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LEARNING
HYDRAULICS ACTIVITY
PACKET
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE AND FLOW
TM
BB831-XA03XEN
LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKET 3
INTRODUCTION
Previous LAPs discussed the construction and operation of basic hydraulic circuits
and how they are represented using standard schematic symbols. It is important to
understand the principles that allow power to be transmitted by a pressurized liquid. A
good understanding of this LAP will help develop skills that are used in analyzing,
specifying, and troubleshooting hydraulic components.
This LAP will provide the foundation for understanding the theory of fluid power
with the principles of pressure and flow. It will explain Pascal’s Law and how it is used
to multiply and transmit forces, how to determine cylinder forces, and how fluid flows.
ITEMS NEEDED
Amatrol Supplied
1 85-BH Basic Hydraulic Training System
1 85-HPS Hydraulic Power Unit
School Supplied
1 Ruler
1 Adjustable Wrench
1 Flathead Screwdriver
LOAD
FORCE
LOAD
CROSS SECTION
OF PISTON
PISTON/ROD
FORCE D
FLUID
FORCE
FLUID
PRESSURE
F = P×A
2
= P × D × 0.7854
S.I. Units:
F = P×A
2
= P × D × 0.07854
Where
F = Force output of cylinder rod extending (lbs or Newtons)
P = Pressure on piston (psi or kPa)
A = Area of piston (in2 or cm2)
D = Diameter of piston (in or cm)
Note: The 0.07854 in the S.I. units occurs in converting meters
and Pascals to centimeters and kPa.
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will calculate the theoretical
force output of the cylinders used on the 850 Series trainer
for several pressures. In step 1, you will be given an
example to show how to do this.
❑ 1. Let’s assume you have a cylinder with a bore of 2.0 in/5.08 cm and
a pressure of 1000 psi/6900 kPa. The force output of the cylinder
would be calculated as follows:
150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /
P
BORE
DIAMETER
NOTE
This is a typical application of the F = P × A formula.
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will learn a simple method of
measuring the force output of the cylinder. This test will
verify that the formula you used in Skill 1 works.
SUPPLY
MANIFOLD
CYLINDER
FLOW FLOW
CONTROL CONTROL
#1 #2
A A
B B RETURN
MOTOR MANIFOLD
CYLINDER
L1
CYLINDER
(LARGE)
FORCE SPRING
RELIEF OF FORCE
VALVE CYLINDER
PRESSURE
L
1 2 3 4
RULER
WARNING
Keep your hands and fingers away from the load spring while
the power unit is running. The load spring will compress during
operation. This will make it possible for you to pinch your fingers.
If the spring needs to be aligned while the power unit is running,
use a screwdriver, pencil, or pen to move the spring.
SPRING L1
FROM
PUMP
=
FCYL FLS
For the 850 trainer, the spring the rate is 294 lbs / in or
515 Newtons / cm
PRESSURE COMPRESSED
SPRING LENGTH (L1)
(psi/kPa) (in/cm)
150/1035 /
200/1380 /
250/1725 /
300/2070 /
❑ 8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for each of the other pressures listed in the
chart.
Each time you increase the pressure you should observe that the
spring compresses a little further. The more the spring is
compressed the greater its force output. Since the spring force is
equal to the force created by the fluid pressure on the piston this
also means the cylinder’s force output increases with pressure.
❑ 9. After you have completed the chart, experiment with your ability to
position the cylinder by changing the pressure with the relief valve.
WARNING
Do not exceed 400 psi/2760 kPa setting at the relief valve.
Above this pressure, the spring becomes completely
compressed and can no longer be used to calculate forces.
❑ 10. Reduce the relief valve’s setting to minimum and perform the
following substeps to allow the cylinder to fully retract.
NOTE
The spring force can only retract the cylinder to a point where
its force is balanced by the friction of the cylinder seals. These
substeps will completely retract the cylinder to allow easy
removal of the load spring in the next step.
150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /
❑ 13. Compare these forces with those obtained from the force formula
in Skill 1. The actual values obtained should be smaller than those
obtained by calculation.
The reason for this is that other forces that resist rod movement
have been omitted from the calculation. These include friction,
which always resists movement, and back pressure from fluid
leaving the backside of the cylinder.
Frictional forces occur in two areas. One area is between the piston
and cylinder body. The other area is between the rod and the rod
end cap.
NOTE
Designers always add at least 10% to their calculation of
pressure or cylinder size theoretical to account for these
frictional forces.
