General Findings

Our piecemeal perception review revealed a myriad of dependent variables, yet, the

general findings can be categorized in one of four categories: increased interest, physical

inferences, trait inferences, and fluency effects. Increased interest refers to the influence of

piecemeal perception on consumer attention and desire to further engage with a focal object

(e.g., “I should pick that up”). The category of physical inferences refers to assessments such as

size and volume determinations (e.g., “that’s too big for my needs”). Trait inferences pertain to

judgements consumers make about the internal characteristics of perceived objects, such as

brand personality judgments, (e.g., “that brand appears innovative”). Finally, fluency effects are

generated by a match between piecemeal components and consumer expectations and beliefs.

Unlike the other three categories, this last category is not easily illustrated with an example of

consumer thought, because the effects are typically automatic, operating outside of general

consumer awareness. We briefly outline these four findings categories in the paragraphs below.

In the associated tables, we provide summaries of each paper, organized first by findings

categories and subsequently by the focal piecemeal component and facet categories, while also

noting the primary dependent variable.

Increased Interest

Fourteen articles have specifically examined the effect that piecemeal visual components

have on increasing consumer interest. Whereas most (see table 1) have investigated the

implications of color (Lee et al. 2014; Buechel and Townsend 2018), other work has focused on

the role of illuminance (Areni and Kim 1994; Summers and Hebert 2001), shape (Raghubir and
Greenleaf 2006), and materiality (Meert et al. 2014). The findings suggest that firms can attract

consumer attention and interest toward focal objects by manipulating piecemeal facets, which

carries implications for consumer preferences (Lee et al. 2014; Meert et al. 2014), engagement

(Summers and Hebert 2001), and purchase activity (Park, Lennon, and Stoel 2005).

--- Insert Table 1 about here ---

Physical Inferences

Fifteen articles (see table 2) have examined how piecemeal perception influences

consumers’ physical inferences about objects. The majority of research within this domain has

focused on the perceived containing capacity of focal objects, that is, the volume an object can

potentially hold (Folkes and Matta 2004; Ordabayeva and Chandon 2013), which also influences

the amounts that people consume (Deng and Srinivasan 2013; Wansink and Van Ittersum 2003).

Further, consumers make physical assessments of weight (Deng and Kahn 2009), size (Hagtvedt

and Brasel 2017), and health (Mead and Richerson 2018) based on facets such as locational

positioning or color saturation. Whereas shape appears to have the most decisive influence on

physical inferences, the relatively recent findings for location, materiality, and color suggest a

potentially broad role for other components, too.

--- Insert Table 2 about here ---

Trait Inferences
 Twenty-one articles (see table 3) have investigated trait inferences that consumers make

based on the piecemeal perception of objects. Research has documented extended influences of

such traits (Chae et al. 2013; Hagtvedt 2011; Pracejus, O’Guinn, and Olsen 2013), including

spending behavior (Di Muro and Noseworthy 2012; Lee, Noble, and Biswas 2018), preferences

(Sevilla and Townsend 2016; De Bock, Pandelaere, and Van Kenhove 2013), and purchase

activities (Babin, Hardesty, and Suter 2003; Coulter and Norber 2009). Thus far, trait inferences

have been investigated in connection with all components except illuminance.

--- Insert Table 3 about here ---

Fluency Effects

Twenty-two articles examine fluency effects from piecemeal perception (see table 4). The

findings from these articles align with fluency literature (Bornstein 1989; Oppenheimer 2008),

with greater congruence favorably influencing preferences (Brasel and Hagtvedt 2016; Romero

and Biswas 2016), attitudes (Chae and Hoegg 2013), and purchase activity (Landwehr, Labroo,

and Herrmann). However, researchers and marketers should be aware that these fluency effects

do not always have positive outcomes. For instance, red hue carries a metaphorical identity of

aggression, leading consumers exposed to this hue to be more aggressive (Bagchi and Cheema

2013). That is, their affect becomes congruent with the available hue, leading, in this example, to

negative social behavior. To date, research in marketing has examined fluency effects associated

with all piecemeal components except materiality.

