Effect of Turbulence Level of Incident A i r

Stream on Local Heat Transfer and

Skin Friction on a Cylinder
W. H. GIEDT*
University of California at Berkeley

ABSTRACT ix = absolute viscosity of air, lb.-sec./ft. 2

1
At the conclusion of a previous investigation of local heat-
transfer and local pressure coefficients around a cylinder, the
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0 — angle at center of cylinder measured from the for-
ward stagnation point, deg.
Po = mass density of air in free stream, lb.-sec. 2 /ft. 4

need for simultaneous local skin-friction coefficient measurements

was indicated. In addition, the results of the skin-friction meas- ro = shear stress at wall of cylinder, lb./ft. 2
urements of Fage and Falkner 2 suggested that the influence of the TO/POW = (Cf/2)un = intensity of skin friction at t h e cylinder
turbulence level in the free air stream on the local heat transfer wall based on free-stream velocity
should be investigated. Data were therefore taken and are pre- ro/poU2 = (Cf/2)u = intensity of skin friction a t t h e cylinder
sented herein for t h e local heat-transfer coefficient, pressure co- wall based on local velocity at the edge of the
efficient, and skin-friction coefficient on a cylinder below and in boundary layer
the critical range of Reynolds Number. The effect of artificially v — JJI/PO = k i n e m a t i c viscosity, ft. 2 /sec.
increased turbulence in t h e free air stream on these local quanti- CP = -—— = local p r e s s u r e coefficient
ties was also determined. Data for these quantities, taken under (l/2)poW
identical flow conditions and on models of the same geometry, Co = cylinder drag coefficient
have not been available previously. The results are partly ex- (NNU)Q = heD/ka — Nusselt Number based on hg
plicable in terms of available theory and experience and in part (NR6) = DUopo = Reynolds Number based on cylinder
present new effects requiring further consideration. diameter
(Npr) = /j,Cp/ka = Prandtl Number for air
NOMENCLATURE ST = he/(poUCp) = Local Stanton Number

A area of heat-transfer surface, ft. 2 INTRODUCTION

D outside diameter of cylinder with nichrome ribbon

he
around it, ft.
unit heat-transfer coefficient at cylinder surface at
angle0, B.t.u./hr.-ft. 2 °F.
W ORK ON T H E INVESTIGATION to be described began
with measurements of local skin-friction
efficient distributions on a circular cylinder n o r m a l to
co-

current flowing through nichrome ribbon, amps,
thermal conductivity of air, B.t.u./hr.-ft. 2 (°F./ft.)
P static pressure at any point on t h e cylinder surface,
lb./ft. 2
Po free-stream static pressure, lb./ft. 2
A/? pressure reading of surface tube above local static
pressure, lb./ft. 2
rate of heat transfer by convection from cylinder
surface at any point defined by t h e angle 6,
B.t.u./hr.
electrical resistance of nichrome ribbon at 70°F.,
R
ohms/ft. of length
t temperature of nichrome ribbon at any point
around the cylinder, °F.
to free air-stream temperature, °F.
free air-stream velocity, ft./sec.
u velocity at edge of boundary layer, ft./sec.
average value of turbulent velocity fluctuation be-
hind grid, ft./sec.
distance around cylinder circumference measured
from stagnation point, ft.
y distance from nichrome ribbon measured perpen-
dicular to cylinder surface, ft.
0 slope of velocity distribution at the edge of the
boundary layer at the stagnation point,
ft./sec/ft.
Received February 19, 1951.
^Assistant Professor, Division of Mechanical Engineering.
an air stream. These d a t a were desired to s u p p l e m e n t
previous heat-transfer a n d pressure coefficient measure-
m e n t s on a cylinder 1 in order t o d e t e r m i n e if some
readily recognizable relationship existed between the
heat-transfer a n d skin-friction coefficients in t h e t u r -
b u l e n t b o u n d a r y - l a y e r region. T h e results of these
m e a s u r e m e n t s , which were m a d e with a surface t u b e
a n d in t h e same air s t r e a m as used for t a k i n g t h e pre-
vious heat-transfer d a t a , showed t h a t , t h r o u g h o u t t h e
entire range of Reynolds N u m b e r (70, 800 t o 219,000),
laminar separation occurred before t h e 90° point, a n d
in no case was t h e r e a t u r b u l e n t b o u n d a r y layer present
on t h e b a c k half of t h e cylinder as t h e heat-transfer and
pressure distributions h a d indicated.
T h i s testing was conducted in a 3-ft. o p e n - t h r o a t - t y p e
t u n n e l (see Fig. 1) with t h e t e s t section exactly in t h e
center of a cylinder, which extended 2 in. on each end
beyond t h e edge of t h e wind s t r e a m . F u r t h e r measure-
m e n t s were m a d e after installing some plates on t h e
cylinder parallel to t h e air flow a b o u t 12 in. on either
side of t h e center a n d placing a V 2 -in. mesh wire screen
across the wind-tunnel nozzle exit. A noticeable
change in t h e pressure coefficient distribution occurred,
and, a t t h e higher Reynolds N u m b e r s , a small t u r b u l e n t
boundary layer appeared. T h i s indicated that, al-