PISTON
FORCE CROSS SECTION
OF PISTON
FLUID
FORCE FLUID
PRESSURE ROD
GENERATED AREA
TO PULL
THE LOAD ANNULAR
AREA
LOAD
LOAD
FORCE
F=P×A
U.S. Customary Units:
F = P × Aa
[ 2
= P × DP − DR
2
] × 0.7854
S.I. Units:
F = P × Aa
[2
= P × DP − DR
2
] × 0.07854
Where
F = Force output of cylinder rod retracting
(lbs or Newtons)
P = Pressure on piston (psi or kPa)
Aa = Annular area of piston (in 2 or cm 2)
DP = Diameter of piston (in or cm)
DR = Diameter of rod (in or cm)
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will calculate the theoretical
retraction force for the two cylinders used in the 850 Series
trainer at several different pressures. In step 1, you will be
given an example.
❑ 1. Let’s assume you have a cylinder with a bore of 2.0 in/5.08 cm, a
rod diameter of 1.0 in/2.54 cm. and a pressure of 1000 psi/6900
kPa. The force output of the cylinder in retraction would be
calculated as follows:
150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /
LOAD
NOTE
This is a typical design calculation. Designers must usually
calculate the load retracting as well as the load extending.
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will measure the actual force
output in retraction of both cylinders on the 850 Series
trainer using the load spring. This will also show that a
cylinder’s actual force output in retraction is less than
extension and demonstrate that piston size has an effect
on the net force output.
WARNING
Keep the relief valve setting at minimum during this step.
Installing the load spring for this procedure requires the hands
and fingers to be near pinch points. Use extreme care during this
step.
DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
IN A
OUT B
CYLINDER
LOAD
BLOCK
I. Install the loose rod extender on the end of the cylinder rod and
slide the spring over the extender rod, as shown in figure 14.
ROD
EXTENDER
CAM
STEP L: ATTACH CAM TO
EXTENDER ROD
LOAD ROD
WRENCH FLAT
GAUGE A
SPRING
ROD
CAM
CYLINDER
L1
Figure 16. Test Circuit for Measuring the Force Output of a Cylinder in
Retraction
WARNING
Keep your hands and fingers away from the load spring while
the power unit is running. The load spring will be compressing
during operation. This will make it possible for you to pinch your
fingers. If the spring needs to be aligned while the power unit is
running, use a screwdriver, pencil, or pen to move the spring.
PRESSURE COMPRESSED
SPRING LENGTH (L1)
(psi/kPa) (in/cm)
150/1035 /
200/1380 /
250/1725 /
300/2070 /
WARNING
Do not exceed 400 psi/2760 kPa setting at the relief valve.
Above this pressure, the spring becomes completely
compressed and can no longer be used to calculate forces.
❑ 8. Reduce the relief valve’s pressure setting to minimum and turn off
the power unit.
❑ 9. Perform the following substeps to remove the load spring.
A. Remove the plastic guard, disconnect the load rod from the cam
and slide it to the right.
B. Remove the cam from the extender rod and set it aside.
C. Remove the load spring and extender rod.
D. Re-attach the cam to the cylinder rod.
E. Keep your fingers clear of the cylinder and start the power unit.
The cylinder should retract with the minimum relief valve
setting.
F. Turn off the power unit and close the shutoff valve.
G. Replace the plastic guard.
❑ 10. Calculate the spring length change and use the load spring formula
to calculate the actual force output for each pressure in the chart
below:
150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /
❑ 11. Compare these output forces with those obtained from the force
formula in Skill 3.
The actual values obtained should be smaller than those obtained
by calculation but they should be close.
❑ 12. Compare these retraction forces with those obtained during
extension in Skill 2. Retraction forces should be less at each
pressure because the annular area is smaller than the cap area.
PRESSURE COMPRESSED
SPRING LENGTH (L1)
(psi/kPa) (in/cm)
150/1035 /
200/1380 /
250/1725 /
300/2070 /
150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /
❑ 23. Compare these output forces with those obtained from the large
bore cylinder in step 10.
The forces obtained should be smaller because of the smaller
annular area with the small bore cylinder.
❑ 24. Disconnect the circuit and store the components.
