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BASICS OF ANTENNA THEORY

Content

 Maxwell Equations

 Antenna Definitions

 Antenna Equivalent Circuit

 Antenna Regions

 Antenna Parameters

 Return Loss

 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

 Smith Chart

 Antenna Efficiency

 Antenna Radiation Pattern

 Antenna Directivity

 Antenna Gain

 Front to Back Ratio

 Antenna Beamwidth

 Antenna Bandwidth

 Antenna Area

 Antenna Polarization

 Antenna Designing Softwares

 Antenna Measurement Setup


Chapter 1 : Maxwell Equations

 Maxwell equations are the building blocks of entire electromagnetic wave


theory.

 There are basically four Maxwell equations.

 A wave is called as an electromagnetic wave only if it follows all the four


Maxwell equations.

 It must be noted that there are two kinds of sources for electromagnetic
wave, they are static source and time varying source. Hence, before
analyzing Maxwell equations we must always specify that what is the
nature of source for electromagnetic wave, static or time varying.

 In our school days we have studied electrostats and magnetostats. Here


stats means static source of electric field and magnetic field.

 While in B.TECH when we study EM Theory, we study time varying


sources of electromagnetic wave.

 Before we study Maxwell equations, I would like to tell certain facts or


standard results which we will verify and conclude from Maxwell
equations.

 First: A static source of Electric field will produce only static Electric
field, while a static source of Magnetic field will produce only static
Magnetic field.

 Second: A time varying source of Electric field will produce a time


varying Electric field. This time varying Electric field will generate time
varying Magnetic field. This time varying Magnetic field will again
produce time varying Electric field and this chain will continue. It must
be noted that however the field strength will be decrementing linearly
with distance from the original source.

 Third: A static field can be Electric field or Magnetic field. We need to


specify always that whether it is a Electric Field or Magnetic Field.

 Fourth: A time varying field always comprises of both Electric field and
Magnetic field. So we called this time varying field as Electromagnetic
field because due to time varying nature of field, both the fields will exist.
Therefore, electromagnetic wave always means that our both fields are
existing and both the fields are time varying.

 Fifth: Electromagnetic wave is called as Radiation. Electromagnetic


Radiation means combination of both Time varying Electric field and
Time varying Magnetic field, which are self sustained in nature. It must
be noted that field generated in Electrostats and Magnetostats are never
called as wave or radiation. They are just fields. So an electromagnetic
wave or electromagnetic radiation is self sustained and time varying in
nature.

 Sixth: An Antenna either transmits or receives time varying


electromagnetic wave. Actually when I say that Antenna transmits or
receives electromagnetic wave it is now obvious that it is dealing with
time varying fields.

 Seven: A very big question which usually asked that how antenna
radiates or how waves are getting detached from the antenna. If we recall
from our school days, we studied that Electric field lines can never form a
close loop but magnetic field lines can make close loop.
I am just stating a golden rule as an answer to this, "The moment we find
that the Electric field generated from a device has started to form a close
loop, we will conclude that the device is working as antenna".
 Eight: Another question which people asks about electromagnetic wave is
that what is the building block of electromagnetic wave. Are they carried
by electrons? Answer to this question is that electromagnetic wave is
carried by the means of Photons. This flow of photons is called as
Displacement Current. In nutshell we can conclude that, Conduction
current is the current which flows in the conducting wires by the means
of electrons. On contrary, Displacement current is the current which
flows in the dielectric medium by the means of photons.
An interesting question was once asked to me that can electrons flow in
free space or in a dielectric? Answer to this question is, every dielectric
has its defined Dielectric Breakdown Strength. Now consider a electric
wire in free space which is carrying certain current. As current is flowing
in the wire because of electrons, there will be field generated around the
wire. If this field value around the wire crosses the Dielectric Breakdown
Value of Free Space, then in that case Dielectric Breakdown will occur
and electrons will flow in the free space. This phenomena we would have
witnessed many times which is called as Electric Sparking.

 Maxwell Equations for Time Varying Source:

Equation We know Them


Equation Physical Significance
Number as Laws

Total amount of Electric field diverging from a


closed surface is equal to the total amount of
charge enclosed by that closed surface. In other Gauss Law for
Equation I . D = ρv
words Electric field density diverging out from a Electric Field
closed surface equals to volume charge density
enclosed by that closed surface
Faraday’s Law
Time varying Magnetic field will produce Electric
Of Induction
field. It must be noted that the Electric field
Equation II × E = - ∂B/∂t Negative sign
produced from Magnetic field is always time
accounts for Lenz
varying.
Law

Total amount of Magnetic field diverging from a


closed surface is equal to the total amount of
charge enclosed by the closed surface. But as we
Gauss Law for
Equation III .B=0 know that a magnetic charge will always exist in
Magnetic Field
pair and are complementary in nature. So there
will be no magnetic field diverging out from a
closed surface.

