Indonesia

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Republic of Indonesia
Republik Indonesia

Flag Coat of arms

Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika  (Old Javanese)

Unity in Diversity
National ideology: Pancasila[1]

Anthem: Indonesia Raya

Capital Jakarta
(and largest city) / /

Official languages Indonesian

Demonym Indonesian

Government Presidential republic

 - President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

 - Vice President Jusuf Kalla

Independence from Netherlands 

 - Declared 17 August 1945 

 - Recognized 27 November 1949 

Area
1,919,440 (land) km2
 (16th)
 - Total
735,355 sq mi 

 - Water (%) 4.85

Population
  - July 2008 est. estimate 237,512,352 (4th)

 - 2000 census 206,264,595 

134/km2 (84th)
 - Density
347/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2007 estimate

 - Total $838.479 billion[2] (16th)

 - Per capita $3,728[2] (120th)

GDP (nominal) 2007 estimate

 - Total $432.944 billion[2] (20th)

 - Per capita $1,925[2] (115th)

Gini (2002) 34.3 

HDI (2008) ▼ 0.726 (medium) (109th)
Currency Rupiah (IDR)

Time zone various (UTC+7 to +9)

Drives on the left

Internet TLD .id

Calling code 62

The Republic of Indonesia (pronounced /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ or /ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/) (Indonesian:

Republik Indonesia), is a transcontinental country in Southeast Asia and Oceania.
Comprising 17,508 islands, it is the world's largest archipelagic state. With an estimated
population of around 237 million people,[3] it is the world's fourth most populous country
and the most populous Muslim-majority nation; however, no reference is made to Islam
in the Indonesian constitution. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and
president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua
New Guinea, East Timor and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore,
the Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh
century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually
adopted Indian cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and
Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by
foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and
European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku
during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism,
Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been
turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a
democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious
groups. The Javanese are the largest and most politically dominant ethnic group. As a
unitary state and a nation, Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national
language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a
history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka
tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that
shapes the country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent
confrontations that have undermined political and economic stability. Despite its large
population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that
support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed
with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Etymology
 2 History
 3 Government and politics
 4 Foreign relations and military
 5 Administrative divisions
 6 Geography
 7 Ecology
 8 Economy
 9 Demographics
 10 Culture
 11 See also
 12 References
o 12.1 General
o 12.2 Notes
 13 External links

[edit] Etymology
The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek nesos,
meaning "island".[4] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of
independent Indonesia.[5] In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the
terms Indunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the
"Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[6] In the same publication, a student of
Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[7]
However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use
Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the
Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost);
and even Insulinde.[8]

From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the
Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[9] Adolf
Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien
oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to
use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a
press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.[5]

[edit] History
Main article: History of Indonesia

As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa.
Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE.

Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest that the
Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.[10] Austronesian
people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia
from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native
Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded.[11] Ideal agricultural
conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century
BCE,[12] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE.
Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. For
example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several
centuries BCE.[13] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[14]
The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most
valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.

From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result
of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[15]
Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu
Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious
monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu
Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah
Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a
"Golden Age" in Indonesian history.[16]

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era,
the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in
northern Sumatra.[17] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the
dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part,
Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped
the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[18] The first Europeans
arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to
monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[19] Dutch and
British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company
(VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was
formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch
East Indies as a nationalized colony.[19]

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in
the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's
current boundaries.[20] The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World
War II ended Dutch rule,[21] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian
independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945,
Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed
president.[22] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic
struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch
formally recognized Indonesian independence[23] (with the exception of The Dutch
territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated following the 1962 New York
Agreement, and UN-mandated Act of Free Choice).

Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president

Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power
base by balancing the opposing forces of the Military, and the Communist Party of
Indonesia (PKI).[24] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the
army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the
coup and effectively destroyed.[25] Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.
[26]
The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened
Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order
administration[27] was supported by the US government,[28] and encouraged foreign direct
investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of
substantial economic growth.[29] However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely
accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.

In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian Financial Crisis.[30]
This increased popular discontent with the New Order[31] and led to popular protests.
Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.[32] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from
Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international
condemnation of often brutal repression of the East Timorese.[33] Since Suharto's
resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy
program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic
instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although
relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute
sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.[34] A political
settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[35]

[edit] Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is
concentrated in the national government. Following the resignation of President Suharto
in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms.
Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia[36] have revamped the executive,
judicial, and legislative branches.[37] The president of Indonesia is the head of state,
commander-in-chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces, and the director of domestic
governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of
ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004
presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and
vice president.[38] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year
terms.[39]

A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly
(MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the
president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the
president.[40] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council
(DPR), with 550 members, and the Regional Representatives Council (DPD), with 128
members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned
members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[37] Reforms since
1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.[41] The DPD is a
new chamber for matters of regional management.[42]

Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court.
The Supreme Court is the country's highest court, and hears final cassation appeals and
conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles
bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases
against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of
law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state
institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.[43]

[edit] Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Indonesia and Military of Indonesia
In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with
Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have been based
on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.[44] Indonesia maintains close
relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the
East Asia Summit.[45] The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in
1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.[43]
Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,[46] and was a founder of
the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference
(OIC).[45] Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns
Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although it is
withdrawing as of 2008 as it is no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received
humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States,
western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[45]

National flags at the site of the 2002 terrorist bombing in Kuta, Bali

The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute
perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.[47] The
deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of
Kuta in 2002.[48] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries,
severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.[49]

Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI-AD), Navy
(TNI-AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI-AU).[50] The army has about
233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP
in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial
interests and foundations.[51] In the post-Suharto period since 1998, formal TNI
representation in parliament has been removed; though curtailed; its political influence
remains extensive.[52] Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led
to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from
all sides.[53] Following a sporadic thirty year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh
Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in
2005.[54] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of
regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights
abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[55]

[edit] Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Indonesia and Administrative divisions of Indonesia
Provinces of Indonesia

Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status.

Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are
subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into
subdistricts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan).
Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and
cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most
government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's
daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or
kepala desa (village chief).

The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater
legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than
the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an
independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).[56]
Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in
supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.[57] Papua, formerly
known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001.[58] Jakarta is the
country's special capital region.

Indonesian provinces and their capitals

(Indonesian name in brackets where different from English)

† indicates provinces with Special Status

Sumatra Kalimantan

 Aceh† (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam) -  West Kalimantan (Kalimantan

Banda Aceh
 North Sumatra (Sumatera Utara) -
Medan
 West Sumatra (Sumatera Barat) -
Padang
 Riau - Pekanbaru
 Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau) -
Tanjung Pinang
 Jambi - Jambi (city)
 South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) -
Palembang
 Bangka-Belitung (Kepulauan Bangka-
Belitung) - Pangkal Pinang
 Bengkulu - Bengkulu (city)
 Lampung - Bandar Lampung
Java
Barat) - Pontianak
 Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Tengah) - Palangkaraya
 South Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Selatan) - Banjarmasin
 East Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Timur) - Samarinda
Sulawesi
 North Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara) -
Manado
 Gorontalo - Gorontalo (city)
 Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi
Tengah) - Palu
 West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat) -
Mamuju
 South Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan)
 - Makassar
†
 Jakarta - Jakarta  South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi
 Banten - Serang Tenggara) - Kendari
 West Java (Jawa Barat) - Bandung
 Central Java (Jawa Tengah) - Maluku Islands
Semarang
 Yogyakarta Special Region† -  Maluku - Ambon
Yogyakarta (city)  North Maluku (Maluku Utara) -
 East Java (Jawa Timur) - Surabaya Ternate

Lesser Sunda Islands West Papua

 Bali - Denpasar  West Papua† (Papua Barat) -

 West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Manokwari
Barat) - Mataram  Papua† - Jayapura
 East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara
Timur) - Kupang

[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Indonesia

Map of Indonesia

Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.[59] These are
scattered over both sides of the equator. The five largest islands are Java, Sumatra,
Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New
Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on the islands of
Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on
the island of Timor. Indonesia also shares borders with Singapore, Malaysia, and the
Philippines to the north and Australia to the south across narrow straits of water. The
capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya,
Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.[60]

At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest

country in terms of land area.[61] Its average population density is 134 people per square
kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,[62] although Java, the world's most populous
island,[63] has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi).
At 4,884 meters (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake
Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The
country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such
rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.[64]
Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity
is among the world's highest.

Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates
makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least
150 active volcanoes,[65] including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their
devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano,
approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global
catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed
an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,[66] and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006.
However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has
historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.[67]

Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal
wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–
3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous
regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java,
Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally
high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average
daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).[68]

[edit] Ecology
Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia and Flora of Indonesia

The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape endemic to Indonesia

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second
highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),[69] and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian
and Australasian species.[70] Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the Sunda
Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such
as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east
as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover
approximately 60% of the country.[71] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are
predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely
populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture.
Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental
landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.[72] Papua was part of the
Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of
Australia, including over 600 bird species.[73]

Indonesia is second only to Australia in its degree of endemism, with 26% of its 1,531
species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[74] Indonesia's
80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute
to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal
ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass
beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.[4] The British
naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of
Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.[75] Known as the Wallace Line, it runs
roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and
Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line
the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly
Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous
species unique to the area.[76] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is
now termed Wallacea.[75]

Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental

issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-
resourced governance.[77] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and
related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and
Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated
with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic
congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[77] Habitat
destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140
species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened,
and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.[78]

[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Indonesia
Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture has been the country's
largest employer for centuries.

Indonesia's estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2007 is US$408 billion
(US$1,038 bn PPP).[79] In 2007, estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,812, and per
capita GDP PPP was US$4,616 (International Dollars).[80] The services sector is the
economy's largest and accounts for 45.3% of GDP (2005). This is followed by industry
(40.7%) and agriculture (14.0%).[81] However, agriculture employs more people than
other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce. This is followed
by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%).[82] Major industries include
petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Major agricultural products
include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices, and rubber.

Indonesia's main export markets (2005) are Japan (22.3%), the United States (13.9%),
China (9.1%), and Singapore (8.9%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are
Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade
surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02
billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin,
copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment,
chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs.[83]

Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the country's largest commercial center

In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a

young and inexperienced government, and ill-disciplined economic nationalism, which
resulted in severe poverty and hunger.[84] Following President Sukarno's downfall in the
mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic
policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign
debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment.[85] Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only
member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that
contributed to sustained high economic growth rates.[86] Following further reforms in the
late 1980s,[87] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly
developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian
economy grew by an average of over 7%.[88]

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian financial crisis of 1997–98.
Against the US dollar, the currency dropped from about Rp. 2,000 to Rp. 18,000, and the
economy shrunk by 13.7%.[89] The rupiah has since stabilized at around Rp. 10,000, and
there has been a slow but significant economic recovery. Political instability since 1998,
slow economic reform, and corruption at all levels of government and business, have
contributed to the patchy nature of the recovery.[90] (Transparency International, for
example, ranked Indonesia 143rd out of 180 countries in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions
Index).[91] GDP growth, however, exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005, and is forecast to
increase further.[92] This growth rate, however, is not enough to make a significant impact
on unemployment,[93] and stagnant wages growth, and increases in fuel and rice prices
have worsened poverty levels.[94] As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population live
below the poverty line, 49.0% of the population live on less than US$2 per day,[95] and
unemployment rate at 9.75%.[96]

