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Behavior of a pneumatic pressure regulator valve under leakage circumstances

Conference Paper · June 2003

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 HEFAT2003
2nd International Conference on Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics
23 – 26 June 2003, Victoria Falls, Zambia
Paper number: IB1

BEHAVIOR OF A PNEUMATIC PRESSURE REGULATOR VALVE UNDER LEAKAGE

CIRCUMSTANCES

B., Istók*, V., Szente and J., Vad

*Author for correspondence
Department of Fluid Mechanics,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
H-1111, Bertalan Lajos, 4-6,
Hungary,
E-mail: istok@simba.ara.bme.hu

ABSTRACT impossible to measure. These facts urge the elaboration of

The paper reports concerted experimental and numerical
investigation on the dynamic behavior of a pneumatic pressure
regulator valve. It has been pointed out that in case of leakage,
laminar flow may develop in the orifice cross-section and thus,
the isentropic or sonic orifice models applied in pneumatic
simulation must be treated with criticism. The tests showed that
a spring-like behavior of the flexible seal is essential for
realization of small clearances of valve opening compensating
the leakage.
INTRODUCTION
Electronically controlled pneumatic systems have
become more and more widespread in several areas of industry.
One important application area of electro-pneumatics is
specified by the intelligent brake and air supply systems of
automotive vehicles [1][2]
One of the basic elements of such pneumatic systems
is the pressure regulator valve (PRV). The PRV analyzed in this
paper is an integrated element of a pressure supply module used
in automotive industry.
It is a common procedure during the qualification of
pneumatic systems that pressure regulating elements such as
PRV are checked against flat-gradient pressure change, i.e.
simulation of leakage in the connecting system.
During the research and development (R&D) phase of
a pneumatic device, a large portion of financial sources and
project time is sacrificed or experimental testing. Therefore, the
PRV leakage tests are also carried out through experiments in
the first approach of industrial R&D. However, it is known that
significant cost and time reduction can be achieved using
computer simulations. Computational studies also give
possibilities to analyze effects which are difficult or even
reliable dynamic simulation models for pneumatic equipments.
When modeling a pneumatic valve such as PRV, the
flow cross-section appearing in accordance with the
displacement of the valve body is usually modeled as a sharp-
edged orifice. The flow through the orifice is modeled as
subsonic isentropic flow or sonic flow (throttled expansion) in
the narrowest cross-section for supercritical and subcritical pr/
ps pressure ratios, respectively [3]. The contraction of the flow
in the orifice cross-section is taken into account using a Cq flow
parameter. The flow parameter can be approached as a function
of pressure ratio with use of the Perry polynomial [3]. Refined
models are also available in the literature [4]. For certain
applications, a Cq flow parameter independent from the
pressure ratio is recommended [5].
The above models do not take into account that even if
the isentropic / sonic flow eventually develops, the clearance is
relatively small at the beginning of the valve opening process
and thus, viscous effects may dominate. In case of
compensating leakage, the clearance of valve opening of the
PRV remains very small during the entire process. It can even
be in the same order of magnitude as the surface roughness of
the construction elements, which means that the flow is
strongly dominated by viscosity. The paper presents one-
dimensional (1D) computational case studies for application of
a laminar flow model for the PRV valve opening, represented
as a controlled-area orifice. The details of flow in the clearance
have also been investigated, with use of a three-dimensional
(3D) Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code.
Given that the necessary clearance may be as small as
the dominant size of surface roughness elements, the fine
compensation of leakage can be rendered more difficult or can
even be baffled by Coulomb friction acting on the valve body.
The paper provides guidelines for proper construction of a PRV
in order to make possible a fine compensation of even very
small leakage.
NOMENCLATURE port provides the regulated pressure pr . The effect of ps on the
valve body is zero given that the inner surfaces of the two
Ai inner area of valve seat (Fig. 1) pistons are equal. It is also trivial that the valve body is affected
Aout outer area of valve body (Fig. 1) by pr only on the Ai area, as the effect of pr on the Aout surfaces
b width of the valve opening on the left and right plates of the right-hand side piston
di inner diameter of valve seat (Fig. 1) eliminate each other. The left plate of the left-hand side piston
dh hydraulic equivalent diameter is connected to the atmosphere p0. Therefore it can be
j clearance of the valve opening concluded that the precompressed spring tries to open the valve
lc length of the valve opening against pr, which produces a force on the Ai area only. The
pr regulated pressure (downstream of PRV) friction forces work against valve opening.
ps supply pressure (upstream of PRV)
p0 atmospheric pressure EXPERIMENTS
qm mass flow rate
The first step of PRV analysis was to measure the
Greek Letters characteristics of the valve for leakage condition. During the
µ dynamic viscosity measurement, a supply pressure reservoir of constant (ambient)
ρ mean density temperature was connected to the pressure inlet port. A ball
valve has been connected to the pressure outlet port to set the
THE PRV UNDER INVESTIGATION amount of leaking mass flow rate. The pr and ps pressures have
been measured using pressure transducers commonly used in
The scheme for layout and operation of the PRV under electro-pneumatic brake systems. Because of the relatively
investigation can be seen in Fig. 1. The PRV provides a small leaking mass flow values and relatively large volume of
regulated pressure pr by reducing the supply pressure ps to the the supply reservoir, the ps pressure of the reservoir has
required constant value. If the pressure at the pressure outlet practically remained at a constant value during the
becomes smaller than required, then the valve opens and measurements.
replenishes the load. Since the valve is pressure-controlled The PRV behavior has been tested experimentally for
(there is a direct pneumatic feedback from the connected three different (“low”, “medium” and “high”) leaking mass
pneumatic system to the PRV), it can provide principally a flow rates. The results of the measurements are presented in
constant pressure even in the case of a very flat pressure Fig. 2 in dimensionless form. In order to make the results
decrease. dimensionless, the actual absolute pr pressure has been divided
by the reservoir pressure, while the actual time has been
pressure divided by the time constant t0 (time necessary for pressure
inlet reduction to 0 bar(rel) with the initial pressure gradient).
0.700
0.675
Pressure [pr/ps]