725
 726 JOURNAL OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L
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FIG. 1. Heat-transfer cylinder as mounted in the wind tunnel
for testing. Photograph taken from inside the tunnel diffusor
section looking upstream. Note cord net over the tunnel nozzle
exit.
FIG. 2. Enlarged view (about 2.5 times) of surface tube and
static pressure taps in the lucite cylinder.
though t h e cylinder extended completely through the
air stream, inflow of some sort had occurred with no
side plates. A further check on the characteristics of
the air flow around the cylinder with no side plates was
obtained b y determination of a form drag coefficient
from t h e pressure distribution curves. Since in this
region of Reynolds N u m b e r form drag constitutes in
general 98 per cent or more of the total drag (p. 428,
reference 3), these values should have compared favor-
ably with accepted d a t a . T h e y failed to do this, and it
was therefore considered desirable to repeat t h e heat-
S C I E N C E S - N O V E M B E R , 195 1
transfer and pressure distribution along with skin-
friction measurements under improved airflow con-
ditions and variable air-stream turbulence.
This does n o t necessarily invalidate the previous d a t a
b u t indicates t h a t caution is necessary in its interpreta-
tion. An examination of t h e work of Schmidt and
Wenner, 4 which is the other most recent investigation
of this nature, indicated t h a t their air stream also
possessed serious limitations. This will be discussed
in more detail later.
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE
T h e extended test program involved the use of two
models: a heat-transfer cylinder fitted with electrically
heated surface ribbons, as shown in Fig. 1, and a cylinder
fitted with a surface tube, as shown in Fig. 2, for the skin-
friction and pressure measurements. T h e y were
mounted, as shown in Fig. 1, in the University of Cali-
fornia 3-ft. wind tunnel. T h e environment for the
tests was, therefore, exactly the same for the heat-
transfer and skin-friction test cylinders, A more de-
tailed description of their construction as well as the
test technique employed is given in the Appendix.
T h e p r i m a r y p a r a m e t e r involved in the test program
was the variation of the turbulence level of the incident
air stream. D a t a were taken first with a 16-mesh d a m p -
ing screen placed upstream of t h e wind-tunnel nozzle in
order to minimize t h e turbulent fluctuations occurring
in t h e normal tunnel stream. T h e estimated turbulence
level, u'/Uo, was negligible, being of the order of less
t h a n 1 per cent. 5 In contrast to this, d a t a were then
taken with greatly increased tunnel turbulence, accom-
plished b y placing a 1.25- by 1.25-in. rope net ( 3 /i 6 -in.
diameter shot cord) over the nozzle exit. The cylinder
leading edge was placed about 24 in. behind this net, t h e
test arrangement being shown in Fig. 1. T h e esti-
mated turbulence level in this case was of t h e order of
4 per cent. 6 D a t a were also taken a t the maximum
velocity obtainable in t h e normal tunnel stream insofar
as this nominally extended t h e Reynolds N u m b e r range
of the investigation.
Heat-transfer d a t a and the pressure and skin-friction
d a t a were taken separately b u t a t as nearly the same
Reynolds N u m b e r as could be realized b y the air-stream
speed control. All Reynolds N u m b e r s are based on free-
stream velocities calculated from t h e rise in pressure at
the cylinder stagnation point referred to t h e static
pressure indicated b y a pitot tube in the air stream 10
in. upstream from t h e cylinder leading edge with the
stagnation point pressure coefficient assumed to be unity.
P R E S E N T A T I O N AND D I S C U S S I O N O F R E S U L T S
Local Heat-Transfer, Pressure, and Skin-Friction
Distributions
Representative curves of the experimental results
throughout t h e test range of Reynolds N u m b e r for local
 T U R B U L E N C E LEVEL OF I N C I D E N T AIR STREAM 727

