure.
• Differential pressure is the pressure measured with respect to another
pressure and is expressed as the difference between the two values.
This would represent two points in a pressure or flow system and is
referred to as the delta p or Δp. (Figure 5.2b)
 Pressure Formula
• Total vacuum–which is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as would be
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure in a liquid. The pressure increases as
the depth in a liquid increases. This increase is due to the weight of the
fluid above the measurement point. The pressure is given by
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
p = pressure (pascals)
𝛾 = the specific weight (N/m3)
h = distance from the surface in compatible units (m)
 Pressure Formula
• The hydrostatic paradox states that the pressure at a given depth in a
liquid is independent of the shape of the container or the volume of
liquid contained. The total pressure or forces on the sides of the
container depend on its shape, but at a specified depth.
• Buoyancy is the upward force exerted on an object immersed or
floating in a liquid. The weight is less than it is in air due to the weight
of the displaced fluid. The upward force on the object causing the
weight loss is called the buoyant force and is given by
𝐵 = 𝛾𝑉
B = buoyant force (N) 𝛾 = specific weight (N/m3)
V = volume of the liquid displaced (m3)
Pressure Formula
 Pressure Formula
• Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed liquid (or
gas) is transmitted to all parts of the fluid and to the walls of the
container. A force 𝐹𝑆 , exerted on the small piston (ignoring friction),
will exert a pressure in the fluid which is given by
𝐹𝑆
𝑝=
𝐴𝑆
• Since the pressure is transmitted through the liquid to the second
cylinder (Pascal’s law), the force on the larger piston (𝐹𝐿 ) is given by
𝐹𝐿 = 𝑝𝐴𝐿
• where 𝐴𝐿 is the cross-sectional area of the large piston (assuming the
pistons are at the same level), from which
𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑆
𝐹𝐿 =
𝐴𝑆
 Pressure Formula
• It can be seen that the force FL is magnified by the ratio of the piston
areas. This principle is used extensively in hoists, hydraulic equipment,
and the like.

• A vacuum is very difficult to achieve in practice. Vacuum pumps can

only approach a true vacuum. Good small volume vacuums, such as in a
barometer, can be achieved.
 Measuring Instruments
Manometer
• U–tube manometers consist of U-shaped glass tubes partially filled with
a liquid. When there are equal pressures on both sides, the liquid levels
will correspond to the zero point on a scale as shown in Fig. 5.5a.
• When a pressure is applied to one side of the U-tube that is higher than
on the other side, as shown in Fig. 5.5b, the liquid rises higher in the
lower pressure side, so that the difference in the heights of the two
columns of liquid compensates for the difference in pressure, as in Eq.
(5.2). The pressure difference is given by
𝑃𝑅 − 𝑃𝐿 = 𝛾 × 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
𝛾 is the specific weight of the liquid in the manometer
 Measuring Instruments
Manometer
• Inclined manometers were developed to measure low pressures. The
low pressure arm is inclined, so that the fluid has a longer distance to
travel than in a vertical tube for the same pressure change.
• Well manometers are alternatives to inclined manometers for
measuring low pressures using low-density liquids. In the well
manometer, one leg has a much larger diameter than the other leg. An
increase in the pressure in the larger leg will cause a larger change in
the height of the liquid in the smaller leg. The pressure across the
larger area of the well must be balanced by the same volume of liquid
rising in the smaller leg. The effect is similar to the balance of pressure
and volume in hydraulic jacks.
 Diaphragms, Capsules, Bellow
• Gauges are a major group of pressure sensors that measure pressure
with respect to atmospheric pressure. Gauge sensors are usually
devices that change their shape when pressure is applied. These
devices include diaphragms, capsules, bellows, and Bourdon tubes.
• A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film of a material supported on
a rigid frame. Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for gauge
sensing or pressures can be applied to both sides of the film for
differential or absolute pressure sensing.
• A wide range of materials can be used for the sensing film, from rubber
to plastic for low-pressure devices, silicon for medium pressures, to
stainless steel for high pressures.
 Diaphragms, Capsules, Bellow
• When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the film distorts or
becomes slightly spherical. This movement can be sensed using a strain
gauge, piezoelectric, or changes in capacitance techniques (older
techniques included magnetic and carbon pile devices).
• The deformation in the above sensing devices uses transducers to give
electrical signals. Of all these devices the micromachined silicon
diaphragm is the most commonly used industrial pressure sensor.
• A silicon diaphragm uses silicon. This allows a strain gauge and
amplifier to be integrated into the top surface of the silicon structure.
