Flow Measurement

Dr. P. R. Dhamangaonkar
Associate Professor in Mechanical engineering
College of Engineering Pune
Flow Measurement
'When you can measure what you are speaking about and
express it in numbers, you know something about it;

but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express
it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and
unsatisfactory kind'.

William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) 1824 - 1907

Flow Measurement

Energy cost accounting

Energy conservation
Monitoring and targeting techniques

These tools enable greater energy efficiency.

Steam is not the easiest media to measure.

Most flow meters currently available to measure the flow
of steam have been designed for measuring the flow of
various liquids and gases.
Very few have been developed specifically for measuring
the flow of steam.
Flow Measurement
Fundamentals and basic data of Fluid and Flow
Why measure steam?
•Plant efficiency.
•Energy efficiency.
•Process control.
•Costing and custody.
 Fluid characteristics
Every fluid has a unique set of characteristics, including:
•Density.
•Dynamic viscosity.
•Kinematic viscosity.
Density

The density (ρ) of saturated water (ρf) and saturated steam (ρg) at
various temperatures
Dynamic viscosity
Internal property that a fluid possesses which resists flow
There are a number of ways of measuring viscosity, including
attaching a torque wrench to a paddle and twisting it in the fluid, or
measuring how quickly a fluid pours through an orifice.

A sphere is allowed to fall through a fluid under the influence of

gravity.

Where:
µ = Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity (Pa-s)
∆ρ = Difference in density between the sphere and the liquid (kg/m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
r = Radius of sphere (m)
 Dynamic viscosity

The dynamic viscosity of saturated water(µf) and saturated steam (µg)

at various temperatures
Kinematic viscosity

Where:
Kinematic viscosity is in centistokes
Dynamic viscosity is in Pa s
Density is in kg/m³
Flow regimes

Velocity profile ignoring viscosity and Velocity profile with viscosity and friction
friction

Parabolic (Laminar) flow profile Turbulent flow profile

Principles of Flow Metering
When discussing flow metering, a number of terms, which include
Repeatability, Uncertainty, Accuracy and Turndown, are
commonly used.
Repeatability
The ability of a flow meter to indicate the same value for an identical
flow rate on more than one occasion.
Uncertainty Accuracy
The term 'uncertainty' is now becoming more commonly referred to
than accuracy
Accuracy
Following two methods used to express accuracy
• Percentage of measured value or actual reading
• Percentage of full scale deflection (FSD
 A comparison of these measurement terms is shown graphically
Turndown
In addition to flow meter accuracy is a necessary to select a flow
meter with sufficient range for the application.
'Turndown' or 'turndown ratio', 'effective range' or 'rangeability' are
all terms used to describe the range of flow rates over which the
flow meter will work within the accuracy and repeatability of the
tolerances.
Bernoulli's Theorem
Many flow meters are based on Bernoulli's theorem. It relates to the
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE), and states that the sum of:
Pressure energy, Kinetic energy and Potential energy will be constant
at any point within a piping system (ignoring the overall effects of
friction).

Where:
P1 and P2 = Pressure at points within a system (Pa)
u1 and u2 = Velocities at corresponding points within a system (m/s)
h1 and h2 = Relative vertical heights within a system (m)
ρ = Density (kg/m)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s²)

Bernoulli's equation ignores the effects of friction. The simplified form

Pressure energy + Potential energy + Kinetic energy = Constant
Quantifying the relationship between flow and pressure drop

Potential energy=mgh Kinetic energy=(1/2)mV2

V = 2 gh
The same concept would apply to a fluid passing through an orifice
that has been placed in a pipe. One simple method of metering fluid
flow is by introducing an orifice plate flow meter into a pipe, thereby
creating a pressure drop relative to the flowing fluid. Measuring the
differential pressure and applying the necessary square-root factor can
determine the velocity of the fluid passing through the orifice.
The orifice plate flow meter and Bernoulli's Theorem

Where:
qv = Volumetric flow rate (m/s)
C = Coefficient of discharge
A = Area of orifice (m)
g = Gravitational constant (9.8 m/s)
h = Differential pressure (m)
The Pitot tube and Bernoulli's Theorem