--- Insert Table 4 about here ---

 Table 1

Increased Interest Based on Piecemeal Perception

Component Facet Authors Year Key Findings Consequence

Brighter lighting leads to more consumer engagement
Illuminance Brightness Areni and Kim 1994 Engagement
with displayed products
Additional lighting on a display increases consumer
Illuminance Brightness Summers and Hebert 2001 Engagement
engagement with products within that display
Preference and
Raghubir and Ratios of rectangles can shape consumer preferences
Shape Demarcation 2006 Purchase
Greenleaf and purchase intentions
Activity

Sparkman Jr. and The use of a single color in a print advertisement results Purchase
Surface Color Saturation 1980
Austin in higher sales than a black-and-white advertisement Activity

Bellizzi, Crowley,
Surface Color Saturation 1983 Color attracts shoppers more so than black-and-white Attraction
and Hasty
Color over black-and-white increases firm
Surface Color Saturation Fernandez and Rosen 2000 considerations, but product-enhancing colors lead to Engagement
greater likelihood of consumer engagement with a firm
Consumers emphasize primary product features when
Lee, Deng, Unnava, confronted with a black-and-white image, but they
Surface Color Saturation 2014 Preference
and Fujita emphasize secondary product features more when
confronted with a color image
Kareklas, Brunel, White products and advertisements are preferred over
Surface Color Lightness 2014 Preference
and Coulter black versions of these no matter a consumer's race
Male consumers prefer products containing lower
Surface Color Lightness Semin and Palma 2014 levels of lightness, whereas females prefer higher Preference
levels of lightness

Gorn, Chattopadhyay, Higher levels of value, also understood as lightness,

Surface Color Combinations 1997 Liking
Yi, and Dahl and saturation lead to greater liking for advertisements

Photos containing higher levels of green and lower

levels of cyan and red and higher saturation of red and
Surface Color Combinations Jalali and Papatla 2016 Preference
blue receive higher click-rates in online visual user
generated content (UGC)
Consumers prefer intense patterns and colors, but
Buechel and erroneously conclude that they will satiate quicker with
Surface Color Combinations 2018 Preference
Townsend these patterns and colors over more tame patterns and
colors
Meert, Pandelaere, Consumers prefer glossy over matte surfaces due to an
Materiality Reflectance 2014 Preference
and Patrick innate desire for water
Consumers will have higher purchase intentions for
Park, Lennon, and Purchase
Location Movement 2005 products pictured rotating and larger than those not
Stoel Activity
rotating or rotating and pictured smaller
 Table 2

Physical Inferences Based on Piecemeal Perception

Component Facet Authors Year Key Findings Consequence

Taller containers result in greater perceptions of
Volume and
Raghubir and volume and consumption but less perceived
Shape Dimensionality 1999 Consumption
Krishna consumption when compared to a shorter and wider
Estimations
container of the same size
Wansink and Van Consumers pour and consume more liquid from a
Shape Dimensionality 2003 Consumption
Ittersum shorter wider glass than a taller thinner glass
Purchase
Shape Dimensionality Yang and Raghubir 2005 Taller packages lead to less quantity purchased
Activity
Consumers tend to prefer increases in size when change
Chandon and
Shape Dimensionality 2009 occurs in only 1 dimension, but prefer decreases when Preference
Ordabayeva
change occurs in 3
Consumer's correct and erroneous size estimations can
Ordabayeva and Volume
Shape Dimensionality 2013 be predicted and managed using the AddChange
Chandon Estimation
heuristic model
Consumers believe that taller packages have fewer Vol./Calorie
Shape Dimensionality Koo and Suk 2016
calories but more volume than wider packages Estimation
Shapes that appear incomplete are estimated by
consumers to be smaller than those of equal weight and
Shape Unity Sevilla and Kahn 2014 Consumption
size, and this results in greater consumption of
incomplete shaped products
Greater attention-grabbing shapes, due to deviations
from product class in dimensionality or demarcation, Volume
Shape Shape Contrast Folkes and Matta 2004
are estimated to be of greater volume than shapes Estimation
conforming to product class norms
Consumers perceive products with higher levels of
saturation to be larger, resulting in higher purchase
Surface Color Saturation Hagtvedt and Brasel 2017 Size Estimation
intentions and willingness to pay when a larger product
is desired and vice versa
High saturation decreases health perceptions of Health
Surface Color Saturation Mead and Richerson 2018
packaged food Estimation
Madzharov,
Greater consumption of hedonic foods occurs when
Surface Color Lightness Ramanathan, and 2016 Consumption
foods exhibit higher levels of lightness
Block
Mai, Symmank, and Greater lightness leads to greater perceptions of Health and Taste
Surface Color Lightness 2016
Seeberg-Elverfeldt healthiness and tastelessness Estimations
Less packaging opacity leads to increased small food
Materiality Opacity Deng and Srinivasan 2013 consumption, but greater packaging opacity leads to Consumption
increased vegetable and large food consumption
A product image located in the bottom, right, and bottom-
right of a package leads to evaluations of greater Weight
Location Positioning Deng and Kahn 2009
weight, which leads to higher consumer preference Estimation
when heaviness is a desired attribute
Vertically distributed foods (stacked), as opposed to
Volume
horizontally (laid out) are perceived as occupying less
Location Orientation Szocs and Lefebvre 2017 Estimation and
surface area due to the angle of perception, leading to
Consumption
greater consumption
 Table 3