100 LOAD
POUNDS
BOTTLE
FLUID
PRESSURE
OIL
HEAVY LOAD
6900kPa
6900kPa
PUMP
RESERVOIR
Figure 18. Pascal’s Law Assures High Force to Move Loads from Rest
Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will verify Pascal’s Law by showing
that the pressure at two different points in a volume of fluid
is the same if the fluid is not flowing. This will be
accomplished by measuring the pressure at different
points in a hydraulic system. First, you will use a simple
circuit with pressure gauges and hoses. Then you will
demonstrate the same principle with a hydraulic cylinder.
NOTE
Be sure to connect the loose tee directly onto the gauge block
A tee, as shown in figures 19 and 20.
TEE
FITTING
SUPPLY
MANIFOLD
1 1 SHUTOFF
VALVE
2 2
3 3
NEEDLE
VALVE
A B RETURN
MANIFOLD
D.C.V. IN
#1
CHECK VALVE #1
A B B A
CHECK VALVE #2
OUT
B A
BASIC HYDRAULIC VALVE MODULE
GAUGE C
TEE
NEEDLE
VALVE
GAUGE
GAUGE
BLOCK TEE
TEE
Gauge B ______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge C ______________________________________(psi/kPa)
You should notice that Gauges A, B, and C read the same (or very
close). This is because the closed needle valve creates a confined
fluid in the hoses. This is Pascal’s Law.
NOTE
You may observe that gauge readings differ as much as 40
psi from each other. This is not because the pressure isn’t the
same but because the gauges are not set accurately. To set the
gauges accurately, a procedure called calibration would be
required.
❑ 8. Now open the needle valve one full turn to allow the oil to flow
through the hoses. Observe the new pressure gauge readings.
Gauge A ______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge B ______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge C ______________________________________(psi/kPa)
You should observe that the pressure reading of Gauges A and B
are about the same but Gauge C is different. The reason is the fluid
between Gauges A and C is no longer confined. It is flowing.
Since pressure drops as it flows through the hose, the pressure is
lower at Gauge C than Gauge A. However, the fluid in the hose
connected between Gauges A and B is confined. It is not moving
and, therefore, the pressure is the same at both Gauges A and B.
This is Pascal’s Law.
This demonstrates an important point about the connection of
pressure gauges. The hose length from the pressure line to the
pressure gauge can be as long as you want it to be because the flow
is deadheaded at the gauge. This means you can locate a pressure
gauge on a panel that may not be close to the machine itself.
❑ 9. Reduce the relief valve setting to minimum.
❑ 10. Turn off the power unit and close the shutoff valve.
IN A
OUT B
GAUGE B
LARGE BORE
CYLINDER
Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
When the cylinder is extending, the pressure will be lower in both
gauges because there is no load on the cylinder.
Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Since fluid is no longer flowing between Gauges A and C, they
should be at the same pressure according to Pascal’s Law.
This means that you have the full force output of the cylinder
generated while the cylinder is stopped. This fact enables hydraulic
systems to move heavy loads from rest.
❑ 17. Now pull out on the lever to retract the cylinder and observe the
pressure at Gauges B and C while the cylinder is retracting.
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
You should observe that the pressure is lower when the cylinder is
retracting because there is no load on the cylinder. The only
pressure created is caused by the frictional resistance in the lines
and at the cylinder.
❑ 18. When the cylinder fully retracts, continue to hold the lever of the
DCV shifted and observe the readings of Gauges B and C.
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Fluid no longer flows between Gauges B and C, so they should be
at the same pressure.
❑ 19. Release the lever.
❑ 20. Repeat steps 15 through 19 to verify your readings.
❑ 21. Reduce the relief valve setting to minimum, turn off the power
unit, cycle the DCV to relieve any pressure remaining in the
gauges, and close the shutoff valve.
10 LBS/4.5Kg 2
AREA = 10 IN
2 (64.51 CM2) 100 LBS/45.4Kg
AREA = 1 IN
(6.45 CM2)
10 PSI
10
PSI
CONFINED FLUID
SPRING
BRAKE
OIL DRUM
BRAKE
PISTON SHOE
BRAKE LINE
Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will connect two cylinders of
different sizes together and measure the distance each
cylinder moves for a certain amount of oil volume input.
DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
IN A
OUT B
LARGE BORE
CYLINDER
SMALL BORE
CYLINDER
RETURN
MANIFOLD
LARGE BORE
CYLINDER
❑ 3. Set a ruler next to each cylinder rod and mark the starting points so
that the movement of each rod can be measured.
❑ 4. Now, use your hand to push the rod of the small bore cylinder in
about 1.25 inches and hold for about 30 seconds before releasing.