Total Magnetic field generated around the


conducting wire equals to current density flowing
in that wire plus rate of change of electric field.
This rate of change in Electric field is called as
Modified
Displacement current. It can be concluded that
Equation IV × H = J + ∂D/∂t Ampere’s
Displacement current will produce Magnetic field.
Circuital Law
In other words, time varying Electric field will
produce Magnetic field. It must be noted that
Magnetic field produced by the Electric field is
always time varying in nature.
 Maxwell Equations for Static Source:

Equation We know Them


Equation Physical Significance
Number as Laws

Total amount of Electric field diverging from a


closed surface is equal to the total amount of
charge enclosed by the closed surface. In other Gauss Law for
Equation I . D = ρv
words Electric field density diverging out from a Electric Field
closed surface equals to volume charge density
enclosed by that closed surface

Kirchhoff ’s
Electric field is not produced from Magnetic field
Equation II ×E=0 Voltage Law
in case of static source of field.
(KVL)

Total amount of Magnetic field diverging from a


closed surface is equal to the total amount of
charge enclosed by the closed surface. But as we
Gauss Law for
Equation III .B=0 know that a magnetic charge will always exist in
Magnetic Field
pair and are complementary in nature. So there
will be know magnetic field diverging out from a
closed surface.

Kirchhoff ’s
Magnetic field produced around a wire depends
Equation IV ×H=J Current Law
only on the current density flowing in that wire.
(KCL)
Note:
 It must be noted that only Equation II and Equation IV changes if there is a change in
the nature of source.
 Antenna uses Equation II and Equation IV for its operation. Time varying Electric
field will produce time varying Magnetic field and vice versa. So inorder to excite an
antenna we need a source which can generate time varying Electric field or Time
varying magnetic field. However antenna satisfies all 4 Maxwell equations.
 Inorder to fulfil above criteria it is necessary that source for antenna must be time
varying.
 We can also conclude from above equations that a wire carrying current from a DC
source will never radiate. While a wire carrying current from AC source will always
radiate. Hence, all our products which uses AC source will radiate and will cause
electromagnetic interference. Since the frequency of our AC products will be 50 Hz,
so radiation produced from them will be very less and will be acting as an
electromagnetic noise. Since their amplitude is less, they can be shielded. This
concept of shielding electromagnetic interference is studied under the branch of
Electromagnetic Compatibility.
 Equation II becomes zero means Electric field is not curly in nature i.e. it is not
forming a closed loop. But in case of time varying field, non zero value of Equation II
concludes that Electric field forms a closed loop. So this is the thumb rule for antenna
radiation.
Chapter 2 : Antenna Definitions

Antenna is a device which either transmits electromagnetic waves into


free space or it receives electromagnetic waves from free space.

Antenna can be called as a Transducer because it converts Electrical


Energy into Electromagnetic energy and vice versa.

Antenna can also be called as an Impedance Transformer because it


matches the transmission line to the free space.

A simple antenna is a single port device.


Antenna is a frequency selective device. This means all its parameters has
to be defined with respect to frequency. This also means that antenna
performance will vary at different frequency. So as an antenna designer
we must strictly know what is its frequency of operation.

We know that antenna is a directive device.


When we say directive device it means that antenna must be able to
concentrate its radiated power more in particular direction.

Amount of power radiated by the antenna is calculated by using Poynting


vector.

Before we move further, two things I want to say. They are:


I. Antenna is a Reciprocal device. This means characteristics of an
antenna are same whether it is used in transmitting mode or
receiving mode. This means that whatever characteristics an
antenna has in transmitting mode same it will have in receiving
mode. Since we are comfortable more in analysing antenna in
transmitting mode, we will keep our analysis in transmitting mode
in this document. But same properties will exist for that antenna if
we put it as receiving antenna.

II. Second thing which I wanna say that the dimensions of an antenna
must always be mentioned in terms of its electrical length.
Electrical length of an antenna means physical length of antenna in
terms of its wavelength of operation. This is necessary because
dimensions of antenna is inversely proportional to its operating
frequency. This means that a 40 mm × 40 mm antenna is needed
for 2.4 GHz operation. But a 20 mm × 20 mm antenna is needed
for 9.4 GHz operation. So many antenna researchers falsely claim
that they have done antenna miniaturisation by stating the physical
length of the antenna. So we must understand that dimension of
antenna is totally depending on its frequency of operation. So when
we state length of antenna in terms of its wavelength, we overcome
the above demerit of misrepresentation.
Chapter 3 : Antenna Equivalent Circuit

Antenna equivalent circuit shown below illustrates that an Antenna has


three components. They are:

(i) Loss Resistance or Ohmic Resistance

(ii) Radiation Resistance

(iii) Reactive Impedance

Loss resistance of an antenna is due to the conductor material used in the


antenna. Loss resistance is responsible for dissipation of input power to
the antenna in heat form. So for a good antenna, Loss resistance should
be as minimum possible.

Radiation resistance is a hypothetical resistance. Radiation resistance is


responsible for dissipation of input power to the antenna into free space in
form of radiation. So for a good antenna, Radiation resistance should be
as high as possible.

Reactive impedance of the antenna is responsible for storing the fraction


of input power to the antenna. Reactive component of antenna should be
minimum. It must be noted that reactive component of antenna can not be
made zero because we know that antenna is a form of transmission line.
Moreover tuning of antenna operating frequency is achieved by changing
this reactive component only. So reactive component of antenna is a
necessary evil.