[edit] Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia, Languages of Indonesia, and Religion
in Indonesia

The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million,[97] and the
Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics Indonesia estimate a population of 222
million for 2006.[98] 130 million people live on the island of Java, the world's most
populous island.[99] Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in
place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 315 million by 2035,
based on the current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25%.[100]

A Minangkabau woman in traditional dress

Most Indonesians are descendant from Austronesian-speaking peoples who originated

from Taiwan. The other major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia.
[101]
There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different
languages and dialects.[102] The largest is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the
population, and are politically and culturally dominant.[103] The Sundanese, ethnic
Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.[104] A sense of Indonesian
nationhood exists alongside strongly maintained regional identities.[105] Society is largely
harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous
violence.[106] Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than
5% of the population. Much of the country's privately-owned commerce and wealth is
Chinese-controlled,[107] which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-
Chinese violence.[108]
The official national language, Indonesian, is universally taught in schools, and is spoken
by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media,
education, and academia. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region,
including present-day Malaysia, and is thus closely related to Malay. Indonesian was first
promoted by nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language on
independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local
languages (bahasa daerah), often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most
widely-spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group.[83] On the other hand, Papua
has 500 or more indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, in a region of just 2.7
million people. Much of the older population can still speak a level of Dutch.[109]

The Istiqlal Mosque and Jakarta Cathedral in Central Jakarta

Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,[110] the

government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam; Protestantism; Roman
Catholicism; Hinduism; Buddhism; and Confucianism.[111] Although it is not an Islamic
state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with almost 86.1%
of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census.[83] 8.7% of the population
is Christian,[112] 3% are Hindu, and 1.8% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are
Balinese,[113] and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.[114] Though
now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in
Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the
13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant
religion by the 16th century.[115] Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early
Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,[116] and the Protestant denominations are largely
a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial
period.[117] A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese
Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion,
which draws on local customs and beliefs.[118]

[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Indonesia
A Wayang kulit shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience

Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural differences developed over
centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and European sources.
Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture
and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as
batik, ikat and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The
most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian;
however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant.
The most popular sports in Indonesia are badminton and football; Liga Indonesia is the
country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull
racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are
held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial
art. Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often
associated with illegal gambling.[119]

A selection of Indonesian food, including Soto Ayam (chicken soup), sate kerang
(shellfish kebabs), telor pindang (preserved eggs), perkedel (fritter), and es teh manis
(sweet iced tea)

Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern,
and Indian precedents.[120] Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of
meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are
fundamental ingredients.[121] Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and
keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence
from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The Indonesian film industry's popularity
peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,[122] although it declined
significantly in the early 1990s.[123] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian
films released each year has steadily increased.[122]
The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the
5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author
Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule;
Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence
nationalist writers and politicians;[124] and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer,
Indonesia's most famous novelist.[125] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly-rooted
oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.[126] Media
freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule,
during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled
domestic media, and restricted foreign media.[127] The TV market includes ten national
commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private
radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs.
At a reported 25 million users in 2008,[128] Internet usage is limited to a minority of the
population, approximately 10.5%.

[edit] See also

[hide]
v • d • e
List of Indonesia-related topics

Timeline · Pre-colonial Indonesia (pre-1602) · Dutch East Indies

History (1602–1945) · Post-independence (1945–1965) · New Order
(1965–1998) · Reformation (1998 to date)

Geography
Islands · Lakes · Mountains · Volcanoes · National parks · Rivers
and
natural history Fauna · Flora

Pancasila · Constitution · President (list) · Cabinet · People's

Government
and politics Consultative Assembly · Foreign relations · Political parties ·
Elections · Military · Law · Law enforcement · Human rights

Companies · Communications · Science and technology · Stock

Economy
Exchange · Tourism · Transport

Administrative divisions (Provinces) · Cities · Ethnic groups ·

Demographics
Health · Languages · Religion

Culture Architecture · Art · Cinema · Cuisine · Dance · Education ·

 Folklore · Indonesians · Literature · Media · Music · Public
holidays · Sport

Portal

[edit] References
[edit] General

 Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6.

 Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition.
MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-X.
 Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN
1-86373-635-2.
 Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London:
Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
 Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-54262-6.

[edit] Notes

1. ^ US Library of Congress; Vickers (2005), page 117.