These devices have built-in temperature-compensated piezoelectric
strain gauge and amplifiers that give a high output voltage (5 V FSD
[volt full scale reading or deflection]). They are very small, accurate (2
percent FSD), reliable, have a good temperature operating range, are
low cost, can withstand high overloads, have good longevity, and are
unaffected by many chemicals. Commercially made devices are
available for gauge, differential, and absolute pressure sensing up to
200 psi (1.5 MPa). This range can be extended by the use of stainless
steel diaphragms to 100,000 psi (700 MPa).
 Diaphragms, Capsules, Bellow
• Figure 5.7a shows the cross sections of the three configurations of the
silicon chips (sensor dies) used in microminiature pressure sensors,
i.e., gauge, absolute, and differential.
• The given dimensions illustrate that the sensing elements are very
small. The die is packaged into a plastic case (about 0.2 in thick × 0.6 in
diameter). A gauge assembly is shown in Fig. 5.7b. The sensor is used
in blood pressure monitors and many industrial applications, and is
extensively used in automotive pressure-sensing applications, i.e.,
manifold air pressure, barometric air pressure, oil, transmission fluid,
break fluid, power steering, tire pressure and the like.
 Diaphragms, Capsules, Bellow
• Capsules are two diaphragms joined back to back, as shown in Fig. 5.8b.
Pressure can be applied to the space between the diaphragms forcing
them apart to measure gauge pressure.
• The expansion of the diaphragm can be mechanically coupled to an
indicating device. The deflection in a capsule depends on its diameter,
material thickness, and elasticity.
• Materials used are phosphor bronze, stainless steel, and iron nickel
alloys. The pressure range of instruments using these materials is up to
50 psi (350 kPa). Capsules can be joined together to increase sensitivity
and mechanical movement.
 Diaphragms, Capsules, Bellow
• Bellows are similar to capsules, except that the diaphragms instead of
being joined directly together, are separated by a corrugated tube or
tube with convolutions, as shown in Fig. 5.8c.
• When pressure is applied to the bellows it elongates by stretching the
convolutions and not the end diaphragms. The materials used for the
bellows type of pressure sensor are similar to those used for the
capsule, giving a pressure range for the bellows of up to 800 psi (5
MPa). Bellows devices can be used for absolute and differential
pressure measurements.
 Diaphragms, Capsules, Bellow
• Differential measurements can be made by connecting two bellows
mechanically, opposing each other when pressure is applied to them, as
shown in Fig. 5.9a.
• When pressures 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are applied to the bellows a differential scale
reading is obtained.
• Figure 5.9b shows a bellows configured as a differential pressure
transducer driving a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) to
obtain an electrical signal, 𝑃2 could be the atmospheric pressure for
gauge measurements. The bellows is the most sensitive of the
mechanical devices for low pressure measurements, i.e., 0 to 210 kPa.
 Bourdon Tubes
• Bourdon tubes are hollow, cross-sectional beryllium, copper, or steel
tubes, shaped into a three quarter circle, as shown in Fig. 5.10a. They
may be rectangular or oval in cross section, but the operating principle
is that the outer edge of the cross section has a larger surface than the
inner portion.
• When pressure is applied, the outer edge has a proportionally larger
total force applied because of its larger surface area, and the diameter of
the circle increases.
• The walls of the tubes are between 0.01 and 0.05
in thick. The tubes are anchored at one end so that
when pressure is applied to the tube, it tries to
straighten and in doing so the free end of the tube
moves. This movement can be mechanically
coupled to a pointer, will indicate pressure as a
line of sight indicator, or it can be coupled to a
potentiometer to give a resistance value
proportional to the pressure for electrical signals.
 Bourdon Tubes
• Figure 5.10b shows a helical pressure tube. This configuration is more
sensitive than the circular Bourdon tube. It is reliable, inexpensive, and
one of the most common general purpose pressure gauges.
• Bourdon tubes can withstand overloads of up to 30 to 40 percent of
their maximum rated load without damage, but if overloaded may
require recalibration.
• The Bourdon tube is normally used for measuring positive gauge
pressures, but can also be used to measure negative gauge pressures. If
the pressure on the Bourdon tube is lowered, then the diameter of the
tube reduces. This movement can be coupled to a pointer to make a
vacuum gauge. Bourdon tubes can have a pressure range of up to
100,000 psi (700 MPa).
 Bourdon Tubes
• Figure 5.11 shows the Bourdon-tube type of pressure gauge when used
for measuring negative pressure (vacuum) (a) and positive pressure
(b). Note the counterclockwise movement in (a) and the clockwise
movement in (b).