low
0.650

medium
Aout high
0.625

p0 ps pressure
Ai pr
outlet
0.600

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

Time [t/t0]
Fig.2. Measurement results for the three test cases

As the figure suggests, the measured pressure history can be

Fig.1. Scheme of pressure regulator valve (PRV) separated to three regions:
• Immediately after the opening of the ball valve (at
The left-hand side surface of the right-hand side piston time instance 0 s), pr starts to decrease. During this
(valve body head) is divided into two parts by the sharp-edged process, the PRV remains closed.
valve seat connected to the housing: the inner section Ai and the • After a delay, the PRV opens.
outer annular section Aout. The supply pressure ps is connected • The system reaches a steady state after a transient
to the valve at the pressure inlet port, while the pressure outlet process.
Based on the measurement results, the following observations
can be made:
• As the opening of the PRV happens after a certain
delay, it is likely that the Coulomb friction blocks the
immediate opening.
• After the opening of the PRV, the system reaches a
steady state, where the actual pr is smaller than the
initial value. Therefore it can be concluded that there
is an internal effect preventing the valve body from
opening to the extent required for restoring the initial
pressure.
The details of PRV operation have been investigated via
numerical simulation.
BASIC SIMULATION MODEL
The objective of the simulation was to discover the
processes which are difficult or impossible to resolve by
measurements. The simulation provides a possibility for
sensitivity analysis as well.
The simulation model has been built using AMESim
software (Advanced Modeling Environment for Simulations of
engineering systems) version 4.0 [6]. Including a number of
ready-made submodel elements structured in libraries, this
simulation tool makes possible a convenient and effective
modification, extension, and improvement of simulation tools.
This software proved its appropriateness in simulation of
systems related to automotive industry [7][8][9], also including
pneumatics [10][11]. The basic AMESim model of the PRV is
shown in Fig. 3. This scheme still includes an orifice model
calculating isentropic flow corrected using the Perry
polynomial.
Fig. 3. Basic AMESim model for the PRV
During the first period of the analysis, the leaking
mass flow has been determined by simulation means. If the
volumes of the chambers in the simulation are set to the
realistic value, and the simulated rate of initial pressure
decrease (PRV still in closed state) is equal to the measured
values, then the mass flow rate through the ball valve provided
by the simulation should also be equal to the mass flow rate
developing for the measured cases. Hence, the real mass flow
rate can be deduced this way.
The PRV should transmit exactly the same mass flow
in order to establish a stationary state in the system. The air
passes the PRV through a cylindrical shell area having a
circumference several orders of magnitude larger than the
displacement of the valve body (clearance). If the mass flow of
the leakage is also taken into account, then it is certain that the
displacement of the PRV is so small that the Reynolds number
for the orifice flow will also be very small, i.e. the flow through
the opening will be probably laminar. The basic model
represented in Fig. 3 (Perry model included) did not provide
consistently good agreement for each measured case.
Therefore, a model improvement became necessary.
ADVANCED ORIFICE MODELL
A variable area pneumatic leakage model has been
elaborated for the PRV orifice under leakage circumstances.
Based on similar considerations, the ball valve has also been
replaced in the simulation using this model.
The model calculates the mass flow using the
following equation [12]:
b ⋅ j3
qm = ρ ⋅ ( p s − pr ) ⋅ 1
12 ⋅ µ ⋅ lc
This model has originally been elaborated for not
circular but plain openings. However, since the length of the
opening is negligibly small compared to the circumference of
the valve seat, the model is applicable also for the
circumferential opening being present in the PRV.
The clearance of the valve opening j is directly
controlled by the position of the valve body. The length of the
valve opening lc is the radial extension of the narrow gap at the
valve seat through which the fluid flows from the enclosure of
pressure ps to that of pressure pr. The width of the valve
opening b is equal to the circumference of circle with area Ai.
The criteria for applicability of this model are the
following: i) the ratio of the clearance (j) and the length of the
opening (lc) should be below 0.1 (in the reported case it was
0.00175 for the “medium” test) and the ratio of the clearance (j)
and the width of the opening (b) should be below 0.001 (in the
reported case it was 2.78·10-5 for the “medium” test).
"SPRING" MODEL FOR THE O-RING
There has been another problem to be solved, namely
the explanation of the difference between the steady-state