So at the transmitting end, power is fed to the antenna using a time
varying source which has its own internal resistance. The source and
antenna are connected by using transmission line which is usually a
coaxial cable.
As per Thevenin’s theorem we know that for maximum power transfer
impedance matching should be done. It must also be noted that during
impedance matching at most we can transfer 50% of the power from one
circuit to another circuit.

So in case of transmitting antenna, assume source is giving 10 apples


which has to be transmitted to the load at receiver end. Now at
transmitting side we will do impedance matching which means

Internal Resistance = Loss Resistance of antenna + Radiation Resistance


Of Source of antenna + Reactive Impedance of antenna

 Now when impedance matching is done at transmitting antenna end, out


of 10 apples from the source, 5 apples will be accepted by the
transmitting antenna.
 Now these 5 apples will be radiated into free space.
 Now these 5 apples will fall on the surface of receiving antenna.
 Receiving antenna will accept all the 5 apples and again as per maximum
power transfer theorem, 2.5 apples will be finally delivered to the load.
 So a very important conclusion we can make after this analysis that at
most we can deliver only 25% of power at max from source to load. This
25% is also ideal.
 In case of of Receiving antenna, for impedance matching we do
Loss Resistance + Radiation Resistance = Load Resistance
+ Reactive Impedance
Chapter 4 : Antenna Regions

Antenna region is defined as the region around the antenna.


Before we proceed further, I want to say one thing that an antenna
radiates its power into free space and this radiated power contains
information. This information travels in terms of fields. If we want to
intercept that information then we should use another receiving antenna.
But we can intercept valid information from this radiating field only if we
place our receiving antenna in a region where these radiating field vectors
are planar in nature. We must know that the moment antenna radiates its
power into free space, its fields are self propagating in nature but these
fields or vectors are not planar in nature. When we say planar vector, this
means a group of vector with planar wavefront. If planar nature of these
vectors is not achieved then information intercepted by antenna will be
like noise. So because of this reason there comes a concept of antenna
regions. This study of antenna regions will tell us that what should be the
minimum distance from the transmitting antenna we should keep our
receiving antenna so that we can intercept the information.

Antenna region is analyzed as a linear distance from the antenna.


Antenna region around the antenna is divided into three regions:
 Near Field Reactive Region

 Near Field Radiating Region / Fresnel Region

 Far Field Radiating Region / Fraunhofer Region / Far Field


Region
 Near Field Reactive Region:

 It is the region which starts from the antenna.

 This region is responsible for storing the fraction of power


which is available for radiation. As discussed earlier,
whatever power we give to antenna, only 50% of it will be
accepted at max by the antenna for radiation. So this power
accepted by antenna will only be available for radiation into
free space. Now a fraction of this available power is stored in
the reactive near field region.

 If we see the equivalent circuit of the antenna it is very clear


that the reactive component of the antenna is the reason for
existence of this region.

 This region should store minimum power.

 This region cant be avoided because reactive component of


antenna can’t be removed completely because we know that
antenna is similar to a transmission line and a transmission
line is a R, L, G, C circuit.
 This reactive component of antenna has a very big merit. The
reason is that frequency tuning of antenna is possible only
because of this reactive component. Hence, in some books we
find that reactive component of antenna is a addressed as
necessary evil.

 The frequency tuning of antenna depends on Inductive and


Capacitive component of antenna.

 In this near field reactive region power will travel forward


with respect to the antenna but there will be no radiation
pattern formation.

 Near Field Radiating Region / Fresnel Region:

 It is the region which starts from the antenna after where the
Reactive region ends.

 In this region power will travel in forward direction with


respect to the antenna.

 In this region radiation pattern of the antenna is formed.

 In this region power will be transferred.

 Since radiation pattern is formed, we can intercept the


information, but still this region will be noisy.

 One of the biggest demerit of this region is that radiation


pattern in this region will be a function of distance from the
antenna. This is very very bad thing. Radiation pattern for an
antenna must never depend on distance from the antenna.

 So in this region we should not keep our receiving antenna.


 Far Field Radiating Region / Fraunhofer Region / Far Field Region:

 It is the region which starts from the antenna after where the
Fresnel region ends.

 It is the region where radiation pattern becomes independent


of the distance from the antenna. It is the region where we
keep receiving antenna.

 In this region radiation pattern of the antenna is well formed


and is independent of distance from the antenna.

 There is a concept of Phase error in waves. Phase error of a


wave means deviation in the wavefront of that wave with
respect to the wavefront of the planar wave.

 Electromagnetic wave radiated by an antenna is initially


having spherical wavefront. But during its course of
transmission, this spherical wavefront gradually becomes
planar in nature.

 A very very important thumb rule which decides the Far field
region of the antenna is that when the phase error of the
wavefront of field vectors is ≤ 22.5o , then we assume that
the practical Far field region has began because a wavefront
with a phase error of less than 22.5o is practically considered
as a plane wave.

 If we see some standard antennas like half wave dipole


antenna, we will find that the books says that half wave
dipole antenna has a radiation pattern of figure of 8. This they
define in Far field region by default.