2. ^ a b c d "Indonesia". International Monetary Fund.
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PD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC
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3. ^ "Indonesia". The World Factbook. United States Department of State. 2008-11-
20. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html.
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4. ^ a b Tomascik, T; Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. (1996). The Ecology of the
Indonesian Seas - Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd.. ISBN 962-593-
078-7.
5. ^ a b (Indonesian) Anshory, Irfan (2004-08-16). "Asal Usul Nama Indonesia".
Pikiran Rakyat. http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm.
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6. ^ Earl, George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan,
Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago
and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 119.
7. ^ Logan, James Richardson (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago:
Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders".
Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 4:252–347.; Earl,
George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian
and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern
Asia (JIAEA): 254, 277–278.
8. ^ (This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar
(1859), written by Multatuli, critical of Dutch colonialism). Justus M. van der
Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the
American Oriental Society 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186.
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0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5.
9. ^ Jusuf M. van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage".
Journal of the American Oriental Society 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186.
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-
0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5.
10. ^ Pope (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual
Review of Anthropology 17: 43–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355.
cited in Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of
Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 309–312.; Pope, G (15
August 1983). "Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 80 (16): 4,988–
4992. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988. PMID 6410399.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988. cited in Whitten, T;
Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong
Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309.; de Vos, J.P.; P.Y. Sondaar, (9 December
1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia" (PDF). Science Magazine 266 (16):
4,988–4992. doi:10.1126/science.7992059.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf. cited in Whitten, T;
Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong
Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309.
11. ^ Taylor (2003), pages 5–7
12. ^ Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University
Press. pp. pp.8–9. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
13. ^ Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University
Press. pp. pp.15–18. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
14. ^ Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005),
pages 18–20, 60, 133–134
15. ^ Taylor (2003), pages 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3
16. ^ Peter Lewis (1982). "The next great empire". Futures 14 (1): 47–61.
doi:10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4.
17. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14
18. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 12–14
19. ^ a b Ricklefs, M.C (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second
edition. London: MacMillan. pp. p.22–24. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
20. ^ Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off
Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java,
Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-
year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.
(Schwartz 1999, pages 3–4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian
divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity
in their fight for independence.
21. ^ Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman (1998). "Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial
Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves". Eighteenth-Century Studies 31 (3):
349–355. doi:10.1353/ecs.1998.0021. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/eighteenth-
century_studies/v031/31.3oostindie.html.; Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). History of
Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-
333-57689-6.
22. ^ H. J. Van Mook (1949). "Indonesia". Royal Institute of International Affairs 25
(3): 274–285. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-
5850%28194907%2925%3A3%3C274%3AI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P.; Charles
Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey 14
(24): 345–348. doi:10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062. http://links.jstor.org/sici?
sici=0362-8949%2819451205%2914%3A24%3C345%3AITI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-
S.; Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and History. Yale University
Press. p. 325. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.; Reid (1973), page 30
23. ^ Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern
Survey 14 (24): 345–348. doi:10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062.
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0362-
8949%2819451205%2914%3A24%3C345%3AITI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S.;
"Indonesian War of Independence"". Military. GlobalSecurity.org.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-inde.htm. Retrieved on
2006-12-11.
24. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 - 280
25. ^ Friend (2003), pages 107–109; Chris Hilton (writer and director). (2001).
Shadowplay [Television documentary]. Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell
Productions.; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290
26. ^ John Roosa and Joseph Nevins (5 November 2005). "40 Years Later: The Mass
Killings in Indonesia". Counterpunch.
http://www.counterpunch.org/roosa11052005.html. Retrieved on 2006-11-12.;
Robert Cribb (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965-
1966". Asian Survey 42 (4): 550–563. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550.
27. ^ John D. Legge (1968). "General Suharto's New Order". Royal Institute of
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5850%28196801%2944%3A1%3C40%3AGSNO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I.
28. ^ US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868,
ref: Embtel 852, Oct 5 1965. [1]; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia.
Cambridge University Press, p. 163; 2005; David Slater, Geopolitics and the
Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70
29. ^ Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6.; Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia
in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2.; Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A
History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. ISBN 0-
333-57689-X.
30. ^ Delhaise, Philippe F. (1998). Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and
Finance Systems. Willey. pp. p.123. ISBN 0-471-83450-5.
31. ^ Jonathan Pincus and Rizal Ramli (1998). "Indonesia: from showcase to basket
case". Cambridge Journal of Economics 22 (6): 723–734.
 doi:10.1093/cje/22.6.723.
http://cje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/22/6/723.
32. ^ "President Suharto resigns". BBC. 21 May 1998.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/indonesia/latest_news/97848.stm. Retrieved on
2006-11-12.
33. ^ Burr, W.; Evans, M.L. (6 December 2001). "Ford and Kissinger Gave Green
Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail
Conversations with Suharto". National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book
No. 62. National Security Archive, The George Washington University,
Washington, DC. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/.
Retrieved on 2006-09-17.; "International Religious Freedom Report". Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. U.S. Department of State. 2002-10-17.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13873.htm. Retrieved on 2006-09-29.
34. ^ Robert W. Hefner (2000). "Religious Ironies in East Timor". Religion in the
News 3 (1). http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/csrpl/RINVol3No1/east_timor.htm.
Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
35. ^ "Aceh rebels sign peace agreement". BBC. 15 August 2005.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4151980.stm. Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
36. ^ In 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001
37. ^ a b Susi Dwi Harijanti and Tim Lindsey (2006). "Indonesia: General elections
test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International
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38. ^ The Carter Center (2004) (PDF). The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election
Report. Press release. http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf. Retrieved
on 2006-12-13.
39. ^ _ (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III –
The Executive Power, Art. 7.
40. ^ (Indonesian) People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI) (PDF). Ketetapan
MPR-RI Nomor II/MPR/2000 tentang Perubahan Kedua Peraturan Tata Tertib
Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia.
http://www.mpr.go.id/pdf/ketetapan/putusan%20MPRRI%202000.pdf. Retrieved
on 2006-11-07.
41. ^ Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch
interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military
representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental
rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey 2006)
42. ^ Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly
elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national
political representation. People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI) (PDF). Third
Amendment to the 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia.
http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_en
g.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-12-13.
43. ^ a b "Country Profile: Indonesia" (PDF). U.S Library of Congress. December
2004. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Indonesia.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-12-
09.
44. ^ "Indonesia - Foreign Policy". U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Library of
Congress. http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/97.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-05.
45. ^ a b c "Background Note: Indonesia". U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Department
of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2748.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-05.
46. ^ Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on 20 January 1965 in response to
the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security
Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United
Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on 19 September 1966, and
was invited to re-join the UN on 28 September 1966.
47. ^ Chris Wilson (11 October 2001). "Indonesia and Transnational Terrorism".
Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Group. Parliament of Australia.
http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/CIB/2001-02/02cib06.htm. Retrieved on
2006-10-15.; Reyko Huang (23 May 2002). "Priority Dilemmas: U.S. - Indonesia
Military Relations in the Anti Terror War". Terrorism Project. Center for Defense
Information. http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/priority.cfm.
48. ^ "Commemoration of 3rd anniversary of bombings". AAP (The Age
Newspaper). 10 December 2006. http://www.theage.com.au/news/war-on-
terror/services-to-honour-victims-of-2002-bali-
bombing/2005/10/12/1128796537208.html.
49. ^ US Embassy, Jakarta (10 May 2005). Travel Warning: Indonesia. Press release.
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50. ^ Chew, Amy (2002-07-07). "Indonesia military regains ground". CNN Asia.
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51. ^ Witular, Rendi A. (2005-05-19). "Susilo Approves Additional Military
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pacific/3809079.stm. Retrieved on 2007-05-20.
54. ^ "Indonesia agrees Aceh peace deal". BBC News. BBC. 17 July 2005.
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55. ^ Lateline TV Current Affairs (20 April 2006). "Sidney Jones on South East
Asian conflicts". TV Program transcript, Interview with South East Asia director
of the International Crisis Group (Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC)).
http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2006/s1620483.htm.; International Crisis
Group (5 September 2006). "Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions"
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57. ^ The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants
of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively, much like a sultanate.
(Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance.
People's Representative Council (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122;
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RegionPDF (146 KB) (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia
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58. ^ As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's
Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs,
however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as
half-hearted and incomplete. Dursin, Richel; Kafil Yamin (2004-11-18). "Another
Fine Mess in Papua". Editorial (The Jakarta Post).
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Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta". The Jakarta Post. 2004-11-18.
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09-26.
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104. ^ Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans
and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
105. ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 256
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community in West Kalimantan, and conflicts in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, and
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on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research. Conflict Prevention Initiative,
Harvard University.
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Nahusona; G. Leasa; T. Soumokil; James Lalaun and W. R. Sihasale (1999).
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 117. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pp.28, 62; Vickers (2005), p.22; Goh, Robbie B.H..
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 Legend: Definition Field Listing Rank Order