values of heat-transfer, pressure coefficient, and skin-

800i
friction coefficient distributions are plotted in Figs. 3, 4, l—|—i—i—i—i—r~
and 5. Referring to Fig. 3, it is noted t h a t all of the STREAM BEHIND DAMPING
heat-transfer curves, with the exception of the one for SCREEN
Reynolds N u m b e r equal to 99,300, are what might be 700 STREAM BEHIND CORD
NETTING
described as characteristic of the critical range—i.e.,
they have two maximums and two minimums (the
critical range refers to the Reynolds N u m b e r region in 600
which the rapid drop in the cylinder drag coefficient
occurs). T h e d a t a for Reynolds N u m b e r equal to 99,-
300 are definitely associated with the pre-critical range
with laminar separation as is indicated b y the magni- 500f
t u d e of the overall drag coefficient (see Fig. 6) and also
b y the local skin friction as shown on Fig. 5. T h e coin- CNNU)0
cidence of the location on the cylinder surface of the
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minimum heat-transfer coefficient and the zero value of

t h e skin-friction coefficient, which presumably indi-
cated laminar separation, should be noted. Flow con-
ditions for Reynolds N u m b e r equal to 167,500 appear to
be of a transitional nature. T h e skin-friction d a t a do
not show the presence of a turbulent b o u n d a r y layer,
b u t neither does the skin-friction coefficient decrease to
zero as rapidly as for the case with Reynolds N u m b e r
equal to 99,300. T h e curves of Fig. 5 for the other three
values of Reynolds N u m b e r show definite skin-friction
magnitudes in the region 6 > 90°, and such b o u n d a r y Re =213,000 NORMAL TUNNEL
layers as exist in this region can be presumed to be tur- STREAM
bulent in nature.
40 80 120 160
T h e pressure coefficient curves of Fig. 4 reveal e - D E G . FROM STAGNATION POINT
definite inflection points in the 90° region for Reynolds FIG. 3. Local heat transfer around a cylinder for different
Numbers of 90,300, 172,000, and 212,000, as have been Reynolds Numbers.
previously noted b y Fage and Falkner and assumed b y
t h e m to indicate the point of transition from laminar to
turbulent flow in the boundary layer. F o r m drag co-
efficients obtained from t h e local pressure as recom-
mended b y Goldstein (Fig. 161, p. 431, reference 3),
confirm the flow over the test cylinders as being in the
critical range. As a m a t t e r of interest, the pressure dis-
tribution curves given b y Schmidt and Wenner 4 were
integrated also, and the form drag coefficients are also
shown in Fig. 6. As can be noted, they do not check
with the accepted curves. T h e reason for this is t h a t
their test arrangement did not provide the effect of a
cylinder in an infinite stream. A curve typical of their
d a t a at higher values of Reynolds N u m b e r is included
in Fig. 4. This is the t y p e of curve obtained pre-
viously b y the author 1 and, when considered in the
-2.5!
light of the experience of this investigation, indicates 40 60 80 100 120 140
t h a t even at the maximum Reynolds N u m b e r 426,000 6 - D E G . FROM STAGNATION POINT