 So all the analysis of the antenna are done in Far field region
by default only.
 Far field region for any antenna is defined as :

Far feld region from transmitting antenna (meter) = 2d2 / λ

where "d" is the electrical length of the largest dimension of


transmitting antenna. Electrical length of antenna means
physical length of antenna in terms of its wavelength.
Chapter 5 : Antenna Parameters

Antenna Parameters are divided into two parts. They are Resonating
Parameter and Radiating Parameter.

Again we must remember that all analysis we are doing by considering


antenna in transmitting mode.

Let us see first what are these two types of parameters.


Resonating parameters of an antenna defines the antenna resonance
characteristics.

Antenna Resonance of a transmitting antenna means ability of an antenna


to accept the input power from the source. As we discussed in previous
chapters that an ideal antenna can accept at max 50% of its input power
from the source. So this power accepted by the antenna from the source is
called as Antenna resonance.

In other words, when we say that antenna is resonating this means that
antenna is accepting the input power which is given to it from the source.
So antenna resonance is essential because antenna resonating means
antenna is accepting the input power from the source.

The parameters which defines antenna resonance characteristics are


called as resonating parameters.

Now Radiating parameters of a transmitting antenna means parameters


which defines the radiating nature of antenna.

Antenna radiating means ability of an antenna to radiate its fraction of


accepted power into free space.
So as we know that if antenna is resonating this means that it is accepting
a fraction of input power from the source. Antenna radiating means
power which is accepted by the antenna is now radiated into free space.

So a very important conclusion we make about antenna is that antenna


operation is a two step process i.e. antenna resonance + antenna radiation.

Antenna Resonance Parameters :


 S11 / Return Loss (dB)

 VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)

 Smith Chart

Antenna Radiation Parameters :


 Antenna Efficiency

 Antenna Directivity

 Antenna Gain

 Antenna Radiation Pattern

 Front to Back Ratio

 Antenna Beamwidth

 Antenna Bandwidth

 Antenna Area

 Antenna Polarization
S11 / Return Loss (dB):
 Return loss of an antenna is the most and very very important
parameter of an antenna to decide whether the antenna is resonating or
not.

 S11 is always defined in terms of dB.

 S11 = Power reflected from input ÷ Power fed at input


port of antenna port of antenna

 S11 extends from -∞ to 0.

 As a thumb rule if S11 is less than -10 dB, then we say that antenna has
started to resonate.

 If S11 is less than -10 dB then this means that only 10% of input
power is reflected back from the input port of the antenna.

S11 = Preflected / Pinput


-10 = 10 log10 ( Preflected / Pinput )

-1 = log10 ( Preflected / Pinput )


0.1 = Preflected / Pinput
Preflected = 0.1 × Pinput

 So if S11 is less than -10 dB this means that antenna is always


accepting more than 90% of its input power from the source.

 As an antenna designer our aim must be that S11 must be at least near
to -30 dB.

 S11 parameter is plotted with respect to frequency. So frequency or


band of frequencies for which S11 is less than -10 dB, we will say that
our antenna is resonating at those frequencies.
 It must be noted that under this parameter comes a very popular term
called as Antenna Band.

 Antenna band is the range of frequencies for which our antenna is


resonating. Never say radiating. Let us see the graph below where we
will analyse these things.

 S11 will be achieved less than -10 dB only if there is proper impedance
matching between transmission line and the input port of the antenna.

 One more thing is that antenna is frequency selective device. Hence,


even though we will do impedance matching at input port of antenna,
the antenna will be accepting power from particular range of
frequencies only.

 Antenna can be single band, multi band, wide band etc.

 Single band antenna means that antenna has only one resonating band.
This means that antenna S11 goes below -10 dB at particular frequency
and then after certain frequency S11 gets above -10 dB, shown in
figure below.

 Multiband means S11 goes below -10 dB and above -10 dB more than
one time, shown in figure below.

 Wideband antenna means antenna resonating band is existing for


more than 0.5 GHz.
VSWR:
 VSWR is Voltage Standing Wave Ratio.

 VSWR range is 1 to ∞.

 VSWR = 1 means there is no reflection at input port of antenna.

 VSWR = ∞ means there is 100% reflection at input port of antenna.

 Practically an antenna starts resonating if VSWR ≤ 2.

 If we see below graph, VSWR is ≤ 2 for a range of frequency


extending from 2.2 GHz to 6.7 GHz approx.

**
NOTE: So range of frequency for which S11 is less than -10 dB and
VSWR is < 2, that overlapping range of frequency is said to be the frequency
**
for which our antenna is resonating.
Smith Chart:
 Smith chart is a graphical tool which is used to achieve impedance
matching at input port of antenna between transmission line and
antenna.

 Smith chart consists of two families of circles. They are : Constant


Resistance Circles and Constant Reactance Circles.

 In Smith chart we plot normalized impedance and we aim to achieve


normalized impedance magnitude as 1 for perfect impedance
matching.

 Smith chart however is not an essential parameter to analyse antenna


resonance. It is just to find the input impedance of antenna and match
it with transmission line.