   Introduction    Indonesia Top of Page

Background:
The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th century; the
islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. Indonesia declared
its independence after Japan's surrender, but it required four years of
intermittent negotiations, recurring hostilities, and UN mediation
before the Netherlands agreed to relinquish its colony. Indonesia is the
world's largest archipelagic state and home to the world's largest
Muslim population. Current issues include: alleviating poverty,
preventing terrorism, consolidating democracy after four decades of
authoritarianism, implementing economic and financial reforms,
stemming corruption, holding the military and police accountable for
human rights violations, and controlling avian influenza. In 2005,
Indonesia reached a historic peace agreement with armed separatists in
Aceh, which led to democratic elections in December 2006. Indonesia
continues to face a low intensity separatist movement in Papua.
   Geography    Indonesia Top of Page

Location:
Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Indian Ocean
and the Pacific Ocean
Geographic coordinates:
 5 00 S, 120 00 E
Map references:
Southeast Asia
Area:
total: 1,919,440 sq km
land: 1,826,440 sq km
water: 93,000 sq km
Area - comparative:
slightly less than three times the size of Texas
Land boundaries:
total: 2,830 km
border countries: Timor-Leste 228 km, Malaysia 1,782
km, Papua New Guinea 820 km
Coastline:
54,716 km
Maritime claims:
measured from claimed archipelagic straight baselines
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
Climate:
tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands
Terrain:
mostly coastal lowlands; larger islands have interior
mountains
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Puncak Jaya 5,030 m
Natural resources:
petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper,
fertile soils, coal, gold, silver
Land use:
arable land: 11.03%
permanent crops: 7.04%
other: 81.93% (2005)
Irrigated land:
45,000 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water
resources:
2,838 cu km (1999)
Freshwater withdrawal
(domestic/industrial/agricult
ural): total: 82.78 cu km/yr (8%/1%/91%)
per capita: 372 cu m/yr (2000)
 Natural hazards:
occasional floods, severe droughts, tsunamis, earthquakes,
volcanoes, forest fires
Environment - current
issues:
deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes,
sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from
forest fires
Environment - international
agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-
Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species,
Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life
Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography - note:
archipelago of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited); straddles
equator; strategic location astride or along major sea lanes
from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean
   People    Indonesia Top of Page