obtained by Schmidt and Wenner, laminar separation
without any turbulent boundary layer probably oc-
curred.
Relative Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence
Comparison of t h e d a t a taken in t h e stream behind
t h e damping screen to t h a t taken a t comparable values
of free-stream velocities in the stream behind the cord
FIG. 4. Pressure coefficient distributions for different Reynolds
Numbers.
net shows t h a t the general effect of the net is to produce
results characteristic of velocities higher t h a n those
indicated by the free-stream velocity. This is in agree-
m e n t with results obtained b y previous investigators,
particularly in regard to the marked reduction in form
drag produced b y the increase in free-stream t u r b u -
 728 JOURNAL OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L S C I E N C E S —NOVEMBER, 1951

• STREAM BEHIND SCREEN 1000

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I i ,\
-STREAM BEHIND NET 800 — - • STREAM BEHIND CORD
!/ j/
X \
a
*/ \

Re VALUES ON CURVES Nu),AVG. 4

^ • HILPERT- REF. 7 !
200 L .
i ;

:
! i

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 4.0 60 8.0

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
9 - DE6. FROM STAGNATION POINT
FIG. 7. Comparison of the average heat-transfer coefficient with
FIG. 5. Skin-friction distributions around a cylinder for different Hilpert's experimentally determined curve.
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Reynolds Numbers.

'Vo V B E H I N D S C R E E N L — o ~ Re = 1 6 6 , 0 0 0
i \\
NORMAL STREAM —A— Re = 21 2 , 0 0 0
1 J\

, STREAM r--x--Re= 90,900

BEHIND N E T [ _ - - « - - R e = 1 7 2 , 0 0 0
\ \
^ 1 :
i !
> i\
.....J... . j i ... i. _
^
\ N i I ! 1
-—I
k
O< ;^ \ "

v^n^ r -X

5.0
0 20 40 60
kki^Mlk
80 !00 120 140

LOG 10 Re 6 — DEC FROM STAGNATION POINT

FIG. 6. Cylinder drag coefficient vs. Reynolds Number. FIG. 8. Local skin-friction coefficient distribution based on
velocity a t edge of boundary layer.

lence. T h e average heat-transfer coefficient reveals a
similar b u t n o t as significant a trend. Fig. 7 shows t h a t
the increased turbulence caused the average heat-
transfer coefficient to increase between 10 and 20 per
cent over t h e low turbulence level values.
T h e average heat-transfer coefficient does not indi-
cate, however, t h e effect of t h e increased turbulence on
the change in t h e relative amounts of heat transfer from
the front and back halves of t h e cylinder. I n the low
turbulence level air stream, t h e ratio of front- to back-
half heat transfer is approximately 0.85. I n t h e stream
behind t h e net, this increases to around 1.1. T h e
change is due b o t h to an increase of t h e heat transfer on
the front half and to a decrease on t h e back half of t h e
cylinder.
Heat-Transfer Coefficient at the Stagnation
Fig. 3 reveals t h a t , for comparable values of free-
stream velocities, t h e local heat-transfer coefficients a t
the stagnation point as obtained in t h e stream behind
the cord net are approximately 25 per cent higher t h a n
those obtained in t h e stream behind t h e screen.
For t h e case of a heated cylinder normal to an air
stream, where t h e velocity distribution at the edge of
the boundary layer near t h e forward stagnation point is
a linear function of t h e distance from t h a t point, so t h a t
U = fax, t h e value of t h e Nusselt N u m b e r a t the stag-
nation point has been determined analytically b y
Squire 3 (p. 631) to b e : (Nm()ST = .^(A^Kft^V^)172.
jSi is t h e slope of t h e velocity distribution at the edge of
the boundary layer, D t h e cylinder diameter, v the
kinematic viscosity, and az{NPT) a known function of
the P r a n d t l Number, which is tabulated in reference 3.
T h e velocity distributions a t t h e edge of t h e boundary
layer as determined from t h e experimental pressure
d a t a were linear with x. T h e slopes of these distribu-
tions were determined graphically and used to deter-
mine t h e theoretical value of t h e Nusselt N u m b e r at the
stagnation point in accordance with the above equa-
Point
tion. These values as well as the experimentally ob-
served values of (NNu)ST are listed in Table 1 and the per
cent deviation noted.
T h e deviations from t h e theoretical predictions are
larger for t h e case of t h e stream behind the rope
netting, b u t a conclusive explanation for the effect is
 T U R B U L E N C E LEVEL OF I N C I D E N T AIR STREAM 729