The device measures a fluid velocity by converting the kinetic energy

of the flowing fluid into potential energy at what is described as a
'stagnation point'. The stagnation point is located at the opening of the
tube as in Figure. The fluid is stationary as it hits the end of the tube,
and its velocity at this point is zero. The potential energy created is
transmitted though the tube to a measuring device.
The tube entrance and the inside of the pipe in which the tube is
situated are subject to the same dynamic pressure; hence the static
pressure measured by the Pitot tube is in addition to the dynamic
pressure in the pipe. The difference between these two pressures is
proportional to the fluid velocity, and can be measured simply by a
differential manometer.
Where:
P1 = The dynamic pressure in the pipe
u1 = The fluid velocity in the pipe
P2 = The static pressure in the Pitot tube
u2 = The stagnation velocity = zero
ρ = The fluid density

Because u2 is zero,
Ultrasonic flow meter

There are two types of ultrasonic flow-meter - the transit-time or

Doppler-shift type.
* It can only be accurately used on single phase fluids. Therefore the
presence of flash steam or air, for example, in a condensate return
line will significantly affect the accuracy of the reading.
* No cutting or inserting instrumentation into the pipe work of the
fluid being monitored.
* It also means that the flow-meter can be portable and used on
different parts of the system
Steam Flow-meters
Types of flow-meter
* Orifice plate flow meters
* Turbine flowmeters (including shunt or bypass types)
* Variable area flowmeters
* Spring loaded variable area flow meters
* Direct in-line variable area (DIVA) flow meter
* Pitot tubes
* Vortex shedding flowmeters
Orifice plate flow meters
Turbine flowmeters A turbine flowmeter consists of a
number of moving parts, there are
several influencing factors
•The temperature, pressure and viscosity of
the fluid being measured.
•The lubricating qualities of the fluid.
•The bearing wear and friction.
•The conditional and dimensional changes of
the blades.
•The inlet velocity profile and the effects of
swirl.
•The pressure drop through the flowmeter.
 Advantages of turbine flowmeters:
• A turndown of 10:1 is achievable in a good installation with the turbine
bearings in good condition.
• Accuracy is reasonable (± 0.5% of actual value).
• Bypass flowmeters are relatively low cost
Disadvantages of turbine flowmeters:
• Generally calibrated for a specific line pressure.
• Flow straighteners are essential
• If the flow oscillates, the turbine will tend to over or under run, leading
to inaccuracies due to lag time.
• Wet steam can damage the turbine wheel and affect accuracy.
• Low flow rates can be lost because there is insufficient energy to turn
the turbine wheel.
• Viscosity sensitive: if the viscosity of the fluid increases, the response
at low flow rates deteriorates giving a non-linear relationship between
flow and rotational speed.
• The fluid must be very clean (particle size not more than 100 µm).
Variable area flowmeters
* often referred to as a rotameter
consists of a vertical, tapered bore
tube with the small bore at the
lower end, and a float that is
allowed to freely move in the fluid.
When fluid is passing through the
tube, the float's position is in
equilibrium with:

• The dynamic upward force of the fluid.

• The downward force resulting from the mass of the float.
• The position of the float, therefore, is an indication of the flow rate
Advantages of variable area flowmeters:
• Linear output.
• Turndown is approximately 10:1.
• Simple and robust.
• Pressure drop is minimal and fairly constant.
Disadvantages of variable area flowmeters:
• The tube must be mounted vertically.
• Because readings are usually taken visually, and the float tends to
move about, accuracy is only moderate. This is made worst by
parallax error at higher flow rates, because the float is some distance
away from the scale.
• Transparent taper tubes limit pressure and temperature.
Typical applications for variable area flowmeters:
• Metering of gases.
• Small bore airflow metering
• Laboratory applications.
• Rotameters are sometimes used as a flow indicating device rather
than a flow measuring device.
Spring loaded variable area flowmeters
Typical installation of a spring loaded variable area (SLVA) flowmeter
measuring steam flow
Direct In-Line Variable Area (DIVA) flowmeter

Flow orientations
The DIVA flowmeter
Pitot tubes
The averaging Pitot tube
Advantages of the Pitot tube
• Presents little resistance to flow.
• Inexpensive to buy.
• Simple types can be used on
different diameter pipes.