Population:
237,512,352 (July 2008 est.)
Age structure:
0-14 years: 28.4% (male 34,343,198/female 33,175,135)
15-64 years: 65.7% (male 78,330,830/female 77,812,339)
65 years and over: 5.8% (male 6,151,305/female 7,699,548) (2008
est.)
Median age:
total: 27.2 years
male: 26.7 years
female: 27.7 years (2008 est.)
Population
growth rate:
1.175% (2008 est.)
Birth rate:
19.24 births/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Death rate:
6.24 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Net migration
rate: -1.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female
total population: 1 male(s)/female (2008 est.)
Infant mortality
rate: total: 31.04 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 36.14 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 25.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.)
Life expectancy
at birth: total population: 70.46 years
male: 67.98 years
female: 73.07 years (2008 est.)
Total fertility rate:
2.34 children born/woman (2008 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult
prevalence rate: 0.1% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people
living with 110,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS:
HIV/AIDS -
deaths: 2,400 (2003 est.)
Major infectious
diseases: degree of risk: high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and
typhoid fever
vectorborne diseases: chikungunya, dengue fever, and malaria
note: highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been identified in
this country; it poses a negligible risk with extremely rare cases
possible among US citizens who have close contact with birds (2008)
Nationality:
noun: Indonesian(s)
adjective: Indonesian
Ethnic groups:
Javanese 40.6%, Sundanese 15%, Madurese 3.3%, Minangkabau
2.7%, Betawi 2.4%, Bugis 2.4%, Banten 2%, Banjar 1.7%, other or
unspecified 29.9% (2000 census)
Religions:
Muslim 86.1%, Protestant 5.7%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu 1.8%,
other or unspecified 3.4% (2000 census)
Languages:
Bahasa Indonesia (official, modified form of Malay), English, Dutch,
local dialects (the most widely spoken of which is Javanese)
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 90.4%
male: 94%
 female: 86.8% (2004 est.)
School life
expectancy total: 11 years
(primary to male: 12 years
tertiary
education):
female: 11 years (2005)
Education
expenditures: 3.6% of GDP (2006)

   Government    Indonesia Top of Page

Country name:
conventional long form: Republic of Indonesia
conventional short form: Indonesia
local long form: Republik Indonesia
local short form: Indonesia
former: Netherlands East Indies, Dutch East Indies
Government
type: republic
Capital:
name: Jakarta
geographic coordinates: 6 10 S, 106 49 E
time difference: UTC+7 (12 hours ahead of Washington, DC during
Standard Time)
note: Indonesia is divided into three time zones
Administrative
divisions: 30 provinces (propinsi-propinsi, singular - propinsi), 2 special regions*
(daerah-daerah istimewa, singular - daerah istimewa), and 1 special
capital city district** (daerah khusus ibukota); Aceh*, Bali, Banten,
Bengkulu, Gorontalo, Jakarta Raya**, Jambi, Jawa Barat, Jawa
Tengah, Jawa Timur, Kalimantan Barat, Kalimantan Selatan,
Kalimantan Tengah, Kalimantan Timur, Kepulauan Bangka Belitung,
Kepulauan Riau, Lampung, Maluku, Maluku Utara, Nusa Tenggara
Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Papua, Papua Barat (Irian Jaya Barat),
Riau, Sulawesi Barat, Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi
Tenggara, Sulawesi Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan,
Sumatera Utara, Yogyakarta*
note: following the implementation of decentralization beginning on 1
January 2001, the 465 regencies and municipalities have become the
key administrative units responsible for providing most government
services
Independence:
17 August 1945 (declared)
note: recognized by the Netherlands on 27 December 1949; in August
2005, the Netherlands announced it recognized de facto Indonesian
independence on 17 August 1945
National holiday:
 Independence Day, 17 August (1945)
Constitution:
August 1945; abrogated by Federal Constitution of 1949 and
Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored 5 July 1959; series of
amendments concluded in 2002
Legal system:
based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous
concepts and by new criminal procedures and election codes; has not
accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage:
17 years of age; universal and married persons regardless of age
Executive
branch: chief of state: President Susilo Bambang YUDHOYONO (since 20
October 2004); Vice President Muhammad Yusuf KALLA (since 20
October 2004); note - the president is both the chief of state and head
of government
head of government: President Susilo Bambang YUDHOYONO (since
20 October 2004); Vice President Muhammad Yusuf KALLA (since
20 October 2004)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
elections: president and vice president were elected for five-year terms
(eligible for a second term) by direct vote of the citizenry; last held 20
September 2004 (next to be held on 8 July 2009)
election results: Susilo Bambang YUDHOYONO elected president
receiving 60.6% of vote; MEGAWATI Sukarnoputri received 39.4%
Legislative
branch: House of Representatives or Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR) (550
seats; members elected to serve five-year terms); House of Regional
Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or DPD), constitutionally
mandated role includes providing legislative input to DPR on issues
affecting regions; People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis
Permusyawaratan Rakyat or MPR) has role in inaugurating and
impeaching president and in amending constitution; consists of
members of DPR and DPD; MPR does not formulate national policy
elections: last held 5 April 2004 (next to be held on 9 April 2009)
election results: percent of vote by party - Golkar 21.6%, PDI-P
18.5%, PKB 10.6%, PPP 8.2%, PD 7.5%, PKS 7.3%, PAN 6.4%,
others 19.9%; seats by party - Golkar 128, PDI-P 109, PPP 58, PD 55,
PAN 53, PKB 52, PKS 45, others 50
note: because of election rules, the number of seats won does not
always follow the percentage of votes received by parties
Judicial branch:
Supreme Court or Mahkamah Agung (justices appointed by the
president from a list of candidates selected by the legislature); a
separate Constitutional Court or Mahkamah Konstitusi was invested by
the president on 16 August 2003; in March 2004 the Supreme Court
 assumed administrative and financial responsibility for the lower court
system from the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights; Labor Court
under supervision of Supreme Court began functioning in January
2006
Political parties
and leaders: Crescent Moon and Star Party or PBB [MS KABAN]; Democratic
Party or PD [Hadi UTOMO]; Functional Groups Party or Golkar
[Yusuf KALLA]; Indonesia Democratic Party-Struggle or PDI-P
[MEGAWATI Sukarnoputri]; National Awakening Party or PKB
[Muhaiman ISKANDAR]; National Mandate Party or PAN [Sutrisno
BACHIR]; Prosperous Justice Party or PKS [Tifatul SEMBIRING];
United Development Party or PPP [Suryadharma ALI]
Political pressure
groups and Indonesian Women's Coalition (Koalisi Perempuan - human rights
leaders: group); Islamic Defenders Front or FPI; National Alliance for Freedom
of Religion and Faith; Oil Palm Watch (environmental)
International
organization ADB, APEC, APT, ARF, ASEAN, BIS, CP, EAS, FAO, G-15, G-20,
participation: G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC,
IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer),
IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW,
OPEC, PIF (partner), UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UNIFIL, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOMIG, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO,
WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic
representation in chief of mission: Ambassador SUDJADNAN Parnohadiningrat
the US: chancery: 2020 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 775-5200
FAX: [1] (202) 775-5365
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, San
Francisco
Diplomatic
representation chief of mission: Ambassador Cameron R. HUME
from the US: embassy: Jalan 1 Medan Merdeka Selatan 4-5, Jakarta 10110
mailing address: Unit 8129, Box 1, FPO AP 96520
telephone: [62] (21) 3435-9000
FAX: [62] (21) 3435-9922
consulate(s) general: Surabaya
Flag description:
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; similar to the flag of
Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is
white (top) and red
   Economy    Indonesia Top of Page