TABLE 1
Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Values of NNu at l\l
V
— NET
~ CT FDR Re = i 7 i ?snr)

the Stagnation Point [ _ - - • — ( C f ^ FOR Re = l 7 2 , 0 0 0

[NOTE: a*(NPr) = 0.499] 4*V NORMAL

r — A —(Cf/gVFOR Re = 2 1 2 , 0 0 0
1 ——T> CT FflR R e - 91 X r>nn

(Nyu)ST, Per v\
ft, Theo- N(NU)ST, Cent
Stream (ft./ retical Experi- Devia-
Condition NRe sec.)/ft. (Squire) mental tion —
Damping \£:~ k^
_ r^ -
screen 99,300 565 314 317 9.95 S- —<
upstream 167,500 987 407 438 7.6 -v-
Stream be- 95,100 530 307 384 25.1 \k
hind net 171,500 1,030 414 552 33.3
1 k
-—«
i
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 !40
Normal
0 — DEG. FROM STAGNATrON POINT
stream 213,000 1,260 460 525 14.0 F I G . 9. Comparison of local Stanton Number with local skin-
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friction coefficient.

lacking a t the present time. In this regard, the

anomalous behavior of the shear stress a t the wall as |
indicated b y the surface tube is notable. At the stagna- 8
VALUES OF A p = EXPERIMENTAL TUBE
tion point and u p to approximately 8°, in the case of 6
READINGS AbuVE LOCAL STATIC
the stream behind the net, the reading of the surface
PRESSURE
tube was negative with reference to the local static pres- 4
sure. This has been indicated in Fig. 5 by the omission 6
of skin-friction magnitudes between 6 equal to 0 and
about 8°. Fage and Falkner 2 did not observe this
2
phenomenon or neglected to mention it. A possible ex- S L(}F> E M . 4 3 /
planation of this occurrence consists in the hypothesis h-
t h a t the original rise in dynamic pressure in a turbulent
UL / o

air stream due to the turbulent velocity fluctuations was i

m 1-0 o/
registered on the static pressure t a p s b u t not on the ; !
1
surface tube. As mentioned previously, the order of Q. i o
magnitude of the turbulent velocity fluctuations was <
0.5
—
probably about 4 per cent of the free-stream mean
velocity, which corresponds to a maximum velocity of 4
ft. per sec. in these tests. Negative pressures were re-
°/ 1.43
8
Ap = 5.50 X I 0 ~ ( T V ~ "
corded, however, corresponding to velocities of 10 to 15 f° VysO
ft. per s e c , indicating t h a t some additional or separate Q2 .7 0
0 R '4u \ , 4. 6 2 5 X I 0 " 2 (Ap )0
effect was present. {^ y / y = 0