Trait Inferences Based on Piecemeal Perception

Component Facet Authors Year Key Findings Consequence

Firms with incomplete typeface logos are believed to
Brand
Shape Unity Hagtvedt 2011 be more innovative, but complete typeface logos convey
Estimation
trustworthiness
Henderson, Giese, Using one of six types of typeface design, a firm can Brand
Shape Demarcation 2006
and Cote convey certain value impressions to consumers Estimation
Static brand logos evoking a notion of motion lead to
Cian, Krishna, and higher consumer engagement and positive attitudes Engagement and
Shape Demarcation 2014
Elder provided an aspect of dynamism is congruent with the Attitude
brand
Circular logos are perceived as providing comfort and
Jiang, Gorn, Galli, Brand
Shape Demarcation 2016 sensitivity, whereas angular logos are perceived as
and Chattopadhyay Estimation
providing durability
A thin human-shaped product leads to greater spending
Shape Demarcation Romero and Craig 2017 WTP
when perceived by a consumer with high BMI
Consumers associate more excitement toward a brand
when encountering asymmetrical brand logos, and this Brand
Shape Demarcation Bajaj and Bond 2018
leads to greater product choice when that brand is Estimation
positioned as exciting
Products are less likely to be perceived as useful and
Product
Shape Shape Contrast Trudel and Argo 2013 recycled when the shape is meaningfully distorted from
Estimation
the initial shape
Brands are perceived as more valuable when presented
with a congruent color, such that blue, black, gray, and Brand
Surface Color Hue Bottomley and Doyle 2006
green are more functional and red, yellow, pink, and Estimation
violet are more sensory-social
De Bock,
Behaviors, whether good or bad, are more acceptable
Surface Color Hue Pandelaere, and Van 2013 Preference
when presented with a congruent hue
Kenhove
Puccinelli,
Men perceive greater savings presented in red than Savings
Surface Color Hue Chandrashekaran, 2013
black-and-white as long as involvement is not high Estimation
Grewal, and Suri
Lee, Noble, and Atmospherics usage of gold leads to greater consumer Spending
Surface Color Hue 2018
Biswas tipping due to the higher status associations Behavior
Fashion stores elicit higher purchase intentions with
Babin, Hardesty, and blue interiors over orange, but soft lights can ameliorate Purchase
Surface Color Combinations 2003
Suter the negative effects of orange leading to greater Activity
perceptions of price fairness

Ilicic, Baxter, and Noticeable limbal rings, the outline of the iris, increase Spokesperson
Surface Color Combinations 2016
Kulczynski perceptions of trustworthiness and positive attitudes Estimation

