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# Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2002. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF
Volume 11 Number 1 March 2002 and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
44 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
of a design solution, without excluding alter- In a first exploratory study (Van der Lugt,
natives. For instance, the sketch in figure 1 2000) three graphic variations to the brain-
was produced in an experimental design group storming technique (in which sketching was
meeting (Cross, Christiaans & Dorst, 1996). The used) were applied in experimental meetings.
objective was to design a bike rack for carrying In a fourth meeting regular brainstorming was
a hiking back-pack. This sketch of the rear of applied as a control condition. The graphic
the bicycle was used to discuss various issues variations applied were:
regarding the rack design. At a certain point, . Visual brainstorming. Instead of the facili-
one of the designers comes up with the idea
tator writing down ideas on the flip-chart,
to use one over-sized hollow tube to support
the participants make sketches of their
the rack, rather than a wire-frame. He adds a
ideas on jumbo-sized post-it notes.
rough sketch of the tube to the drawing (see . Brainstorming with a graphic facilitator. In-
the arrow), without crossing-out, or excluding
stead of the facilitator writing down ideas
in any other kind of way, the already present
on the flip chart, a ‘graphic facilitator’
sketch of the wire frame. This allowed the
(Lakin, 1988) records ideas by producing
designer to explore the implications of his one
sketches of the ideas mentioned.
over-sized tube idea, without dismissing the . Brainstorming with added sketches. This is a
wire-frame idea.
hybrid technique, in which the facilitator
Finally, by having more distinctive features,
writes down ideas on a flip chart, but the
sketches are more easily recognized among
participants are encouraged to add sketches
other sketches, which means that sketches
on post-it notes.
facilitate the designers’ access to earlier ideas.
Easier access to earlier design ideas is likely to The fully graphic variations (graphic facili-
stimulate increased use of these earlier design tator and visual brainstorming) performed
ideas. According to McKim (1972) building substantially less well on parameters that
and maintaining a – what he calls – ‘collective reflected the four guidelines of divergent
graphic memory’ fosters the group’s creative thinking, compared to regular brainstorming.
process by providing an immediately access- Not only did the graphic variations produce
ible database of ideas. substantially fewer ideas, but there were
In order for these functions of sketching in also substantially fewer connections made
design to apply also to idea generation meet- between ideas, which meant that the idea
ings, the process of idea sketching needs to generation process was less integrated. (We
be compatible with the process of divergent consider ‘integration’ to be a key indicator for
thinking. The processes are not compatible if the quality of the idea generation process).
including sketching degrades the structure of This led us to conclude that the processes of
the idea generation process. Whether or not idea sketching and divergent thinking are not
this is the case can be examined by assessing fully compatible. The functions of sketching
the extent to which the structure of the idea in design activity cannot simply be added to
generation process meets the four guidelines the brainstorming process, as sketching ap-
to divergent thinking (Osborn, 1953). pears to induce a structurally different process
of idea generation.
In this paper, we will develop brainsketch-
ing, an idea generation technique that may
be better suited for incorporating sketching
in creative problem-solving. We will briefly
report the results of an empirical study that
compares this technique with a representative
of idea generation techniques with written
language as the primary working medium.
Finally, we will propose directions for further
improvement of brainsketching, intended to
stimulate group reflection and we will pro-
vide some suggestions for using brainsketch-
ing in groups of non-designers.
Brainsketching
The basic brainsketching technique is a visual
Figure 1. Example of the Co-existence of Different modification of the more widely known
Alternatives within One Sketch brainwriting technique (Geschka, Schaude &
From the link type indices we learned that The brainstorming process quickly reaches
during brainsketching designers make sig- a mature condition, in which the levels of
nificantly (p < 0.01) more supplementary con- tangential and modification links are more or
nections, which are hardly present in the less equal. The development of the link types
brainstorming segments (Link type index Sup- in the brainstorming condition suggests a
plementary: Brainsketching x = 0.25, SD = 0.15; process of continuous inspection for, and
Brainstorming: x = 0.11, SD = 0.11). These in- exploration of, new search directions. In the
cremental steps do not mean that there is a brainstorming condition, throughout the meet-
lower proportion of tangential connections ings, few idea development steps take place,
made as no significant difference between the as signified by the low level of supplementary
techniques was found (Link type index linking.