The Laminar Boundary-Layer Region

T h e increase in local heat transfer, with about the 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
same pressure distribution and free-stream velocity,
x 10 FT/ SEC/FT
produced b y the more turbulent free stream in the tests y=0
made with the net, which has been noted for the stagna- FIG. 10. Surface tube calibration curve.
tion point region, extended also over the entire reach
of the laminar boundary-layer flow. Because a com- result. Referring to Fig. 8, which shows the distribu-
parable effect is not revealed in the skin-friction results tion of the skin friction coefficients based on the local
(Fig. 8), it m a y be possible t h a t the turbulent flow velocity at the edge of the boundary layer, it can be seen
in the region adjacent to the hydrodynamic boundary t h a t the d a t a for the tests behind the cord net are, in
layer was sufficiently nonisotropic to augment the general, below or approximately equal to those for the
molecular conduction of h e a t in this external region, stream behind the damping screen. This is felt to be in-
which occurs with fluids of P r a n d t l N u m b e r less t h a n consistent and could be properly explained only with
unity. Such an effect would, in part, account for further information about the boundary-layer charac-
the high heat-transfer coefficients observed. Also, it teristics in the turbulent stream.
m a y be possible t h a t t h e observed phenomenon was due
to the action of the turbulent stream near the edge of The Turbulent Boundary-Layer Region
the laminar b o u n d a r y layer. However, if this were A comparison of the local h e a t transfer and skin
true, a slight increase in the skin friction should also friction in Figs. 3 and 8 also reveals effects inexplicable
 730 JOURNAL OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L
in terms of available rationalizations. Fig. 3 shows, for
t h e region from a b o u t 100° to 130°, substantially
similar heat-transfer coefficients for the tests a t values of
Reynolds Numbers equal to 172,000 behind the net and
213,000 in the normal tunnel stream. T h e skin-friction
magnitudes, however, are different. This comparison
is shown in Fig. 9. T h u s , for the turbulent flow region,
a consistent relation between the local S t a n t o n N u m b e r
and the skin-friction coefficient, such as obtains for flat-
plate flow, does not appear to exist in simple form for a
cylinder.*
The Wake Region
I n general, all the heat-transfer coefficientst in the
wake region have a minimum value a t the point of
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separation, whether it be laminar or turbulent, and in-
crease rapidly to a maximum a t t h e rear stagnation
point. F r o m the shapes of t h e curves, it seems possible
that, due to reverse flow, a b o u n d a r y layer is formed at
the rear stagnation point and builds up in the direction
of the point of separation. This possibility was exam-
ined b y means of surface t u b e measurements taken with
the cylinder reversed in the air stream, so t h a t the sur-
face tube faced t h e rear stagnation point. Because of
t h e small response of t h e t u b e in this region, conclusive
evidence was not obtainable. Some indications tended
to confirm a backward flow in this region, while others
indicated fluctuations of the velocity from the forward
to the backward direction.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
Giedt, W. H., Investigation of Variation of Point Unit Heat-
Transfer Coefficient Around a Cylinder Normal to an Air Stream,
Transactions of A.S.M.E., Vol. 71, May, 1949.
2 cylinder is shown in Fig. 2. T h e cylinder was mounted
Fage, A., and Falkner, F. M., Further Experiments on the Flow
Around a Cylinder, R&M No. 1369, Great Britain Aeronautical
Research Committee, 1931.
3
Modern Developments in Fluid Mechanics, by the Fluid Motion
Panel of the Aeronautical Research Committee; Edited by S.
Goldstein, Oxford University Press, London, 1938.
4
Schmidt, E., and Wenner, K., Heat Transfer Over the Circum-
ference of a Heated Cylinder in Transverse Flow, N.A.C.A. T.M.
No. 1050, October, 1943.
5
Dryden, H. L., and Schubauer, G. B., The Use of Damping
Screens for the Reduction of Wind Tunnel Turbulence, Journal of