 We know that normalized impedance of antenna is plotted in Smith


chart which means Z ÷ Zo, where Z is the input impedance of antenna
and Zo is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

 For good impedance matching │Z ÷ Zo│ should be equal to 1.

Antenna Efficiency:
 By this time we are clear that antenna radiation is a two step
mechanism which involves acceptance of input power by the antenna
from the source + Radiating accepted power into free space.

 In other words, antenna operation involves Antenna Resonance +


Antenna Radiation

 Antenna Efficiency means how much portion of input power that was
accepted by the antenna is radiated into free space.

 Antenna efficiency is also of two types. They are:


o Radiation Efficiency

o Total Efficiency or Real Efficiency

 We will understand both kinds of efficiency by considering below


figure :

 So Pin is the amount of power given at the antenna input port.

 Preflected is the portion of input power which is reflected back from the
input port of antenna.

 Paccepted is the net amount of power accepted by the antenna from the
source.

 Pradiated is the amount of power radiated by antenna in free space.

 Radiation Efficiency = Pradiated ÷ Pin

 Total Efficiency = Pradiated ÷ Paccepted

 If we analyse both efficiencies we will find that Total efficiency is the


valid efficiency, because due to certain impedance mismatch between
transmission line and input port of antenna, certain fraction of input
power will be reflected back. So Total efficiency is the appropriate
parameter and hence it is called as Real Efficiency.

 It must be noted that for a practical antenna, its total efficiency must
be atleast greater than 80%.
 It must also be noted that radiation parameters are analyzed only for
those frequencies for which antenna is resonating.****

Antenna Directivity:
 We know that antenna is a directive device.

 When we say directive device it means that antenna must be able to


concentrate its radiated power more in a particular direction.

 So ability of an antenna to concentrate its radiated power in a


particular angular direction is called as Antenna Directivity.

 If Antenna Directivity is high then this means that antenna is radiating


its power in a very narrow angular region.

 Antenna Directivity is calculated on the assumption that whatever


power is coming at the input of the antenna, it is radiating all the
power.

 But we know that antenna will not accept the entire input power at its
input port. So there came the concept of Antenna Gain.

Antenna Gain:
 Antenna Gain is ability of antenna to concentrate its radiating power in
a particular angular direction.

 Antenna Gain is calculated on the assumption that power accepted by


the antenna at its input port is equal to Power Input – Power Reflected.

 This case we already saw in case of efficiency.

 So antenna Gain is the Real Gain of antenna.

 Here is one question, suppose one antenna is radiating its power in all
the directions equally. Is it a high gain antenna??
 Answer to this question is No. A high Gain antenna must concentrate
its power in very narrow angular direction. There is a concept of
Beamwidth which we will study in subsequent headings. For a High
gain antenna its Beamwidth should be very less. So an antenna
radiating its power in all the direction is a very low gain antenna.
Hence, Isotropic antenna is the poorest radiator because it radiates in
all the direction. Mathematically if we see its gain is minimum which
is one.

 So antenna Gain will tell us that whether an antenna can concentrate


its power in a particular direction or not.

Antenna Radiation Pattern:


 This is the most important radiating parameter of antenna.

 We know that antenna will radiate the power which it has accepted at
its input port.

 Now this power radiated by antenna in free space is studied by a plot


called as Radiation Pattern.

 Angular distribution of the amplitude of power radiated by the antenna


in free space is called as Radiation Pattern of an antenna.

 Radiation pattern of antenna is a Bulk quantity. In simple word, water


coming out of a tube well or a thick pipe can be considered similar to
radiation pattern of an antenna. So radiation pattern can be plotted on
paper if we divide it into two 2D plots. Hence, radiation pattern of an
antenna is always studied in two 2D plots, they are
Vertical Plots (Elevation Plots / E Plots) and Horizontal plots
(Azimuth Plots / H Plots).

 Radiation Pattern of an antenna consists of Major Lobe and Minor


Lobes.
 Usually antenna has a single major lobe and multiple minor lobes.

 Angular region around the antenna where maximum power is radiated


is called as Major lobe.

 While regions other than major lobe are called as Minor lobes.

 Minor lobe exactly opposite to major lobe is called as Back lobe.

 So an antenna in general has One Major Lobe, One Back Lobe and
Multiple Minor Lobes.

 Let us see below figure to analyse radiation pattern.

 On basis of kinds of radiation pattern, we have three kinds of


antennas. They are:

o Directive Antenna

o Isotropic Antenna

o Omni Directional Antenna


 Directive Antenna means antenna which have major lobe and minor
lobe in both 2D planes. This means antenna is directive in both planes.

 Isotropic Antenna means antenna don’t have neither major lobe nor
minor lobe in both 2D planes. This means antenna is not directive in
both planes and is uniformly radiating in all directions in both planes.

 Omni Directional Antenna means in one plane antenna is directive in


nature and in another plane antenna is isotropic in nature.

Front to Back Ratio:


 Considering above figure, ratio of maximum power contained in major
lobe divided by power contained in back lobe is called as Front To
Back Ratio ( FBR ).

 For unidirectional antennas, this FBR parameter is calculated.

 For unidirectional antenna we need a very high value of FBR.