Economy -
overview: Indonesia, a vast polyglot nation, has made significant economic
 advances under the administration of President YUDHOYONO, but
faces challenges stemming from the global financial crisis and world
economic downturn. Indonesia's debt-to-GDP ratio in recent years has
been declined steadily because of increasingly robust GDP growth and
sound fiscal stewardship. The government has introduced significant
reforms in the financial sector including tax and customs reforms, the
use of Treasury bills, and improved capital market supervision.
Indonesia's new investment law, passed in March 2007, seeks to
address some of the concerns of foreign and domestic investors.
Indonesia still struggles with poverty and unemployment, inadequate
infrastructure, corruption, a complex regulatory environment, and
unequal resource distribution among regions. The non-bank financial
sector, including pension funds and insurance, remains weak, and
despite efforts to broaden and deepen capital markets, they remain
underdeveloped. Economic difficulties in early 2008 centered on high
global food and oil prices and their impact on Indonesia's poor and on
the budget. The onset of the global financial crisis relieved inflation
but also brought a host of new problems: a rout in the stock market, a
difficult environment for bond issuance, lower prices for Indonesia's
commodities exports, and prospects for lower growth overall.
GDP (purchasing
power parity): $932.1 billion (2008 est.)
GDP (official
exchange rate): $496.8 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth
rate: 5.9% (2008 est.)
GDP - per capita
(PPP): $3,900 (2008 est.)
GDP -
composition by agriculture: 13.5%
sector: industry: 45.6%
services: 40.8% (2008 est.)
Labor force:
112 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by
occupation: agriculture: 42.1%
industry: 18.6%
services: 39.3% (2006 est.)
Unemployment
rate: 8.2% (2008 est.)
Household
income or lowest 10%: 3.6%
consumption by highest 10%: 28.5% (2002)
percentage
share:
Distribution of
 family income - 39.4 (2005)
Gini index:
Investment
(gross fixed): 25.2% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget:
revenues: $90.17 billion
expenditures: $96.87 billion (2008 est.)
Public debt:
30.1% of GDP (2008 est.)
Inflation rate
(consumer 10.5% (2008 est.)
prices):
Central bank
discount rate: 8% (31 December 2007)
Commercial bank
prime lending 13.86% (31 December 2007)
rate:
Stock of money:
$47.78 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of quasi
money: $127 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of
domestic credit: $170.2 billion (31 December 2007)
Market value of
publicly traded $211.7 billion (31 December 2007)
shares:
Industries:
petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, footwear, mining, cement,
chemical fertilizers, plywood, rubber, food, tourism
Electricity -
production: 125.7 billion kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity -
consumption: 110.7 billion kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity -
exports: 0 kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity -
imports: 0 kWh (2007 est.)
Oil - production:
1.044 million bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil -
consumption: 1.219 million bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - exports:
470,000 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - imports:
500,000 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - proved
 reserves: 4.37 billion bbl (1 January 2008 est.)
Natural gas -
production: 56 billion cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas -
consumption: 23.4 billion cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas -
exports: 32.6 billion cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas -
imports: 0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas -
proved reserves: 2.659 trillion cu m (1 January 2008 est.)
Current account
balance: $2.485 billion (2008 est.)
Exports:
$141 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Exports -
commodities: oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, textiles, rubber
Exports -
partners: Japan 20.7%, US 10.2%, Singapore 9.2%, China 8.5%, South Korea
6.6%, Malaysia 4.5%, India 4.3% (2007)
Imports:
$114.3 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Imports -
commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs
Imports -
partners: Singapore 13.2%, China 11.5%, Japan 8.8%, Malaysia 8.6%, US 6.4%,
Thailand 5.8%, Saudi Arabia 4.5%, South Korea 4.3%, Australia 4%
(2007)
Reserves of
foreign exchange $51.74 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
and gold:
Debt - external:
$143.5 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Stock of direct
foreign $63.46 billion (2008 est.)
investment - at
home:
Stock of direct
foreign $4.277 billion (2008 est.)
investment -
abroad:
Exchange rates:
Indonesian rupiah (IDR) per US dollar - 9,558.1 (2008 est.), 9,056
(2007 est.), 9,159.3 (2006), 9,704.7 (2005), 8,938.9 (2004)
Communicatio
      Indonesia Top of Page
ns
 Telephones -
main lines in use: 17.828 million (2007)
Telephones -
mobile cellular: 81.835 million (2007)
Telephone
system: general assessment: domestic service fair, international service good
domestic: interisland microwave system and HF radio police net;
domestic satellite communications system; coverage provided by
existing network has been expanded by use of over 200,000 telephone
kiosks many located in remote areas; mobile cellular subscribership
growing rapidly
international: country code - 62; landing point for both the SEA-ME-
WE-3 and SEA-ME-WE-4 submarine cable networks that provide
links throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; satellite earth
stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean)
Radio broadcast
stations: AM 678, FM 43, shortwave 82 (1998)
Television
broadcast 54 local TV stations (11 national TV networks; each with its group of
stations: local transmitters) (2006)
Internet country
code: .id
Internet hosts:
753,200 (2008)
Internet users:
13 million (2007)
   Transportation    Indonesia Top of Page