the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 221-228, 1947.
6
Dryden, H. L., A Review of the Statistical Theory of Tur-
bulence, Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, Vol. I, pp. 7-42, April,
1943.
7
Hilpert, R., Experimental Study of Heat Dissipation of Heated
Wire and Pipe in an Air Current, Forschung auf dem Gebiete des
Ingenieurwesens, Vol. 4, pp. 215-224, 1933.
* I t is recognized that differences in the pressure distributions
which do exist may influence this relation.
f It is to be noted that the local heat-transfer coefficient is de-
fined in terms of the free-stream temperature, presumed, because
of the negligible compressibility, to exist at the outer edge of the
boundary layer. This is not true in the wake region, and, in con-
sequence, local heat-transfer coefficients as shown for this region
are to some extent Active.
SCIENCES—NOVEMBER, 195 1
8
Taylor, G. I., Measurements with a Half-Pitot Tube, Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society, Series A, Vol. 166, pp. 476-481, 1938.
9
Howarth, L., Steady Flow in the Boundary Layer Near the
Surface of a Cylinder in a Stream, R&M No. 1632, July, 1934.
APPENDIX
Measurement of Local Heat-Transfer Coefficients
T h e heat-transfer cylinder was constructed from 4-in.
outside diameter and Vs-in. wall thickness Bakelite
tubing. I t was 21 in. overall in length and was mounted
for testing between side plates 20 in. a p a r t as shown in
Fig. 1. T h e model was divided into three sections, of
which the center 61/2 in. constituted the test section.
Five separate, 1 by 0.002 in. in cross section, nichrome
heating ribbons were fitted around this section, the
center one being the test strip and the two on either side
acting as guard heating strips. Measurement of current
input to t h e ribbons and temperature variation along
the ribbons b y means of extremely fine thermocouples
located immediately under the center ribbon enabled
the calculation of the local heat-transfer coefficients,
he, due to the relationship
he = (q/A)/(t - to) ~ (j?R)/(t ~ k)
T h e actual equation used, accounting for conduction
and radiation losses, is derived and discussed in detail in
reference 1. T h e final accuracy of h0 is considered to be
well within 10 per cent except possibly at the maximum
and minimum points.
Skin-Friction Measurements with the Surface Tube
T h e surface t u b e located in the wall of t h e 4-in. lucite
in the 3-ft. wind tunnel in the same manner as the heat-
transfer cylinder shown in Fig. 1. T h e surface tube
itself projected about 0.0035 in. above the cylinder sur-
face and had an opening of approximately 0.08 b y 0.003
in. A static pressure t a p was located l x / 2 in. on either
side of the surface tube. Experimental measurements
consisted of determining the difference in pressure be-
tween it and the average of the static pressure t a p s as
the cylinder was rotated about its axis. Several types
of micro-manometers were tried for this purpose. How-
ever, it was eventually found t h a t due to the air-stream
fluctuations, an ordinary inclined manometer with a
scale having a least count of 0.01 in. of water provides
sufficient accuracy and was easier to use. Readings
were estimated to 0.002 in. of water, b u t an accuracy of
greater t h a n 0.01 in. cannot be justifiably claimed.
A considerable a m o u n t of time and effort was devoted
to the calibration of the tube. Space does not permit
describing this in detail, but, in general, results indi-
cated t h a t the accuracy claimed in previous work was
open to question. In addition, the "effective distance''
type of calibration 2 - 8 was considered misleading from a
(Continued on page 766)
 766 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L
One-Dimensional Beamwise Method and As Calculated by Two-
Dimensional Chordwise and Beamwise Method, Report VII, Con-
tract W33-038-ac-17240 (17767), Engineering Experiment Sta--
tion, University of Colorado.
10
Durham, F. P., Determination of Temperature Distribution int
a Solid Diamond-Shaped Wing in Supersonic Flight, When Both> t
Chordwise and Beamwise Heat Flow Are Unsymmetrical, Report[.
IX, Contract W33-038-ac-17240 (17767), Engineering Experi-
ment Station, University of Colorado.
11
Maydew, R. C , and Durham, F. P., The Effect of Significant