❑ 5. Measure the final distance each rod has moved.
Small bore cylinder rod movement____________________(in/cm)
0 kPa
PUMP
RESERVOIR
PUMP
PRESSURE
200 kPa
PUMP
RESERVOIR
B = 7020 kPa
LOAD
A = 7060 kPa 7000 kPa
C = 20 kPa
PUMP
D = 0 kPa
RESERVOIR
520 kPa B
C 20kPa
PA-B = 20kPa
PB-C = 500kPa
540 kPa A PC-D = 20kPa
PUMP
D 0 kPa
RESERVOIR
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will demonstrate that components
in a hydraulic system exert a frictional resistance to fluid flow.
To do this, you will measure the pressure drop across the
following hydraulic components: hoses with fittings, needle
valve, and directional control valve.
GAUGE
A
INSERT T FITTING
EXACTLY AS SHOWN
DIRECTION
GAUGE OF FLOW
B
Figure 30. Schematic of Circuit for Measuring Pressure Drop Across Two
Hoses and a Tee Fitting
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Delta P ________________________________________(psi/kPa)
(Delta P = Gauge A - Gauge B)
A typical pressure drop for this measurement is 70 psi/483 kPa.
However, your data will vary according to the oil you are using
and other factors.
As you can see, the pressure is fairly high. The reason for this is
the valves inside the quick-connect fittings and the small
cross-sectional areas of the fittings restrict flow. For this reason,
you should use quick-connect fittings in industry only when
absolutely necessary.
❑ 6. Now turn off the hydraulic power unit.
GAUGE
A
NEEDLE
VALVE
A B
GAUGE
B
Figure 31. Schematic of Circuit for Measuring Drop Across Two Hoses
and a Needle Valve
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Delta P ________________________________________(psi/kPa)
(Delta P = Gauge A - Gauge B)
A typical pressure drop for this circuit is 115 psi/794 kPa. Your
data will vary. However, it should be higher than the drop
measured in step 5 because the needle valve has a higher resistance
than the tee.
❑ 11. Turn off the power unit.
GAUGE
A DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
IN A
OUT B
GAUGE
B
❑ 13. Push and hold the lever of the directional control valve in so that
the oil will flow through the valve from the P port to the A port.
❑ 14. Turn on the power unit.
❑ 15. With the lever held pushed in, record below the readings of gauge
A and B. Then calculate the pressure drop.
Two hoses and directional control valve:
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Delta P ________________________________________(psi/kPa)
(Delta P = Gauge A - Gauge B)
A typical pressure drop for this circuit is 75 psi / 518 kPa. Your
data will vary but the drop through the DCV should be less than
the needle valve because this particular DCV’s internal flow path
is larger. This is not always the case because DCVs and needle
valves are available in many different sizes. The key point to
understand is that all components create a pressure drop no matter
what their size.
❑ 16. Release the lever.
❑ 17. Reduce the relief valve’s pressure setting to minimum (turn CCW
fully).
❑ 18. Close the shutoff valve and turn off the power unit.
Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will demonstrate that the pressure
drop across a component increases when the flow is
increased or the orifice size is decreased. For this
demonstration, you will use a needle valve because it has
a variable orifice. The pressure drop across the valve will
be measured at a number of flow rates for a given orifice
size. The pressure drop will then be measured at different
orifice sizes for a given flow.
GAUGE A GAUGE B
IN OUT A B
FLOW NEEDLE
METER VALVE
1.0/3.8 / / /
1.25/4.8 / / /
1.5/5.7 / / /
2.0/7.6 / / /
❑ 7. Repeat step 6 for each of the other flow rates listed in the chart
above.
You should observe that the ∆P increases as flow through the
needle valve increases. This is why components must be sized for
the flow rate they will handle. If the component is too small for a
given flow rate, you will have a high pressure drop and a lot of
wasted energy.
❑ 8. Now open the shutoff and needle valves completely.
In the remaining steps of this activity, you will measure the effect
orifice size has on pressure drop.
Wide open
5-1/2
5-3/4
6
6-1/4
6-1/2
6-3/4
7
❑ 10. Turn the needle valve 5-1/2 turns CW to reduce the orifice size and
observe the readings of the flowmeter and Gauges A and B. Then
calculate the pressure drop.
❑ 11. Repeat step 10 for each of the other orifice sizes listed in the chart.
You should find that the pressure drop becomes greater as the
resistance caused by a smaller orifice size becomes greater.