pressure and the initial pressure. The initial pressure is just
enough for the PRV to stay closed. The structural configuration
of the PRV theoretically provides that the valve opens
proportional to pr in case of a pressure drop. But the pressure
drop observed during the measurement should give such a high
displacement that the resulting mass flow through the opening
would be much higher than the mass flow through the ball
valve, and therefore the steady state could not be reached.
It was also observed that the pressure drop is
correlated to the displacement. It can be concluded that there is
an effect in the PRV which is acting against the opening of the
valve, so the resulting pressure drop after the PRV can be
higher than expected. It can be stated that this effect is
proportional to the displacement of the valve.
From the possible effects the following seemed the
most appropriate. The pressure acting on the valve body
attempts to open the valve, while the static Coulomb friction is
acting against this movement. The left-hand side piston is
equipped with an O-ring in order to separate the enclosures of
pressures ps and p0 . The large pressure difference deforms the
O-ring considerably and pushes it to the side of the groove. The
O-ring attached acts as a rubber spring, acting against the
displacement of the valve body as well. According to the
considerable deformation of the O-ring, this spring effect is to
be taken into account with relatively high spring stiffness. This
effect has been reproduced in the model as a linear spring
which connects the valve body to the housing, and the initial
spring force is zero. Because of the relatively small
displacements, the ideal linear spring approximation is
acceptable. This model is valid until the spring force expressed
by the O-ring exceeds the static Coulomb friction force acting
on the O-ring.
IMPROVED AMESIM MODEL
With consideration of the above, an improved PRV
AMESim simulation model has been prepared, reproducing the
effects mentioned previously. The layout of the new, improved
AMESim model can be seen in Fig. 4.
The spring modeling the O-ring can be seen clearly in
the new model. It is connected parallel to the valve spring. The
spring for the O-ring is connected to a mass with Coulomb
friction, reproduces the mass of the sealing. This provides a
possibility for simulation of cases when the spring force
expressed by the O-ring exceeds the static Coulomb friction
and thus, the sealing is able to slip. Such effect occurs when
compensation of not a slight leakage but a more drastic
pressure drop is carried out.
Fig.4. Improved AMESim model
According to the previous observations, the static
friction between the valve body and the housing has also been
incorporated into the model. The cause of this friction is the
contact between the valve body and the housing. It can also be
deduced from the measurement results that the difference
between the static and the Coulomb friction is quite small. This
conclusion can be drawn from the fact that when the valve body
starts to move, the friction changes from static to Coulomb, and
if the Coulomb friction would be much smaller then the body
would accelerate rapidly. Therefore, the valve opening would
be as high that the resultant mass flow would cause more
drastic pressure change. The measurement results showed just
the opposite, i.e. the pressure gradient was quite moderate.
The static friction, however, influences the closing
pressure as well, because the forces originating from the
pressure are to be large enough to overcome the friction. This
effect can be considered and compensated by reducing the
precompression of the valve spring.
After all the changes mentioned previously had been
incorporated into the new model, new simulations have been
carried out. The unknown parameter of spring stiffness for the
O-ring has been adjusted in simulation in such way that the
possibly best, consistent correlation is obtained between
computational and experimental data. The simulation results,
compared to the measurement data, are presented in Fig. 5. The
agreement between simulation and measurements is
satisfactory. It has been concluded that for proper resolution of
leakage effects in modeling, the consideration of laminar orifice
flow and sealing spring effects is essential. For sensitive
compensation of leakage, it is recommended to build a flexible
seal with reduced stiffness in the PRV that makes possible the
development of sealing spring effects. A too stiff seal, e.g. lip
seal, is probably less successful than the O-ring from this point
of view.
 0.700

0.04
0.625 0.650 0.675

0.03
Mach-number [-]
Pressure [pr/ps]

0.02
0.01
0.600

0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Time [t/t0] Fraction of length of the gap [-]

Fig.5. Comparison of simulation and measurement results Fig. 6. Computed Mach number distribution along the opening,
(Black solid lines: AMESim simulation) with inlet and outlet Mach number profiles. “Medium” test
case. FLUENT simulation