Disadvantages of the Pitot tube:

• Turndown is limited to approximately 4:1 by the square root
relationship between pressure and velocity.
• If steam is wet, the bottom holes can become effectively blocked.
To counter this, some models can be installed horizontally.
• Sensitive to changes in turbulence and needs careful installation and
maintenance.
• Placement inside the pipe work is critical
Vortex shedding flowmeters
These flowmeters utilize the fact that when a non-streamlined or 'bluff'
body is placed in a fluid flow, regular vortices are shed from the rear
of the body. These vortices can be detected, counted and displayed.
Over a range of flows, the rate of vortex shedding is proportional to
the flow rate, and this allows the velocity to be measured.
Advantages of vortex shedding flowmeters:
• Reasonable turndown (providing high velocities and high pressure
drops are acceptable)
• No moving parts.
• Little resistance to flow.
Disadvantages of vortex shedding flowmeters:
• Maximum flow rates are often quoted at velocities of 80 or 100 m/s,
which would give severe problems in steam systems, especially if
the steam is wet and/or dirty. Lower velocities found in steam pipes
will reduce the capacity of vortex flowmeters.
• Vibration can cause errors in accuracy.
• Correct installation is critical as a protruding gasket or weld beads
can cause vortices to form, leading to inaccuracy.
• Long, clear lengths of upstream pipe work must be provided, as for
orifice plate flowmeters.
Vortex shedding flowmeter - typical installations
A steam flowmeter comprises two parts:
• The 'primary' device or pipeline unit, such as an orifice plate,
located in the steam flow.
• The 'secondary' device, such as a differential pressure cell, that
translates any signals into a usable form.
• Some form of electronic processor will exist which can receive,
process and display the information.
• This processor may also receive additional signals for pressure
and/or temperature to enable density compensation calculations to
be made.
Differential pressure cells (DP cells)

A typical DP cell is an electrical capacitance device, which works by

applying a differential pressure to either side of a metal diaphragm
submerged in dielectric oil. The diaphragm forms one plate of a
capacitor, and either side of the cell body form the stationary plates. The
movement of the diaphragm produced by the differential pressure alters
the separation between the plates, and alters the electrical capacitance
of the cell, which in turn results in a change in the electrical output
signal.
The degree of diaphragm movement is directly proportional to the
pressure difference.
Special requirements for accurate steam flow measurement
Flowmeters measure velocity; additional values for cross sectional area
(A) and density (ρ) are required to enable the mass flow rate (qm) to be
calculated.
For any installation, the cross sectional area will remain constant, the
density (ρ) however will vary with pressure and dryness fraction.
• Pressure variation
Pressure will vary in any steam system, and it is clearly futile to
specify a flowmeter with an accuracy of ±2% if pressure variations
alone can give errors of ±10%. The steam flow metering package
must include density compensation.
• Predictable dryness fraction
Measurement of dryness fraction is very complex; a much easier and
better option is to install a steam separator prior to any steam
flowmeter. This will ensure that the dryness fraction is always close to
1.0, irrespective of the condition of the steam supplied.
factors for selecting a steam flowmeter
Useful checklist to help in the selection of a steam flowmeter
• What is the application? (Boiler house flowmeter, departmental
flowmeter, or plant flowmeter.)
• What is the object of flowmetering? (Cost allocation, plant
efficiency check, energy saving scheme monitor.)
• What is the flowmeter required to indicate? (Flow rate, quantity,
mass or volume.)
• What is the pipeline size and configuration?
• What is the steam pressure and temperature?
• What is the object of flowmetering? (Cost allocation, plant
efficiency check, energy saving scheme monitor.)
• Is there a need to measure maximum, minimum, and/or average flow
rates?
• What accuracy, repeatability and turndown is needed?
• What is the purchase budget allowed?
• How much of this is allocated to installation costs and ancillary
equipment costs?
Useful checklist to help in the selection of a steam flowmeter
• Who will install the flowmeter?
• Who will commission the flowmeter?
• Who will maintain the flowmeter?
• Is there a need to interface the flowmeter with any local chart
recorders or central energy management systems?
• Is physical size a constraint?
• Is the flowmeter designed for operation with steam?
• Are any other features required, such as remote alarms on timers?
Typical decision table for a steam flowmeter

Measurement is essential if savings are to be made