Tangential: Brainsketching x = 0.31, SD = 0.15; The brainsketching process develops from
Brainstorming x = 0.36, SD = 0.17). In that tangential linking in the first part of the meet-
sense, brainsketching appears to entail a more ing, to modification-type linking in the middle,
balanced problem solving process. with a focus on supplementary-type linking
The differences in the idea generation pro- in the end.
cesses become clearer when inspecting the This suggests that during brainsketching,
variations in types of linking throughout the designers make connections in accordance
progress of the segments. Figure 6 presents with the ways in which design processes are
the mean link type indicators for each ten typically described (e.g. Goel, 1995): starting
percent of ideas generated for the brainstorm- out with a broad search for new directions in
ing condition and figure 7 does the same for the beginning, followed by the exploration of
the brainsketching condition. some of these directions, leading to specific
improvements of concepts in the later parts of simulation allows the members of a team to
the process. gain a shared understanding of the design
The different characteristics of the brains- task by discussing possible pathways towards
ketching and brainstorming processes suggest solutions that came up when generating
that they may serve different purposes. ideas.
Brainstorming-like techniques may better
serve the traditional role of idea generation
techniques, which is to generate a large Discussion: differences in structure
number and variety of design ideas, of which between the brainsketching and the
some can be selected to further develop into brainstorming process
design solutions. Brainsketching may be more
suitable when, instead of a large number of Now that we have found differences in the
ideas, a smaller but more refined collection of structure of the brainsketching and the brain-
novel ideas are desired. For instance, graphic storming process, how can these differences
techniques may be applied in a design project be explained on a theoretical level?
start-up meeting to provide a quick simu- Here we will examine the theoretical
lation of the design process to come. Such a differences in the basic activities that take
Figure 8. The Creative Problem Solving Stage of Figure 9. The Basic Structure of the Geneplore
Idea Finding model (From Finke, Ward, & Smith, 1992)
place in graphic and sentential idea genera- pre-inventive structures. With the Geneplore
tion meetings. A representation of the current model in mind, we can now start to infer
view on the activities in the creative problem differences in activities for the brainsketching
solving stage of idea-finding is provided in and the brainstorming conditions. In figure 10
figure 8. The stage consists of a divergent the two phases of the Geneplore model are
phase that focuses on idea production and included in the idea-finding stage.
a convergent phase of idea evaluation and The depictive characteristics of sketches
-selection. provide a rich basis for analysis by allowing
An alternative view is provided by Finke, the designers to envision the consequences of
Ward, & Smith (1992), who propose, what the ideas. Fish & Scrivener (1990) consider
they call, a ‘heuristic model of creativity’ that: ‘The necessity to sketch arises from the
called ‘Geneplore’ (see figure 9) in their need to foresee the results of the synthesis or
efforts to develop a creative cognition ap- manipulations of objects without actually
proach to understanding creativity. ‘Gene- executing such operations’ (p. 117). Written
plore’ is a combination of the verbs ‘generate’ language, which is descriptive in nature,
and ‘explore’. Finke et al. argue that creative refers to classes of objects rather than specific
cognition involves a repeating cycle that con- objects, which does not allow the designers
tains a generative phase in which so-called to envision the consequences of the specific
pre-inventive structures are constructed, and ideas. This stimulates the generation of ideas
an exploratory phase, in which the generated by allowing the designers to make free
pre-inventive structures are interpreted. The associations, but the inability to envision the
results of these interpretations lead to insights consequences of the generated ideas, makes
that can be used to either focus on specific writing as a working medium less supportive
issues, or to expand conceptually, by modify- of the interpret phase in the Geneplore cycle.