 Other Pressure Sensors
• Barometers are used for measuring atmospheric pressure. A simple
barometer is the mercury barometer shown in Fig. 5.12a. It is now
rarely used due to its fragility and the toxicity of mercury. The aneroid
(no fluid) barometer is favored for direct reading (bellows in Fig. 5.9 or
helical Bourdon tube in Fig. 5.10b) and the solid-state absolute pressure
sensor for electrical outputs.
• A piezoelectric pressure gauge is shown in Fig. 5.12b. Piezoelectric
crystals produce a voltage between their opposite faces when a force or
pressure is applied to the crystal. This voltage can be amplified and the
device used as a pressure sensor.
 Other Pressure Sensors
• Capacitive devices use the change in capacitance between the sensing
diaphragm and a fixed plate to measure pressure. Some micromachined
silicon pressure sensors use this technique in preference to a strain
gauge. This technique is also used in a number of other devices to
accurately measure any small changes in diaphragm deformation.
• The Pirani gauge and special setups using thermocouples can measure
vacuums down to about 5 torr. These methods are based on the relation
of heat conduction and radiation from a heating element to the number
of gas molecules per unit volume in the low-pressure region, which
determines the pressure.
• Ionization gauges can be used to measure pressures down to about 2
torr. The gas is ionized with a beam of electrons and the current is
measured between two electrodes in the gas. The current is
proportional to the number of ions per unit volume, which is also
proportional to the gas pressure.
 Other Pressure Sensors
• McLeod gauge is a device set up to measure very low pressures, i. e.,
from 1 to 50 torr. The device compresses the low-pressure gas so that
the increased pressure can be measured. The change in volume and
pressure can then be used to calculate the original gas pressure.
 Application Consideration
Selection
• Pressure-sensing devices are chosen for pressure range, overload
requirements, accuracy, temperature operating range, line-of-sight
reading, or electrical signal, and response time.
• In some applications there are other special requirements. Parameters,
such as hystersis and stability, should be obtained from the
manufacturers’ specifications.
• For most industrial applications reading positive pressures, the
Bourdon tube is a good choice for direct visual readings and the silicon
pressure sensor for the generation of electrical signals.
• Both types of devices have commercially available sensors to measure
from a few pounds per square inch pressure FSD up to 10,000 psi (700
MPa) FSD. Table 5.3 gives a comparison of the two types of devices.
Table 5.4 lists the operating range for several types of pressure sensors.
 Application Consideration
Selection
• Pressure-sensing devices are chosen for pressure range, overload
requirements, accuracy, temperature operating range, line-of-sight
reading, or electrical signal, and response time.
• In some applications there are other special requirements. Parameters,
such as hystersis and stability, should be obtained from the
manufacturers’ specifications.
• For most industrial applications reading positive pressures, the
Bourdon tube is a good choice for direct visual readings and the silicon
pressure sensor for the generation of electrical signals.
• Both types of devices have commercially available sensors to measure
from a few pounds per square inch pressure FSD up to 10,000 psi (700
MPa) FSD. Table 5.3 gives a comparison of the two types of devices.
Table 5.4 lists the operating range for several types of pressure sensors.
 Application Consideration
Installation
1. Distance between sensor and source should be kept to a minimum.
2. Sensors should be connected via valves for ease of replacement.
3. Over range protection devices should be included at the sensor.
4. To eliminate errors due to trapped gas in sensing liquid pressures, the
sensor should be located below the source.
5. To eliminate errors due to trapped liquid in sensing gas pressures, the
sensor should be located above the source.
6. When measuring pressures in corrosive fluids and gases, an inert
medium is necessary between the sensor and the source or the sensor
must be corrosion resistant.
7. The weight of the liquid in the connection line of a liquid pressure
sensing device located above or below the source will cause errors in
the zero, and a correction must be made by the zero adjustment, or
otherwise compensated for in measurement systems.
8. Resistance and capacitance can be added to electron circuits to reduce
pressure fluctuations and unstable readings.
 Application Consideration
Calibration
• Pressure-sensing devices are calibrated at the factory. In cases where a
sensor is suspect and needs to be recalibrated, the sensor can be
returned to the factory for recalibration, or it can be compared to a
known reference.
• Low-pressure devices can be calibrated against a liquid manometer.
• High-pressure devices can be calibrated with a dead-weight tester. In a
dead-weight tester the pressure to the device under test is created by
weights on a piston. High pressures can be accurately reproduced.