This is the feature that allows needle valves to control flow rate in
the hydraulic system. To reduce flow to the actuator, you will
reduce the orifice size of the needle valve to create a high enough
pressure drop to cause the relief valve to partially open.
❑ 12. Reduce the relief valve’s pressure setting to minimum, turn off the
power unit and close the shutoff valve.
GAUGE A GAUGE B
980 940
SYSTEM
PRESSURE HOSE #1 P A
T B
HOSE #2
HOSE #3
GAUGE S 20 60
1100
1000 PSI GAUGE F GAUGE E
GAUGE
C
HOSE #4
GAUGE
80 920
D
GAUGE R
LOAD
0
EXTENDING
When the cylinder in the circuit of figure 34 fully extends, the flow
from the pump deadheads in the cap end of the cylinder and has nowhere
to flow. Since the pump continues to pump oil , the oil pressure builds to
1100 psi. The relief valve, set at 1100 psi, then opens and allows the oil
from the pump to flow through it back to the reservoir. This condition is
shown in figure 35.
GAUGE A GAUGE B
1100 1100
GAUGE S 0 0
GAUGE D 0 1100
GAUGE R
LOAD
0
Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will demonstrate that fluid flowing
through multiple components connected in series causes
pressure drops across each component which add
together to create a higher pressure at the pump’s outlet.
NOTE
Connect the tees directly onto the gauge block tees.
GAUGE A
TEE
GAUGE
GAUGE
FLOW BLOCK TEE
METER TEE
OUT IN
Figure 36. Schematic of the Base Circuit for Obtaining Hose Pressure
Drops
Flow_________________________________________(gpm/lpm)
You should observe that for this flow rate, the pressure at Gauge A
is substantial because of the back pressure caused by the hoses,
quick-connects, and the flow meter.
❑ 5. Turn off the power unit.
❑ 6. Insert Gauge B, tee and hose A in the circuit, as shown in figure
37. Connect the tee at Gauge B directly to the gauge block as you
did with Gauge A in step 1.
This adds a length of hose, quick-connects, and a tee in series with
the base circuit.
GAUGE B GAUGE A
FLOW
METER
HOSE A
Figure 37. Schematic of a Circuit for Obtaining a Hose and the Pressure
Drop
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Flow_________________________________________(gpm/lpm)
You should observe that Gauge B pressure is higher than Gauge A
with the added resistance of hose A and a tee. Gauge A should
read the same as it did in step 4 because its downstream resistance
is still the same.
❑ 9. Turn off the power unit.
NOTE
For hose B, use the same length of hose as used for hose A.
This adds another resistance in series. This resistance is the
same size as added in step 6.
HOSE B HOSE A
FLOW
METER
OUT IN
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Flow_________________________________________(gpm/lpm)
You should observe that Gauge C pressure is higher than Gauge B
with the added resistance of hose B and a tee. Gauges A and B
should read the same as they did in step 8 because their
downstream resistance has not changed.
❑ 13. Now calculate the pressure drops across each of the hoses and tees.
Then, calculate the total pressure drop across both in series.
Delta P Hose A (Gauge B - Gauge A) = ______________(psi/kPa)
Absolute Pressure
As shown in figure 39, the atmosphere exerts a pressure at sea level
that is equal to 14.7 psi or 101 kPa. This is also referred to as 14.7 psia
or 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute pressure.
SEA LEVEL
NOTE
The exact value of atmospheric pressure shown in the above
formula is for sea level. This value will differ according to the
elevation.
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will use the formula just
introduced to practice your ability to convert between
gauge and absolute pressure. This is a skill you will do
often in industry if you are an engineer.
PRESSURES
Gauge Absolute
22.5 psig
315 kPa
560 psig
10 kPa
PRESSURES
Absolute Gauge
40 psia
6900 kPa
280 psia
1000 kPa
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE SUCTION
14.7 psia LINE
RESERVOIR
This operating feature of a pump means that the inlet line must be
kept clear. If the filter is dirty or the inlet too small or too long, the
atmospheric pressure will not be able to push the oil quickly enough into
the pump. This causes the pump to be starved and the pump will quickly
be damaged.
Another problem that has to be considered when using hydraulic
systems is the altitude of the location. As your altitude increases, the
atmospheric pressure decreases. This means that the amount of absolute
pressure available to push the oil into the pump is less. It is possible that
a hydraulic power unit built in Seattle, Washington might not work
properly in Denver, Colorado and could be damaged.