REMINDER: Coursework Teams

IN2011 n For the coursework you are allowed to

Networks and Operating Systems work in teams of up to 3.
n Email Olga
(Olga.Herrero.1@city.ac.uk), cc'ing
the other team members.
Session 3 n Deadline 1 pm Monday 26 Feb.

Processes and Schedulers

IN2011 Nets & Ops Session 3 2

Overview Process Concept

n The notion of a process n An OS provides a platform for executing

l a program in execution, which forms the basis of programs
all computation l a program is a passive thing, just a chunk of code

n Process life-cycle n A program in execution is known as a

process
n Process creation (parent/child)
l also called jobs or tasks
n Scheduling n Note that in execution does not mean
running on the CPU
l many processes actually spend most of their time
waiting, with only short bursts of life on the CPU

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Process State Process Life Cycle

n As a process executes, it changes state

l new: The process is being created

l running: Instructions are being executed

l waiting: The process is waiting for some event to
occur (eg I/O completion)
4 each OS may make finer distinctions, according to what
kind of event is being waited for
l ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a
processor
l terminated: The process has finished execution
This is a very important diagram. Remember it.

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 Process State Process in Memory

n When the OS creates a new process it

must:
l Allocate memory to the process

l Create a data structure called a Process Control

Block (PCB) to keep track of the process state

n When a process terminates, the OS can

delete the PCB and reclaim the memory
the program code

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Process Control Block (PCB) Process Creation

n A parent process creates children

OS creates and processes, which, in turn create other
maintains a PCB processes, forming a tree of processes
for every process
n Each process is identified and managed
via a process identifier (pid)
n Execution
l Parent and children may execute concurrently
l Or parent waits until children terminate

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Process Creation (Cont) Process Creation

n Address space
l Child duplicate of parent

l Child has a program loaded into it

n UNIX examples
l fork system call creates new process
l exec system call used after a fork to replace the
process’ memory space with a new program

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 C Program Forking new Process Process Termination
int main()
{
pid_t pid;
n Process executes its final statement
/* fork another process */
and asks to be deleted by the operating
pid = fork();
if (pid < 0) { /* error occurred */
system (exit)
fprintf(stderr, "Fork Failed");
exit(-1);
l Output data from child to parent (via wait)
}
else if (pid == 0) { /* child process */
l Process’ resources are deallocated by the OS
execl("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL);
} n Some operating systems do not allow a
else { /* parent process */
/* parent will wait for the child to complete */ child to continue if its parent terminates
wait (NULL);
printf ("Child Complete"); l All children terminated - cascading termination
exit(0);
} l Note that this is not the default behaviour in Linux
}

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Schedulers CPU Scheduler

n Long-term scheduler (job scheduler) n Selects from among the processes in

– selects which processes should be memory that are ready to execute, and
brought into the ready queue allocates the CPU to one of them
n Short-term scheduler (CPU n CPU scheduling decisions may take
scheduler) – selects which process place when a process:
should be executed next and allocates 1. Switches from running to waiting state
CPU 2. Switches from running to ready state (preemption)
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates

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Process Scheduling Queues Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues

n Job queue – the set of all processes in

the system
n Ready queue – the set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute
n Device queues – set of processes
waiting for an I/O device
n Processes migrate among the various
queues
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3
 Context Switch CPU Context Switch

n When CPU switches to another process,

the system must save the state of the old running

process and load the saved state for the

new process via a context switch
l Context of a process represented in the PCB
running

n Context-switch time is pure overhead;

the system does no useful work while
switching
running

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Basic Concepts Typical Distribution of CPU-burst Times

n Maximum CPU utilization obtained with

multiprogramming
n Processes can be described as either:
l I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O
than computations, many short CPU bursts
l CPU-bound process – spends more time doing
computations; few, very long CPU bursts

n CPU burst distribution

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Alternating Sequence of CPU And I/O Bursts Scheduling Criteria

n CPU utilization – keep CPU busy

n Throughput – # of processes that complete
their execution per time unit
n Turnaround time – amount of time to
execute a particular process
n Waiting time – amount of time a process has
been waiting in the ready queue
n Response time – amount of time it takes
from when a request is submitted until the
first response is initiated
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 Scheduler Aims Some Scheduling Schemes

n To maximise CPU utilisation and n First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)

