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Content
Maxwell Equations
Antenna Definitions
Antenna Regions
Antenna Parameters
Return Loss
Smith Chart
Antenna Efficiency
Antenna Directivity
Antenna Gain
Antenna Beamwidth
Antenna Bandwidth
Antenna Area
Antenna Polarization
It must be noted that there are two kinds of sources for electromagnetic
wave, they are static source and time varying source. Hence, before
analyzing Maxwell equations we must always specify that what is the
nature of source for electromagnetic wave, static or time varying.
First: A static source of Electric field will produce only static Electric
field, while a static source of Magnetic field will produce only static
Magnetic field.
Fourth: A time varying field always comprises of both Electric field and
Magnetic field. So we called this time varying field as Electromagnetic
field because due to time varying nature of field, both the fields will exist.
Therefore, electromagnetic wave always means that our both fields are
existing and both the fields are time varying.
Seven: A very big question which usually asked that how antenna
radiates or how waves are getting detached from the antenna. If we recall
from our school days, we studied that Electric field lines can never form a
close loop but magnetic field lines can make close loop.
I am just stating a golden rule as an answer to this, "The moment we find
that the Electric field generated from a device has started to form a close
loop, we will conclude that the device is working as antenna".
Eight: Another question which people asks about electromagnetic wave is
that what is the building block of electromagnetic wave. Are they carried
by electrons? Answer to this question is that electromagnetic wave is
carried by the means of Photons. This flow of photons is called as
Displacement Current. In nutshell we can conclude that, Conduction
current is the current which flows in the conducting wires by the means
of electrons. On contrary, Displacement current is the current which
flows in the dielectric medium by the means of photons.
An interesting question was once asked to me that can electrons flow in
free space or in a dielectric? Answer to this question is, every dielectric
has its defined Dielectric Breakdown Strength. Now consider a electric
wire in free space which is carrying certain current. As current is flowing
in the wire because of electrons, there will be field generated around the
wire. If this field value around the wire crosses the Dielectric Breakdown
Value of Free Space, then in that case Dielectric Breakdown will occur
and electrons will flow in the free space. This phenomena we would have
witnessed many times which is called as Electric Sparking.
Kirchhoff ’s
Electric field is not produced from Magnetic field
Equation II ×E=0 Voltage Law
in case of static source of field.
(KVL)
Kirchhoff ’s
Magnetic field produced around a wire depends
Equation IV ×H=J Current Law
only on the current density flowing in that wire.
(KCL)
Note:
It must be noted that only Equation II and Equation IV changes if there is a change in
the nature of source.
Antenna uses Equation II and Equation IV for its operation. Time varying Electric
field will produce time varying Magnetic field and vice versa. So inorder to excite an
antenna we need a source which can generate time varying Electric field or Time
varying magnetic field. However antenna satisfies all 4 Maxwell equations.
Inorder to fulfil above criteria it is necessary that source for antenna must be time
varying.
We can also conclude from above equations that a wire carrying current from a DC
source will never radiate. While a wire carrying current from AC source will always
radiate. Hence, all our products which uses AC source will radiate and will cause
electromagnetic interference. Since the frequency of our AC products will be 50 Hz,
so radiation produced from them will be very less and will be acting as an
electromagnetic noise. Since their amplitude is less, they can be shielded. This
concept of shielding electromagnetic interference is studied under the branch of
Electromagnetic Compatibility.
Equation II becomes zero means Electric field is not curly in nature i.e. it is not
forming a closed loop. But in case of time varying field, non zero value of Equation II
concludes that Electric field forms a closed loop. So this is the thumb rule for antenna
radiation.
Chapter 2 : Antenna Definitions
II. Second thing which I wanna say that the dimensions of an antenna
must always be mentioned in terms of its electrical length.
Electrical length of an antenna means physical length of antenna in
terms of its wavelength of operation. This is necessary because
dimensions of antenna is inversely proportional to its operating
frequency. This means that a 40 mm × 40 mm antenna is needed
for 2.4 GHz operation. But a 20 mm × 20 mm antenna is needed
for 9.4 GHz operation. So many antenna researchers falsely claim
that they have done antenna miniaturisation by stating the physical
length of the antenna. So we must understand that dimension of
antenna is totally depending on its frequency of operation. So when
we state length of antenna in terms of its wavelength, we overcome
the above demerit of misrepresentation.