 But for Bidirectional antenna we need FBR value as 1.

Antenna Beamwidth:
 This is the most practical parameter to analyse the directivity of the
antenna. It is highly used by antenna designers.

 We know that antenna is a directive device. So it must concentrate its


power in a particular direction.

 So if we study Radiation pattern of an antenna, then we can easily find


that whether the antenna is able to concentrate its power in a particular
direction or not and this we analyze by seeing major lobe formation.

 Because if Major and Minor lobes are formed in a radiation pattern,


then we can easily conclude that antenna is able to concentrate its
radiated power in particular direction.
 But how well is that antenna is able to concentrate its power in the
particular direction is studied by parameter called Antenna
Beamwidth.

 So in order to study that how well the antenna is concentrating its


power in a particular direction, we have a parameter called as
Antenna Beamwidth.

 So antenna Beamwidth is always analyzed on Major Lobe.****

 Beamwidth is the angular separation between two opposite points on a


Major Lobe.

 Now Antenna Beamwidth are of two types. They are:

o Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW)

o Full Null Beamwidth (FNBW)

 Half Power Beamwidth is the angular separation between two opposite


points on Major lobe at which the power is half of the maximum
power contained in the major lobe.

 In the figure below, θ is the Half Power Beamwidth.

 For a high gain antenna, HPBW must be as small as possible.

 If HPBW is less than a pencil beam cut off angle, then that antenna is
called as a Pencil Beam antenna.

 Pencil Beam Antenna means antenna with very very narrow major
lobe.

 Pencil Beam antenna is used especially in Radars. The reason for this
is that high resolution is required for Radar.

 Now what is Radar Resolution??


 Answer to this is, ability of a Radar to differentiate between two
adjacent objects is called as Radar Resolution.

 So minimum is the HPBW of the antenna, better is the ability of the


Radar to differentiate between two adjacent objects because the major
lobe can enter between the space between those two objects.

 So if we want high gain antenna then its HPBW must be as low as


possible. Always we have to remember that high gain antenna never
means high power.

 Full Null Beamwidth is the angular separation between two opposite


points on Major lobe at which the power is zero.

 In the figure below, Φ is the Full Null Beamwidth.

 FNBW has not much significance.


Antenna Bandwidth:
 Antenna Bandwidth is the range of frequency for which antenna
parameter remains within the tolerable limit.

 Antenna Bandwidth is not a unique parameter. Rather it depends on


what parameter is under consideration.****

 Let us consider Impedance Bandwidth of an antenna. We know that


antenna impedance consists of both real and imaginary parts. Now
suppose we want that net impedance of antenna should be 50 Ω at 2.4
GHz. But as we will change the frequency of operation, the reactive
component of impedance will change and hence the net impedance
will also change. But if we have allowable tolerance of 5 Ω, then
range of frequency for which the antenna impedance remains from
45 Ω to 55 Ω will be called as Impedance bandwidth of that antenna.
 Now let us consider VSWR bandwidth of antenna. Suppose we want
antenna VSWR should be less than 2. So range of frequency for which
VSWR is less than 2 will be called as VSWR bandwidth.

 Therefore, antenna bandwidth always depends on the parameter which


we consider for calculating the bandwidth.
 In other words antenna bandwidth depends on parameter to
parameter.****

 If we consider above two graphs, we will find that allowable limit of


both parameters is different and hence antenna bandwidth in terms of
both parameters is different.

 If someone asks us what is the bandwidth of your antenna. Then we


must always ask that about which parameter he is asking.

 However, in some research papers we will find that author writes as


Antenna Bandwidth without mentioning the parameter. In such case
we assume that he is talking in terms of S11 bandwidth.

 Maximum confusion is always there between Antenna Beamwidth and


Antenna Bandwidth.

 Now we definitely know that Antenna Beamwidth unit is in Degree,


while Antenna Bandwidth unit is Hertz.

 Antenna Bandwidth is used to find range of frequency for which our


antenna is behaving normally with tolerable limits of the parameters,
while Antenna Beamwidth is used to find that how narrow the antenna
is sending its radiation in free space or how narrow is the major lobe.

Antenna Area:
 Antenna Area is a parameter which is used to analyse only receiving
antenna.

 Antenna Area is never equal to physical area.

 Antenna Area is the total area of receiving antenna which captures the
falling electromagnetic waves on it.
 Antenna Area is of 4 types. They are:

o Effective Area / Aperture Area

o Scattering Area

o Loss Area

o Capture Area

 Before analysing above areas, let us see the below figure.

 If we see above figure then we will find that the receiving antenna will
accept the input falling power but it will scatter back certain amount of
power also. If we remember the equivalent circuit of antenna, we will
realize that antenna has radiation resistance. We know that radiation
resistance of antenna is responsible for power dissipation in radiation
form. So because of this radiation resistance, scattered power comes
into picture.
 Hence, in practical scenario we will find that transmitting antennas
have higher radiation resistance, while receiving antennas have lower
radiation resistance.****

 Now loss resistance of receiving antenna and transmission line is


responsible for Ohmic loss, which is nothing but dissipation of power
in heat form.