ing the pre-inventive structures. In the model, This corresponds with our findings from
product constraints can be imposed at any the empirical study, which show that during
time during the generative or exploratory brainstorming, significantly more ideas are
phase. generated, and significantly fewer connections
The pre-inventive structures are central in
Finke et al.’s theory. They observe:
These (pre-inventive) structures can be
thought of as internal precursors to the
final, externalized products of a creative
act. They can be generated with a parti-
cular goal in mind or simply as a vehicle of
open-ended discovery. They can be com-
plex and conceptually focused or simple
and relatively ambiguous, depending on
the situation and the requirement of the
task. (Ward, Smith, & Finke, 1999, p. 192)
According to Ward et al. (1999), both idea
sketches and words – or, as they call them, Figure 10. A Cyclical Model of the Creative
‘verbal combinations’ – can represent such Problem Solving Stage of Idea-finding
with earlier ideas were made. Conceivably, mental idea generation process, such moments
there is little place for interpreting ideas of creative interaction between designers –
during brainstorming. Participants do build which in the present technique are not solicited
on each other’s ideas – this is supported by during the step of idea sharing – can be used
one of the guidelines – but the nature of such more deliberately as an essential element of
connections made can be regarded to be the brainsketching technique. In the present
mostly concerned with brief inspections that brainsketching technique, designers are dis-
spur further associations, rather than more couraged from going into discussion in the
detailed interpretation of the ideas. The periods for sharing ideas. Sometimes, how-
guidelines for divergent thinking stimulate ever, the designers could not be stopped.
this, by dismissing any type of judgment from A good example is found in meeting 1 of
the divergent phase. According to the creative the empirical study. The relevant ideas for
problem solving method, interpretation is this example are provided in table 1. While C
regarded to be a kind of judgment, as inter- is explaining his ‘observation turret’ idea,
pretation involves assessing the consequences designer E makes a verbal remark of adding a
of the idea for the further generation of ideas. gun to the turret. Then designer D pretends to
The brainsketching process appears more be playing with a gun turret. He does not
closely connected to the generate-interpret cycle. appear to try to communicate through his
In design research, various idea-sketching gestures; the gestures appear to be some kind
cycles have been proposed, which suggest that of simulation in support of his individual
designers reflect on what they are sketching, process. After C is done explaining his idea,
while they are sketching it. For instance, designer D explains how the earlier idea 34,
Goldschmidt (1990) refers to design sketching ‘virtually shooting other road users’, in
activity as a ‘dialectic of sketching’, and in her combination with idea 44, can provide a gun
research she showed how designers switch turret game. The facilitator then asks D to add
between making graphic propositions and an annotation of that idea to designer C’s
language-like interpretations of these graphic sketch of the observation turret. While D is
propositions. Schön and Wiggins (1992) con- doing this, designer A suggests developing
sidered the designer to be involved in a ‘re- this idea into a computer game, ‘car wars’. In
flective conversation’ with the drawing surface, this moment of sharing ideas, all of a sudden
meaning that the designer interprets the con- there is a lot of interaction taking place and
sequences of a drawing act while he or she is energy in the room. There is laughter and
making the mark. Reflecting on these previous quick verbal responses and four out of five
theories, a basic model of idea generation designers pretend to be holding and shooting
through sketching can be considered to consist toy machine-guns. Instead of seeing such
of two basic steps between which the designer moments as an irregularity in the brainsketch-
shifts continuously. One step is related to ing process, such moments could be fostered
producing (part of) a sketch of an idea on the as moments of creative group interaction.
paper and the other step consists of exploring In her research on the reflective practice of
and interpreting the sketch made in order to design teams, Valkenburg (2000) uses Schön’s
find directions for further idea sketching. (1983) ‘reflective practice’ theory of designing.
She reports:
1.04.15
1.04.45
together. After such a step of group reflection, In various creative problem solving meet-
the designers could return to their individual ings that we have facilitated in the past years,
idea sketching accompanied by a shared we have included techniques that involve
understanding of the directions for further sketching, among which the brainsketching
idea generation. technique. Usually these were meetings with-
If the brainsketching technique included in the domains of engineering and marketing,
such an activity of group reflection, the ‘gun with participants from a variety of back-
turret’ example discussed before (see table 1), grounds. Our experience is that non-designers
could have been dealt with by the designers can very well engage in sketching activity,
recognizing a ‘frame’ of ‘virtually shooting provided that they are given the proper
other road users’. Then, the designers could directions.