Di Muro and Money that is crumpled is perceived as contaminated Spending

Materiality Visual Texture 2012
Noseworthy and thusly spent faster than smoother money Behavior
Pillai, Katsikeas, and Larger typeface size leads to a higher belief of Comprehension
Location Orientation 2012
Presi understanding of advertisements Estimation
van Rompay, de
Products pictured vertically are perceived as more Brand
Location Orientation Vries, Bontekoe, and 2012
luxurious leading to higher purchase intentions Estimation
Tanja-Dijkstra
 Dependent on cultural background, a larger amount of
Pracejus, O'Guinn, white space (ground) and consequently a smaller figure Brand
Location Orientation 2013
and Olsen results in higher perceptions of trustworthiness, Estimation
prestige, and quality

Increased price-discount perceptions, value estimations,

Purchase
Location Spacing Coulter and Norberg 2009 and purchase likelihood emerge when a printed regular
Activity
price and sale price are spaced further apart

Products are evaluated as more effective when the

Brand
Location Spacing Chae, Li, and Zhu 2013 product image is closely located to the desired outcome
Estimation
produced by the product
The greater the distance between the same product, the
Sevilla and
Location Spacing 2016 greater the preference, aesthetic evaluations, and store Preference
Townsend
evaluation
A moving figure that changes direction is believed to be Brand
Location Movement Kim and Lakshmanan 2015
more novel than when it does not change directions Estimation
 Table 4

Fluency Effects Based on Piecemeal Perception

Component Facet Authors Year Key Findings Consequence

Biswas, Szocs, Consumers choose healthier food in bright, rather than

Illuminance Brightness 2017 Choice
Chacko, and Wansink dim, lighting

Huang, Dong, and Consumers make more authentic (i.e., hedonic) choices
Illuminance Brightness 2017 Choice
Labroo in dim rather than bright lighting
Unified and prototypical product designs are more
Unity and Shape Veryzer and
Shape 1998 preferred by consumers than segmented or atypical Preference
Contrast Hutchinson
product designs
Dependent upon corporate image, logo shapes should be
Shape Demarcation Henderson and Cote 1998 executed following certain guidelines to meet certain Preference
communication goals
Prototypical, yet complex, automobile shapes as seen
Landwehr, Labroo, Purchase
Shape Shape Contrast 2011 from the front of a car are more easily processed
and Herrmann Activity
resulting in higher sales
More difficult to read typeface results in higher variety Variety
Shape Shape Contrast Huang and Kwong 2016
estimations Estimations

Gorn, Chattopadhyay, Colors that elicit relaxation, such as blue, increase

Preference and
Surface Color Hue Sengupta, and 2004 perceptions of online loading speeds such that WOM
WOM
Tripathi and preferences are higher

Red backgrounds increase consumer aggression

Surface Color Hue Bagchi and Cheema 2013 resulting in higher bid activity in auctions but lower Affect
price offers in negotiations
Greater willingness to pay is exhibited for future events
Lee, Fujita, Deng,
Surface Color Saturation 2017 presented in black-and-white or relatively soon events WTP
and Unnava
presented in color

Moore, Congruent color of the figure and ground results in

Surface Color Combinations Stammerjohan, and 2005 higher consumer attitudes, but incongruent color of the Attitudes
Coulter figure and ground results in better recall and recognition