Parameters on Thermal Stresses in a Solid Diamond-Shaped Super-
sonic Wing, Report II, Contract W33-038-ac-17240 (17767), En-
gineering Experiment Station, University of Colorado.
12
Maydew, R. C , Determination of Temperature Distribution ini
a Solid Diamond-Shaped Wing in Supersonic Flight, Chordwise?
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on November 10, 2014 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/8.2092
Heat Flow Only (Skretting Method), Report I l l - a , Contract W33-
038-ac-17240 (17767), Engineering Experiment Station, Uni--
versity of Colorado.
Effect of Turbulence Level of Incident Air Stream on Local
Heat Transfer and Skin Friction on a Cylinder
{Continued from page 730)
physical point of view, so the curve of Fig. 10 was used
instead. This type of a plot brings out the fact that the
pressure reading of a surface tube is due to combined
viscous and inertia forces, the relative contributions of
each depending on the fluid flowing and on the physical
dimensions of the tube.
The points on Fig. 10 used to establish the calibration
curve were determined from pressure measurements
Shear Center for Thin-Walled Open Sections Beyond
the Elastic Limit
{Continued from page 754)
CONCLUSION
The methods outlined above can be used to find
the position of the shear center for thin-walled sec-
tions. It should be emphasized that the shear center
is no longer a section property but depends for its loca-
tion on the load and the stress-strain curve. Further-
more, while it has been shown that in the elastic case6 a
load acting on such a section can be replaced by a shear
load at the shear center and a torque with reasonable
accuracy, it still remains to be studied whether this is
true beyond the elastic limit. Consequently, it is still an
open question whether the results given in this paper
can be used for such a purpose.
S C I E N C E S —NOVEMBER, 1951
13
Maydew, R. C , Determination of Temperature Distribution if
a Solid Diamond-Shaped Wing in Supersonic Flight, Chordwise
Heat Flow Only (Sibert Method), Report I l l - b , Contract W33-038
ac-17240 (17767), Engineering Experiment Station, University o:
Colorado.
14
Stephenson, F. A., and Arnberg, B. T., Experimental Deter
mination of Temperature As a Function of Time in a Solid Rec
tangular Block, Beamwise Heat Flow Only, Report E-III, Contrad
W33-038-ac-17240 (17767), Engineering Experiment Station
University of Colorado.
15
Stephenson, F. A., and Arnberg, B. T., Experimental De-
termination of Thermal Stresses in Rectangular Plates and Diamond-
Shaped Wings As a Function of Chordwise Temperature Distribu-
tion, Report E-VI, Contract W33-038-ac-17240 (17767), Engi-
neering Experiment Station, University of Colorado.
16
Stephenson, F. A., and Arnberg, B. T., Experimental Deter-
mination of Temperature Distribution in a Solid Diamond-Shapea
Wing, Report E-VII, Contract W33-038-ac-17240 (17767), Engi-
neering Experiment Station, University of Colorado.
made in the laminar boundary-layer region and using
the Blasius-Hiemenz boundary-layer solution. Agree-
ment between the skin friction in the laminar boundary-
layer region calculated from this curve and that deter-
mined from the Blasius-Hiemenz method was within 12
per cent for most of the data taken, and it is felt that this
is about the best accuracy that should be claimed for the
skin-friction curves in general.
REFERENCES
1
Timoshenko, S. P., Strength of Materials, Part II, 2nd Ed., p .
52; D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1941; also Sechler, E.
E., and Dunn, L. G., Airplane Structural Analysis and Design, p .
109; John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1942.
2
Nadai, A., Plasticity, a Mechanics of the Plastic State of
Matter, p. 160; McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York
and London, 1931.
3
Timoshenko, S. P., loc. cit., Part I, p. 170.
4
Timoshenko, S. P., Theory of Bending, Torsion and Buckling of
Thin-Walled Members of Open Cross Section, Journal of the
Franklin Institute, Vol. 239, p . 206, 1945.
5
Timoshenko, S. P., loc. cit., p . 209.
6
Hadji-Argyris, J., and Dunne, P. C , The General Theory of
Cylindrical Tubes Under Torsion and Bending Loads, Jour. Roy.
Aero. S o c , Vol. 51, pp. 199-269, 1946.