Chapter 3 : Antenna Equivalent Circuit
So at the transmitting end, power is fed to the antenna using a time
varying source which has its own internal resistance. The source and
antenna are connected by using transmission line which is usually a
coaxial cable.
As per Thevenin’s theorem we know that for maximum power transfer
impedance matching should be done. It must also be noted that during
impedance matching at most we can transfer 50% of the power from one
circuit to another circuit.
It is the region which starts from the antenna after where the
Reactive region ends.
It is the region which starts from the antenna after where the
Fresnel region ends.
A very very important thumb rule which decides the Far field
region of the antenna is that when the phase error of the
wavefront of field vectors is ≤ 22.5o , then we assume that
the practical Far field region has began because a wavefront
with a phase error of less than 22.5o is practically considered
as a plane wave.
So all the analysis of the antenna are done in Far field region
by default only.
Far field region for any antenna is defined as :
Antenna Parameters are divided into two parts. They are Resonating
Parameter and Radiating Parameter.
In other words, when we say that antenna is resonating this means that
antenna is accepting the input power which is given to it from the source.
So antenna resonance is essential because antenna resonating means
antenna is accepting the input power from the source.
Smith Chart
Antenna Directivity
Antenna Gain
Antenna Beamwidth
Antenna Bandwidth
Antenna Area
Antenna Polarization
S11 / Return Loss (dB):
Return loss of an antenna is the most and very very important
parameter of an antenna to decide whether the antenna is resonating or
not.
As a thumb rule if S11 is less than -10 dB, then we say that antenna has
started to resonate.
If S11 is less than -10 dB then this means that only 10% of input
power is reflected back from the input port of the antenna.
As an antenna designer our aim must be that S11 must be at least near
to -30 dB.
S11 will be achieved less than -10 dB only if there is proper impedance
matching between transmission line and the input port of the antenna.
Single band antenna means that antenna has only one resonating band.
This means that antenna S11 goes below -10 dB at particular frequency
and then after certain frequency S11 gets above -10 dB, shown in
figure below.
Multiband means S11 goes below -10 dB and above -10 dB more than
one time, shown in figure below.
VSWR range is 1 to ∞.
**
NOTE: So range of frequency for which S11 is less than -10 dB and
VSWR is < 2, that overlapping range of frequency is said to be the frequency
**
for which our antenna is resonating.
Smith Chart:
Smith chart is a graphical tool which is used to achieve impedance
matching at input port of antenna between transmission line and
antenna.
Antenna Efficiency:
By this time we are clear that antenna radiation is a two step
mechanism which involves acceptance of input power by the antenna
from the source + Radiating accepted power into free space.
Antenna Efficiency means how much portion of input power that was
accepted by the antenna is radiated into free space.
Preflected is the portion of input power which is reflected back from the
input port of antenna.
Paccepted is the net amount of power accepted by the antenna from the
source.
It must be noted that for a practical antenna, its total efficiency must
be atleast greater than 80%.
It must also be noted that radiation parameters are analyzed only for
those frequencies for which antenna is resonating.****
Antenna Directivity:
We know that antenna is a directive device.
But we know that antenna will not accept the entire input power at its
input port. So there came the concept of Antenna Gain.
Antenna Gain:
Antenna Gain is ability of antenna to concentrate its radiating power in
a particular angular direction.
Here is one question, suppose one antenna is radiating its power in all
the directions equally. Is it a high gain antenna??
Answer to this question is No. A high Gain antenna must concentrate
its power in very narrow angular direction. There is a concept of
Beamwidth which we will study in subsequent headings. For a High
gain antenna its Beamwidth should be very less. So an antenna
radiating its power in all the direction is a very low gain antenna.
Hence, Isotropic antenna is the poorest radiator because it radiates in
all the direction. Mathematically if we see its gain is minimum which
is one.
We know that antenna will radiate the power which it has accepted at
its input port.
While regions other than major lobe are called as Minor lobes.