Airports:
652 (2007)
Airports - with
paved runways: total: 158
over 3,047 m: 4
2,438 to 3,047 m: 15
1,524 to 2,437 m: 51
914 to 1,523 m: 49
under 914 m: 39 (2007)
Airports - with
unpaved total: 494
runways: 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
914 to 1,523 m: 27
under 914 m: 462 (2007)
Heliports:
17 (2007)
Pipelines:
 condensate 963 km; condensate/gas 81 km; gas 9,003 km; oil 7,471
km; oil/gas/water 77 km; refined products 1,365 km (2007)
Railways:
total: 6,458 km
narrow gauge: 5,961 km 1.067-m gauge (125 km electrified); 497 km
0.750-m gauge (2006)
Roadways:
total: 391,009 km
paved: 216,714 km
unpaved: 174,295 km (2005)
Waterways:
21,579 km (2008)
Merchant marine:
total: 971
by type: bulk carrier 54, cargo 514, chemical tanker 35, container 80,
liquefied gas 7, passenger 44, passenger/cargo 68, petroleum tanker
143, refrigerated cargo 2, roll on/roll off 10, specialized tanker 10,
vehicle carrier 4
foreign-owned: 43 (China 2, France 1, Germany 1, Japan 6, Norway 1,
Philippines 1, Singapore 27, Taiwan 2, UAE 2)
registered in other countries: 114 (Bahamas 2, Cambodia 2, China 1,
Hong Kong 7, Liberia 2, Mongolia 1, Panama 31, Singapore 66,
unknown 2) (2008)
Ports and
terminals: Banjarmasin, Belawan, Ciwandan, Kotabaru, Krueg Geukueh,
Palembang, Panjang, Sungai Pakning, Tanjung Perak, Tanjung Priok
Transportation -
note: the International Maritime Bureau reports the territorial and offshore
waters in the Strait of Malacca and South China Sea as high risk for
piracy and armed robbery against ships; numerous commercial vessels
have been attacked and hijacked both at anchor and while underway;
hijacked vessels are often disguised and cargo diverted to ports in East
Asia; crews have been murdered or cast adrift
   Military    Indonesia Top of Page

Military
branches: Indonesian Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI): Army
(TNI-Angkatan Darat (TNI-AD)), Navy (TNI-Angkatan Laut (TNI-
AL); includes marines, naval air arm), Air Force (TNI-Angkatan Udara
(TNI-AU)), National Air Defense Command (Kommando Pertahanan
Udara Nasional (Kohanudnas)) (2008)
Military service
age and 18 years of age for selective compulsory and voluntary military
obligation: service; 2-year conscript service obligation, with reserve obligation to
age 45 (officers); Indonesian citizens only (2008)
Manpower
 available for males age 16-49: 63,800,825
military service: females age 16-49: 61,729,717 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for
military service: males age 16-49: 52,367,788
females age 16-49: 52,129,123 (2008 est.)
Manpower
reaching male: 2,181,303
militarily female: 2,110,397 (2008 est.)
significant age
annually:
Military
expenditures: 3% of GDP (2005 est.)
Transnational
      Indonesia Top of Page
Issues
Disputes -
international: Indonesia has a stated foreign policy objective of establishing stable
fixed land and maritime boundaries with all of its neighbors; Timor-
Leste-Indonesia Boundary Committee has resolved all but a small
portion of the land boundary, but discussions on maritime boundaries
are stalemated over sovereignty of the uninhabited coral island of
Pulau Batek/Fatu Sinai in the north and alignment with Australian
claims in the south; many refugees from Timor-Leste who left in 2003
still reside in Indonesia and refuse repatriation; a 1997 treaty between
Indonesia and Australia settled some parts of their maritime boundary
but outstanding issues remain; ICJ's award of Sipadan and Ligitan
islands to Malaysia in 2002 left the sovereignty of Unarang rock and
the maritime boundary in the Ambalat oil block in the Celebes Sea in
dispute; the ICJ decision has prompted Indonesia to assert claims to
and to establish a presence on its smaller outer islands; Indonesia and
Singapore continue to work on finalization of their 1973 maritime
boundary agreement by defining unresolved areas north of Indonesia's
Batam Island; Indonesian secessionists, squatters, and illegal migrants
create repatriation problems for Papua New Guinea; piracy remains a
problem in the Malacca Strait; maritime delimitation talks continue
with Palau; Indonesian groups challenge Australia's claim to Ashmore
Reef; Australia has closed parts of the Ashmore and Cartier Reserve to
Indonesian traditional fishing and placed restrictions on certain catches
Refugees and
internally IDPs: 200,000-350,000 (government offensives against rebels in Aceh;
displaced most IDPs in Aceh, Central Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi Provinces,
persons:
and Maluku) (2007)
Illicit drugs:
illicit producer of cannabis largely for domestic use; producer of
methamphetamine and ecstasy
This page was last updated on 10 February 2009