Throughput l FIFO queue; non-preemptive

n To minimise Turnaround time, Waiting n Round Robin (RR)

time, Response time l FIFO queue + time quanta; preemptive

n These aims may be in conflict, priorities n Shortest Job First (SJF)

will be different for batch-processing l preemptive and non-preemptive variants
and interactive (multitasking) systems
n Priority-based
l interactive systems prioritise low response times
(ie fast responses)

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FCFS Round Robin (RR)

n Simple scheme which services jobs from n Designed for time-sharing (multitasking)
the ready queue in First-Come-First- n Each process gets a small unit of CPU time
Served order (time quantum).
l New processes join the back of the queue l When quantum elapses, process is preempted and added
to the back of the ready queue
l Once a process is scheduled on the CPU it stays there
until it is interrupted: l implemented using timers to generate periodic interrupts

4 either by itself (system call, eg I/O request) n For n processes in the ready queue and time
4 or by a hardware interrupt (eg I/O device) quantum q, each process gets 1/n of the CPU
l No good for interactive systems, because CPU-bound time in chunks of at most q time units
processes hog the CPU l q must be large with respect to context switch time,
otherwise overhead is too high

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Round Robin Example Gantt Diagram

IO demands

1 1 2 1,2 1 3 3

0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 30- 35- 40- 45- 50- 55- 60- 65- 70- 75- 80- 85- 90- 95- 100- 105- 110- 115-
process arrival resource demands summary 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
id time (ms) (not known in advance) 1 1 * 2 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2

1 0 CPU I/O CPU I/O CPU CPU demands

10ms 10ms 10ms 10ms 20ms

P1 starts
P1 ends
2 15 CPU I/O CPU
15ms 10ms 25ms P2 starts P3 ends

3 20 CPU I/O CPU

20ms 10ms 15ms For each P3 starts P2 ends
process:

Assume context switching takes zero time Turnaround_time = process end_time – process start_time
Assume each process uses a different I/O device Length = sum of all the process' resource demand times
Assume time quantum = 5ms Waiting_time = process Turnaround_time – process Length

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 RR Calculations: Exercise Shortest-Job-First (SJF)

n Calculate turnaround, length, and waiting n Associate with each process the length
times for each process of its next CPU burst. Use these
l P1
lengths to schedule the process with the
l P2
l P3
shortest time
n Calculate: n SJF is optimal – gives minimum
l average turnaround time average waiting time for a given set of
l average waiting time processes
n Calculate CPU utilisation (percentage of CPU l The difficulty is knowing the length of the next
time spent running processes) CPU burst!

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Length of Next CPU Burst Prediction of the Length of the Next CPU Burst

n Can only estimate the length

n Can be done by using the length of
previous CPU bursts, using exponential
averaging:
1. tn = actual length of n th CPU burst
2. τ n+1 = predicted value for the next CPU burst
3. 0 ≤ α ≤ 1
4. Define: τ n+1 = α tn + (1− α ) τ n .

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Priority Scheduling Thread Scheduling

n A priority number (integer) is associated n There is a logical distinction between

with each process user-level and kernel-level threads
n The CPU is allocated to the process l but Windows and Linux both use a one-to-one
model, which keeps things simple
with the highest priority (smallest integer
º highest priority) n Technical detail: An OS with kernel-
l Problem º Starvation – low priority processes
level threads schedules kernel-level
may never execute threads, not processes
l Solution º Aging – as time progresses increase l Linux literature often uses “task” as generic term
the priority of older processes

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 Multiple-Processor Scheduling Linux Scheduling (before 2.6.23)

n CPU scheduling is more complex when n Constant order O(1) scheduling time
multiple CPUs are available n Two priority ranges: time-sharing and
n Read [OSC] Section 5.5 real-time
n Real-time range from 0 to 99 and nice
value from 100 to 140
l essentially different schedulers used for real-time
and non real-time scheduling

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Linux Scheduling (from 2.6.23) What to do now

n So-called "Completely Fair Scheduler"

l uses a red-black tree (self-balancing binary tree) to
order processes by time spent on CPU
n Labs
4 red-black tree has O(log N) access/update time n Preparation for Session 4
l scheduler picks the process which has spent least
time on CPU (left-most in the tree) l see Moodle for details
l allocates a quantum based on how long is "fair" given
how many other processes are ready and how long
the chosen process has been held in the ready state

n (Details not examinable)

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REMINDER: Coursework Teams

n For the coursework you are allowed to

work in teams of up to 3.
n Email Olga
(Olga.Herrero.1@city.ac.uk), cc'ing
the other team members.
n Deadline 1 pm Monday 26 Feb.

IN2011 Nets & Ops Session 3 41