 Finally when scattered power and loss power is subtracted from input
power , we will get net power which is transferred to the load.

 So Scattered Area is the total amount of physical area of receiving


antenna which is responsible for re radiating a portion of input power
back to free space.

 Loss Area is the total amount of physical area of receiving antenna


which is responsible for dissipating a portion of input power in heat
form.

 Effective Area or Aperture Area is the total area of receiving antenna


which is responsible for transferring a portion of the input power to
the load.

 So Capture Area of receiving antenna = Scattering Area + Loss Area


+ Aperture Area
Antenna Polarization:
 Antenna Polarization is defined as orientation of Electric Field vector
of the radiated wave.

 Antenna Polarization is a very very important factor for establishing


proper communication between transmitting and receiving antenna.

 Polarization of radiated wave is like language. Let use see the below
figure to realize the importance of polarization in antennas.
 So one thing we can conclude that if we don’t take care of polarization
matching, then radiated waves will fall on receiving antenna but we
will get only noise. As per above analogy, Hindi receiver will receive
the information in English language but for him the entire information
will be like noise.

 People usually aim for high reception at receiver end and they feel that
if they receive more power at receiving antenna their task is done. But
No. Our aim must be maximum reception with polarization matching.

 Polarization of radiated wave depends on the polarization nature of


transmitting antenna.

 Before establishing the communication between the antennas, we must


ensure that both transmitting and receiving antennas are of same
polarization or else at least one of them is circular polarized.

 So antenna polarization is majorly of three types. They are:

o Linear Polarized
a. Vertical Polarized
b. Horizontal Polarized
o Circular Polarized

o Elliptical Polarized
 Linear Polarized antenna means that antenna will radiate Electric
Fields which are oscillating on their axis linearly, as shown below.

 Now vertical polarized wave vector will travel perpendicular to earth


surface, while horizontal polarized wave vector will travel parallel to
the earth surface.

 Now the receiving antenna also must be vertical polarized if


transmitting antenna is vertical polarized. If transmitting antenna is
horizontal polarized then receiving antenna must also be horizontal
polarized.

 Now suppose our transmitting antenna is vertical polarized so it will


radiate vertical polarized wave. So the receiving antenna will also be
vertical polarized. But when the vertical polarized radiated waves
travels along the earth’s surface, the orientation of field vectors will
rotate with respect to their axis. This phenomenon is called as Faraday
Rotation. So even though both transmitting and receiving antennas are
vertical polarized, there will be a loss of information at the receiving
antenna.

 Faraday rotation occurs due to earth’s static magnetic field. The


earth’s magnetic field is static in nature and it interferes with the
electromagnetic wave. As a result the field vectors always get little bit
rotated on their axis.

 Vertical polarization is best for broadcasting purpose because the


vertical polarized wave can travel very long distance. But at the
receiving end we will always get loss of information due to Faraday
rotation.

 For instance Doordarshan and All India Radio uses vertical


polarization for broadcasting purpose. We can get these services even
in very far regions but quality of signal is always bad. That’s why
Doordarshan and All India Radio quality is not as good.

 Horizontal polarized wave can not travel long distance because


horizontal polarized waves are absorbed by the earth’s surface at very
fast rate.

 So we use generally vertical polarized antennas instead of horizontal


polarized antennas.

 Then we have another polarization called as Circular polarization.

 Circular polarized field vector rotates on its axis from 0 to 360 degree.

 Remember that Linear polarized vector will oscillate at its position


and will travel forward, while the Circular polarized vector will rotate
at its position and will travel forward.

 Since the field vector in circular polarized wave will rotate in all the
planes from 0 to 360 degree. So there is no loss of information, but
signal will travel less distance as compared to linear polarized wave
because in circular polarized wave signal is radiated in all the planes at
every instant.

 Remember that Linear polarized vector will oscillate at its position


and will travel forward, while the Circular polarized vector will rotate
at its position and will travel forward.

 Since the field vector in circular polarized wave will rotate in all the
planes from 0 to 360 degree. So there is no loss of information. But
since the information is radiated in all the planes, circular polarized
wave will travel a smaller distance when compared to linear polarized
wave.

 Suppose transmitting antenna is Vertical polarized and receiving


antenna is also vertical polarized. But due to Faraday rotation, the field
at the receiving antenna will be not purely vertical polarized. So we
have to rotate our receiving antenna to achieve maximum reception.
But suppose we have a circular polarized receiving antenna, then this
circular polarized receiving antenna will be ready to accept incoming
field vector of any orientation. Hence, circular polarized antenna is
best for reception.

 If we want least loss of information, then we use Circular polarized


antenna.

 Next we have Elliptical Polarized wave.

 Elliptical polarized wave means that the radiating field vector is


neither purely linear polarized nor purely circular polarized.

 Elliptical polarized antennas are rarely used. Elliptical polarized waves


are used for mathematical analysis purpose mainly.

 There is a factor which is used to find the polarization nature of the


antenna and this factor is called as Axial Ratio.

 Axial Ratio is calculated by analyzing the locus traced by the field


vector of the electromagnetic wave.

 We assume that in general field vector will trace a Elliptical Locus.