CFD STUDIES
The details of the orifice flow have been investigated by
means of CFD. The FLUENT code version 6.0 has been used
for this purpose [13]. This analysis was necessary to verify the
assumptions on the orifice flow mentioned previously.
The CFD model has been prepared for the “medium”
leakage test case. The velocity and the pressure field have been
analyzed in the axisymmetric clearance between the valve body
and the seating. The pressure ratio was the same as in the
steady state of the measurement of the medium leakage.
The Mach number distribution in the centerline of the
clearance can be seen in Fig. 6, completed with the Mach
number profile at the inlet and the outlet of the clearance. The
scaling of fraction of length of the opening starts at the inlet.
The Mach number profiles perpendicular to the clearance have
been enlarged for better visibility (i.e. the scaling of fractions of
length and clearance of the valve opening are not equal). For
Taking the velocity and density values in the middle of
the gap, the Reynolds number has been calculated as follows:
2⋅ j ⋅v ⋅ρ
Re = m m = 15 3
µ
Both the AMESim simulation with the improved orifice
model and the FLUENT CFD campaign resulted in a Reynolds
number of approximately 15. This confirms that the orifice
flow is really laminar, and furthermore, the FLUENT
simulation is in good agreement with the AMESim model
validated by the experiments. Thus, FLUENT studies can
reliably be applied for detailed investigation of the laminar
orifice flow.
The computed pressure distribution along the valve
opening is presented in Fig. 7.
1.5

the calculation of Mach numbers the average temperature along

the clearance has been used. The velocity profiles correspond
indeed to laminar flow. The velocity distribution along the
length of the opening meets to our expectations since in
1.0
Pressure [p/ps]

accordance with the Fanno theory [14], the velocity increases

along a passage with viscous effects.
Besides geometrical data and the Mach number, an
0.5

important characteristic of the viscous orifice flow is the

Reynolds number. A hydraulic equivalent diameter has been
calculated for the orifice, according to the following equation:
0.0

cross - section of the flow 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
dh = 4 ⋅ 2a
circumference Fraction of length of the gap [-]
And therefore
j ⋅ di ⋅ π Fig. 7. Pressure distribution along the valve opening.
dh = 4 ⋅ = 2⋅ j 2b “Medium” test case. FLUENT simulation
2 ⋅ di ⋅ π
 It can be observed in Fig. 7 that the pressure distribution
is approximately linear. Therefore, in order to calculate
pressure originated forces acting on the valve body, it is an
appropriate approach to divide the left surface of the right-hand
side piston to two concentric part-pistons separated by a circle
of mean diameter of the opening. ps acts on the internal circular
part-piston of Ai and pr acts on the external annular part-piston
of Aout .
The operation of a pneumatic valve may be significantly
influenced by the suction effect acting on the valve body due to
static pressure reduction originated from the high velocity
(dynamic pressure) of the flow in the orifice. This phenomenon
is termed Bernoulli effect.
According to the low fluid velocity, it has been
concluded that the Bernoulli effect is insignificant in the
reported case.
SUMMARY
Concerted experimental and numerical (AMESim and
FLUENT) studies have been carried out for investigation of a
pneumatic pressure regulator valve (PRV) under leakage
circumstances. The results are summarized as follows:
1) The reported leakage case studies have been
characterized by initial downstream-to-upstream pressure ratio
of 0.67. The characteristic opening clearance-to-length ratio
was 0.00175 and the clearance-to-width ratio was 2.78·10-5 for
the “medium” leakage flow case. It has been pointed out that
for such conditions, laminar flow develops in the valve opening
(Re ≈ 15, Ma ≈ 0.03 for the “medium” test). Therefore, the
widespread isentropic/sonic models for calculating orifice flow
provide dramatically bad results. A laminar orifice submodel,
with geometrical cross-section modulated by the valve body
position, has been elaborated and successfully applied.
2) It was found that the pressure distribution is
approximately linear along the valve opening in radial
direction. This approximation makes possible a simplification
when calculating the pressure forces acting on the valve body.
3) The Bernoulli effect (suction effect) has been
found insignificant from the viewpoint of valve body operation
under the leakage circumstances reported herein.
4) In order to build up a proper simulation model of
PRV, it is essential to consider the spring effects due to flexible
seals. The O-ring built in the PRV of present case study has
been successfully modeled as a stiff linear spring in parallel
connection with the valve spring.
5) It is recommended to introduce sealing spring
effects with reduced stiffness intentionally in the PRV system if
a sensitive compensation of leakage (and thus, realization of
fine valve body displacement) is a goal. Application of a less
hard O-ring appears to be a good solution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been supported by the Hungarian Scientific
Research Fund under contract No. OTKA T 038184.
V i e w p u b l
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