Consumers emphasize hue and saturation when self-

Deng, Hui, and designing products, and these preferences extend to
Surface Color Combinations 2010 Preference
Hutchinson using a small set of matching colors except when
emphasizing a certain feature
Product categories with clear market leaders establish
Surface Color Combinations Labrecque and Milne 2012 color norms that should be followed by competitors Preference
within that category
 Brand preferences are higher when the brand is
positioned to the right (processed by the left
Location Positioning Janiszewski 1990 Preference
hemisphere) of a picture and to the left (processed by
the right hemisphere) of written information
Starting reading position is associated with the past and
ending reading position with the future, such that more
Location Positioning Chae and Hoegg 2013 Attitudes
favorable attitudes arise for products positioned with
their congruent time component
Brands situated in the mid-line of an ad are evaluated
higher when positioned as a friend, but when the brand
Location Positioning Huang, Li, and Zhang 2013 Evaluations
is situated toward the top of an ad it is evaluated higher
as a leader
Brand logos pictured on packaging are more preferred
Sundar and
Location Positioning 2014 when pictured high (low) on a package for a powerful Preference
Noseworthy
(less powerful) brand
Preference and consumption volume are higher for
Preference and
Location Positioning Romero and Biswas 2016 healthy items when positioned to the left of unhealthy
Consumption
items rather than to the right of unhealthy items
Leonhardt, Catlin, Consumers more highly evaluate products whose profile
Location Orientation 2015 Evaluations
and Pirouz faces toward the center of a promotion
Products are more highly evaluated and likely to be
Salgado-Montejo, Evaluations and
purchased when a concave (i.e., smiling) line is
Location Orientation Leon, Elliot, 2015 Purchase
displayed on the packaging rather than a convex (i.e.,
Salgado, and Spence Activity
frowning) line
Roggeveen, Grewal, Consumers exhibit substantially greater preference and
Preference and
Location Movement Townsend, and 2015 willingness to pay for hedonic firm offerings presented
WTP
Krishnan in a moving rather than static format
Consumers are more likely to prefer and choose
dynamic brands when matched with an animated logo
Location Movement Brasel and Hagtvedt 2016 Preference
that appears to be autonomous rather than guided or
static
Consumers prefer upward, over downward, moving
Guido, Pichierri,
Location Movement 2016 logos, regardless of power or innovativeness, but prefer Preference
Nataraajan, and Pino
innovative companies to move up and right
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2. Sanocki and Sulman’s Color Relations Experiment

Studies have shown that a group of similar colors are deemed harmonious and pleasant while
contrasting colors are associated with chaos or boldness.

In 2011, Thomas Sanocki and Noah Sulman conducted an experiment on color relations in order
to gauge the impact of color on the visual short-term memory.

Four sets of trials were carried out using both harmonious and disharmonious color palettes. In
each trial, observers were presented with two sets of color patterns and asked to compare them.
Participants were asked to rate whether the patterns shown were ‘same’ or ‘different’. Observers
were also expected to rate whether the pattern was harmonious.

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The following examples are the 4 types of color patterns used:

Based on the results of the study, Sanocki and Sulman were able to say that:

 People remember color patterns better when the color palette is harmonious.
 People remember patterns with fewer colors (2-color palettes) better than patterns with
more colors (4-color palettes).
 The contrast of surrounding colors impacted how well we remember the color pattern. In
other words, color differences between the content and the background may enhance our
ability to focus our attention on the content itself

5. Castelhano and Henderson’s Perception of Scene Gist

Have you ever wondered what “a picture’s worth a thousands word” really means? Why are we
able to understand visuals more thoroughly than text?

As humans, we have the ability to gather context based on what we see. When we fix our eyes on
something, we have the ability to form an understanding of the environment and recognize the
meaning of a scene.

What is Perception of Scene Gist?

According to Ronald A. Rensink, a research scientist from Nissan Research & Development,
Inc., Perception of scene gist or scene perception is the visual perception of an environment as
viewed by an observer at any given time. It includes not only the perception of individual
objects, but also things like their relative locations and expectations about what other kinds of
objects might be encountered.

The Influence of Color on Scene Perception

In 2008, Monica S. Castelhano from University of Massachusetts at Amherst and John M.

Henderson from University of Edinburgh conducted an experiment on the influence of color in
activating scene gist.

The experiment was conducted in three different trials. Undergraduates where exposed to a few
hundreds of photographs of natural or man-made objects in various conditions. Participants were
asked to determine whether or not a target object matched the scene they were seeing.

Normal and blurred photographs with colors and monochrome sample photographs were
presented.

To determine the role of colors in our scene perception, the following sample photographs were
used:

They also studied the range of abnormality with the following samples:
According to Castelhano and Henderson’s findings:

 Observers were able to match the scenes and target object within a second.
o This implies people can quickly get the meaning of a normal scene.
 Observers were able to match the scenes in less time if they were colored correctly (as
compared to black and white).
o This means colors help us understand scenes better.
 Overall, colors help define the structure of objects. As long as the colors are not too
different from what we normally perceive, we’ll be able to easily understand the meaning
of an image.