 Axial Ratio = Amplitude of Major Axis ÷ Amplitude of Minor Axis

 In case of Linear polarized wave, the elliptical trace will convert into a
linear line. So minor axis becomes zero. Hence, for Linear polarized
wave, Axial ratio = ∞.

 For Circular polarized wave, major axis = minor axis. Hence, Axial
Ratio for Circular polarized wave = 1.

 Axial ratio other than this will represent an Elliptical polarized wave,
which don’t have much practical significance.
Chapter 6 : Antenna Designing Softwares

 Antenna designing involves two steps. They are:

o Antenna designing on Software / Antenna Simulation

o Antenna Fabrication

 So a practical antenna is first designed using antenna software and all its
parameters are verified on the software.

 Once all the parameters are as per the user requirement, then the designed
antenna is fabricated and measured practically.

 Antenna designing softwares which mostly used by antenna designers are


namely :

o CST Microwave Studio (Computer Simulation Technology


Microwave Studio)

o HFSS (High Frequency Structure Simulator)

 Using these softwares we model the antenna on a computer. We analyze


all the resonating and radiating parameters. Once we get antenna with
desired characteristics, we export the modelled antenna from software
and we send it for fabrication.

 CST and HFSS differs on the basis of electromagnetic numerical


technique on which they operate.

 CST is based on Finite Integration Numerical Technique.

 HFSS is based on Finite Element Method Numerical Technique.

 A picture of CST software is shown below.


Antenna Modelled On CST Microwave Studio Software

S11 Analyzed On CST Microwave Studio Software


Chapter 7 : Antenna Measurement Setup

 As we mentioned in above chapter that, when we design an antenna we


first model it on CST or HFSS software. Then we make changes in our
antenna design in such a way that we get the antenna with desired value
of resonating and radiating parameters.

 Once this is achieved, we fabricate the antenna and then we measure the
antenna parameters physically.

 This physical measurement is required for the validation of resonating


and radiating parameters. The parameter values must be almost same as
modelled antenna, when we measure the fabricated antenna practically.

 The antenna is measured physically in a special room called as Anechoic


Chamber.****

 Anechoic chamber is a special room of a specific dimension which


depends on the maximum and minimum range of frequency that is to be
measured in that room.

 Anechoic chamber consists of a steel room which is internally coated


with electromagnetic absorbers.

 No cell phones are allowed in Anechoic chamber.

 Antenna to be measured is placed in Receiving mode, while the reference


antenna is placed in Transmitting mode.****

 This is very very important to remember that, antenna which is to be


tested must always be placed in receiving mode.

 Anechoic Chamber uses steel room because no electromagnetic radiation


should come inside the Anechoic Chamber. We know that good
conductors never allow electromagnetic waves to pass through it.
 Anechoic Chamber internal walls are coated with electromagnetic
absorbers which are foam like material. This is done because if during the
measurement of antenna any radiation falls on walls of Anechoic
Chamber, then the radiation should not reflect back to the receiving
antenna. Because this will cause unnecessary interference.

 Antenna signals are captured at receiving antenna and the received power
is measured and analyzed using a device called as Vector Network
Analyzer (VNA).

 Figure below shows the glimpse of Anechoic Chamber at IIT Dhanbad


Antenna Testing Facility.

Reference Test
Antenna Antenna

Microwave
Absorbers
 Let us see some of the most popular antennas we use.

Patch
Antenna

Patch Antenna With


Connector
This Connector will
connect the antenna
to Coaxial Probe
which will be
connected to Source

 In the patch antenna the entire conducting copper surface radiates. Hence,
patch antenna is called as Aperture Antenna.
Folded Dipole

Yagi Uda Antenna

 In Yagi Uda Antenna only folded dipole radiates. Other elements only
directs the radiation in a narrow direction. Yagi is not aperture antenna.

Horn Antenna

 Horn antenna is used for high power transmission. It is like a waveguide


but with tapered opening. This tapered opening provides excellent
matching with 377 Ω. Horn is best transmitting antenna.
 There is one more antenna called as Helical or Spiral Antenna. Beauty of
that antenna is that it will always radiated Circular Polarized wave by
default.

 But rest of the antennas will radiate either Linear polarized wave or
Elliptical polarized waves by default. So in antennas other than Helical
antenna we have to generate Circular polarization by some specific
technique.

 Below I am presenting data about most common antennas:

Antenna Type Gain Radiation Pattern Speciality

Hertzian Antenna 1.5 Figure of 8 Building Block of all


antennas.

Hypothetical Antenna

Isotropic Antenna 1.0 Spherical Reference antenna for


all antennas

Half Wave Dipole 1.64 Figure of 8 Mostly used in


Antenna receivers

Quarter Wave 3.28 Like apple placed Mostly used in


Monopole Antenna on earth’s surface receivers

Horn Antenna Depends on User Highly directional Mostly used in


transmitters

Helical Antenna Depends on User Depends on User Always radiates by


default circular
polarized waves

Patch Antenna Depends on User Monopole or Conformal and Planar


Dipole nature
Reference

 Antenna Theory by C A Balanis


 IEEE Antenna And Wireless Propagation Letters

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