have determined whether this frame was suf- The main problem encountered, when
ficiently explored by proposing a gun turret applying brainsketching in groups with non-
and a ‘car wars’ video game, or whether in designers, is that these participants are
the next idea generation round efforts should inclined to immediately accept the first idea
be made to further explore the frame, and if sketch on the paper as the basic direction for
so, which are interesting directions. Then, in further idea generation. For instance, brain-
the next round of generating ideas, the sketching was applied during a new business
designers could have returned to their in- development meeting of a large consumer
dividual idea generation, but with directions products company. The goal of this meeting
that were generated in the group, for instance, was to explore opportunities regarding ‘health
to further explore video games in which the monitoring’. After an initial step of redefining
Vista car is the subject. the problem, the group members generated
ideas by using an adaptation to brainsketch-
ing in which participants were asked to
Some remarks on the applicability sketch ideas in pairs. Four rounds of generat-
of brainsketching for participants ing ideas took place. In between rounds the
without a design background participants were asked to briefly explain
their ideas. Figure 11 shows one of the re-
The studies performed involved advanced sulting flipcharts.
product design students, who have at least In this meeting, the participants tended to
basic sketching skills due to their education. use the previous ideas as a frame for further
In the first two years of the program, Delft idea generation. They tended to make amend-
product design students receive about 120 ments to earlier ideas, without challenging the
hours of drawing instruction. The question frame set by the earlier idea. In the example,
remains whether non-designers are able to the initial idea sketched was to perform health
fully participate in techniques that involve
sketching. In theory on design sketching, the
designers’ ability to sketch is highly valued
(e.g. McKim, 1972; Muller, 2001), and non-
designers themselves tend to be eager to
disqualify themselves; when asked to make
a sketch of a certain topic, many people tend
to respond with resolute remarks like, ‘Oh,
but I can’t draw!’
One may expect that ideas from designers
with good sketching ability are used more
often for making connections than ideas from
designers with poorer sketching ability. Better
quality sketches look more attractive, which
may draw attention to the idea, and the in-
formation conveyed through the sketch may
be more easily accessible. But, contrary to
expectations, the self-perceived sketching
qualities of a subject and the average ratio of
links made with their ideas did not correlate
at all (R =70.16, p = 0.50). Perhaps, in these
early phases of generating ideas, the quality
of the sketches are not very important, Figure 11. Brainsketching Flipchart from a New
especially if the participants have the oppor- Product Development Idea Generation Meeting
tunity to explain their idea sketches. with Non-designers
Vince, J. (eds.), Interacting with Virtual Environ- at the European Association for Creativity and
ments. Wiley, Chichester, U.K. Innovation Conference, December 12–15 Lattrop,
Stroebe, W. and Diehl, M. (1994) Why groups are The Netherlands
less effective than their members: On prod- Van der Lugt, R. (2000) Developing a graphic tool
uctivity losses in idea-generating groups. In for creative problem solving in design groups.
Stroebe, W. and Hewstone, M. (eds.), European Design Studies, 21, 5, 505–522.
Review of Social Psychology, volume 5. Wiley, Van der Lugt, R. (2001) Sketching in design idea
London, pp. 271–303. generation meetings. Doctoral dissertation, Delft
Tang, J.C. and Leifer, L.J. (1988) A framework for University of Technology.
understanding the workspace activity of design Ward, T.B., Smith, S.M. and Finke, R.A. (1999)
teams. In Greif, I. (ed.), Second Conference on Creative cognition. In Sternberg, R.J. (ed.), Hand-
Computer-Supported Cooperative Work. Association book of creativity. Cambridge University Press,
for Computing Machinery, New York, pp. 244– Cambridge, UK, pp. 189–212.
249.
Valkenburg, R. (2000) The reflective practice in
product design teams. Doctoral dissertation, Delft
University of Technology.
VanGundy, A.B. (1988) Techniques of structured Remko van der Lugt is Assistant Professor
problem solving (2nd edn). Van Nostrand Rein- in Design Methodology at the Department
hold, New York. of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft
Van der Lugt, R. (1999) Graphic tools for creative University of Technology, The Netherlands.
problem solving in design groups. Paper presented