So an antenna in general has One Major Lobe, One Back Lobe and
Multiple Minor Lobes.
o Directive Antenna
o Isotropic Antenna
Isotropic Antenna means antenna don’t have neither major lobe nor
minor lobe in both 2D planes. This means antenna is not directive in
both planes and is uniformly radiating in all directions in both planes.
Antenna Beamwidth:
This is the most practical parameter to analyse the directivity of the
antenna. It is highly used by antenna designers.
If HPBW is less than a pencil beam cut off angle, then that antenna is
called as a Pencil Beam antenna.
Pencil Beam Antenna means antenna with very very narrow major
lobe.
Pencil Beam antenna is used especially in Radars. The reason for this
is that high resolution is required for Radar.
Antenna Area:
Antenna Area is a parameter which is used to analyse only receiving
antenna.
Antenna Area is the total area of receiving antenna which captures the
falling electromagnetic waves on it.
Antenna Area is of 4 types. They are:
o Scattering Area
o Loss Area
o Capture Area
If we see above figure then we will find that the receiving antenna will
accept the input falling power but it will scatter back certain amount of
power also. If we remember the equivalent circuit of antenna, we will
realize that antenna has radiation resistance. We know that radiation
resistance of antenna is responsible for power dissipation in radiation
form. So because of this radiation resistance, scattered power comes
into picture.
Hence, in practical scenario we will find that transmitting antennas
have higher radiation resistance, while receiving antennas have lower
radiation resistance.****
Finally when scattered power and loss power is subtracted from input
power , we will get net power which is transferred to the load.
Polarization of radiated wave is like language. Let use see the below
figure to realize the importance of polarization in antennas.
So one thing we can conclude that if we don’t take care of polarization
matching, then radiated waves will fall on receiving antenna but we
will get only noise. As per above analogy, Hindi receiver will receive
the information in English language but for him the entire information
will be like noise.
People usually aim for high reception at receiver end and they feel that
if they receive more power at receiving antenna their task is done. But
No. Our aim must be maximum reception with polarization matching.
o Linear Polarized
a. Vertical Polarized
b. Horizontal Polarized
o Circular Polarized
o Elliptical Polarized
Linear Polarized antenna means that antenna will radiate Electric
Fields which are oscillating on their axis linearly, as shown below.
Circular polarized field vector rotates on its axis from 0 to 360 degree.
Since the field vector in circular polarized wave will rotate in all the
planes from 0 to 360 degree. So there is no loss of information, but
signal will travel less distance as compared to linear polarized wave
because in circular polarized wave signal is radiated in all the planes at
every instant.
Since the field vector in circular polarized wave will rotate in all the
planes from 0 to 360 degree. So there is no loss of information. But
since the information is radiated in all the planes, circular polarized
wave will travel a smaller distance when compared to linear polarized
wave.
In case of Linear polarized wave, the elliptical trace will convert into a
linear line. So minor axis becomes zero. Hence, for Linear polarized
wave, Axial ratio = ∞.
For Circular polarized wave, major axis = minor axis. Hence, Axial
Ratio for Circular polarized wave = 1.
Axial ratio other than this will represent an Elliptical polarized wave,
which don’t have much practical significance.
Chapter 6 : Antenna Designing Softwares
o Antenna Fabrication
So a practical antenna is first designed using antenna software and all its
parameters are verified on the software.
Once all the parameters are as per the user requirement, then the designed
antenna is fabricated and measured practically.
Once this is achieved, we fabricate the antenna and then we measure the
antenna parameters physically.
Antenna signals are captured at receiving antenna and the received power
is measured and analyzed using a device called as Vector Network
Analyzer (VNA).
Reference Test
Antenna Antenna
Microwave
Absorbers
Let us see some of the most popular antennas we use.
Patch
Antenna
In the patch antenna the entire conducting copper surface radiates. Hence,
patch antenna is called as Aperture Antenna.
Folded Dipole
In Yagi Uda Antenna only folded dipole radiates. Other elements only
directs the radiation in a narrow direction. Yagi is not aperture antenna.
Horn Antenna
But rest of the antennas will radiate either Linear polarized wave or
Elliptical polarized waves by default. So in antennas other than Helical
antenna we have to generate Circular polarization by some specific
technique.
Hypothetical Antenna