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AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION, INC.
√
3
∑
i=1
(Area1−i + Area2−i)
A summary of typical forces used in this frame’s live load dation under Grant Number MSM-8608803, the American
calculations are provided in Tables 1(a) and 1(b). Figure 3 Institute of Steel Construction, and the School of Civil and
shows the net applied live load distribution. Table 1(c) shows Environmental Engineering at Cornell University. The
distributions obtained by calculating the forces for steps 1 authors wish to thank Dr. Jerome F. Hajjar of Skidmore,
and 3 by a three-dimensional linear elastic analysis of the Owings and Merrill for his comments and suggestions.
rigidly jointed system.
In all cases where factored load combinations are inves- REFERENCES
tigated, both the beam live loads and the compensating forces 1. American Society of Civil Engineers Minimum Design
should be multiplied by the appropriate live load factors. Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-88,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1990
SUMMARY (formally, American National Standard Minimum Design
An approach for incorporating live load reduction provisions Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1,
within system analyses is presented. By determining an American National Standards Institute, New York, March
appropriate applied live load, the resulting forces in both 1982).
the beams and the columns will include the ASCE 7-88 live 2. Parikh, B. P., “Elastic-Plastic Analysis and Design of
load reduction provisions. In applying this live load, any dis- Unbraced Multi-Story Steel Frames,” Ph.D. Thesis,
placements calculated by a structural analysis will be con- Lehigh University, June 1966.
sistent with the reduced internal member force distribution. 3. Pesquera, C. I., “Integrated Analysis and Design of Steel
Joint equilibrium will be maintained. Because the procedure Frames with Interactive Computer Graphics,” Ph.D. The-
does not rely on applying the principle of superposition, it sis, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, March 1984.
may be used with either linear or nonlinear structural 4. White, D. W. and Hajjar, J. F., “Application of Second-
analyses. Order Elastic Analysis in Design—Research to Practice,”
The concept of compensating forces has been illustrated AISC, National Steel Construction Conference, Kansas
by applying them at beam-to-column intersections only. The City, Missouri, March 1990, pp. 11.1–11.22.
same idea can be extended to accommodate any desired 5. Ziemian, R. D., “Advanced Methods of Inelastic Analy-
degree of modeling of interior floor framing. sis in the Limit States Design of Steel Structures,” Ph.D.
Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, August
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1990.
This research was supported by the National Science Foun-
the higher slip values with the full knowledge that there are C2. Nuts
an adequate number of paints available to meet the need. 1. Nuts to be galvanized (hot dip or mechanically
galvanized) shall be heat treated grade 2H, DH,
REFERENCES or DH3.
1. J. A. Yura, K. H. Frank, D. Polyzois. High-Strength Bolts 2. Plain (ungalvanized) nuts shall be grades 2, C,
for Bridges. Publication No. FHWA/RD-87/088. U.S. D, or C3 with a minimum Rockwell hardness
Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Adminis- of 89 HRB (or Brinell hardness 180 HB), or heat
tration. treated grades 2H, DH, or DH3. (The hardness
2. G. L. Kulak, J. W. Fisher, and J. H. A. Struik. Guide to requirements for grades 2, C, D, and C3 exceed
Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints. A Wiley- the current AASHTO/ASTM requirements.)
1 6 B-Bolt 12 24 1⁄
4
2 6 F-Bolt 12 24 1⁄
4
3 1 F-Bolt 6 12 3⁄
8
Test Procedure
All tests were carried out under load control. Two types of
load history were applied: A cyclic regime (C-Type) con- Fig. 3. Test setup.
Fig. 4. Bearing-type bolt connection response. Fig. 5. Friction-type connection response, Series 2.
Table 3.
Sample Data Test Series 3
Ksec (kip-in./radian) Mel (kip-in.) Ms (kip-in.)
Test Loading
Fabricator No. Type is rs is rs is rs Tension Control Method
information about systematic differences between products X and S for any value of x by integration, or from available
of different fabricators in order to obtain insight into prob- tables.12 In this way, we will determine the minimum
lems of quality control. strength and stiffness which can be expected at a specified
level of confidence—say, 95 times out of the next 100 speci-
Statistical Methods mens, as will be assumed in what follows.
The value of any characteristic will vary among the speci- The methods just described depend on the premise that
mens tested. The total of these specimens is called the sam- all specimens belong to the same population. However, the
ple. The individual values can be plotted in the form of a techniques of different fabricators could be so different that
histogram. We assume that this histogram can be matched their products might not belong to one population. Such con-
under increasing sample size by a continuous bell-shaped ditions are determined by an analysis of variance
curve containing an area of value unity, as shown in Fig. 8, (ANOVA).12 An occurrence of this type will be discussed
representing a normal distribution. This curve displays the below in connection with the stiffnesses of Series 2.
character of the population of an infinite number of such These techniques were applied to the test data in the
specimens, of which the sample is assumed to be a part. The following sequence: the strengths Mel and Ms, and the
shape of this curve can be defined by just two parameters, stiffness Ksec of Series 2 and 3 were first subjected to an
the mean X and the standard deviation S, defined in Fig. 8. analysis of variance to determine the likelihood of their
The coefficient of variation S/X indicates the degree of scat- belonging to one or more populations to within the 95
ter of results among nominally identical specimens. percent level of confidence, using the F-Test described in
The probability P of exceeding any particular value of the Ref. 12.
parameter x is given by the area under the bell curve (shown For each population, the values X and S of the normal dis-
shaded in Fig. 8) which is to the right of that value, and which tribution were computed, and the minimum value of each
can range from zero to unity. parameter which might be expected within 95 percent con-
The probability P can be found for a distribution with given fidence level was calculated.
__ 1 n
X = ∑ xi ; n = Sample Size
ni = 1
__
S=
√ 1 n
∑
ni = 1
(xi − X)2
Fig. 7. Descriptive parameters of connection response. Fig. 9. Assumed distribution for Ksec.
Table 5.
Population Dependent Statistics Test Series 2
Population A Population B
Series 2 Ksec (kip-in./radian) Ksec (kip-in./radian)
Fabricator 1, 4, 5, 6 2, 3
Sample size n = 14 n=8
Sample mean 37,325 66,938
Standard deviation 8,737 12,704
Coefficient of variation 23.4% 18.9%
C = 95% Confidence Interval
Stat. minimum P = 95% min Ksec = 14,487 min Ksec = 26,438
Table 6.
Statistics Test Series 3
Stiffness Strength
Series 3
Sample Size: n = 12 Ksec (kip-in./radian) Ms (kip-in.) Mel (kip-in.)
Sample mean 107,667 328 323
Standard deviation 15,091 44 52
Coefficient of variation 14.2% 13.4% 16.1%
C = 95% Confidence Interval
Stat. minimum P = 95% min Ksec = 65,377 min Ms = 208 min Mel = 180
radian can be assumed at the 95 percent confidence level, defined by the onset of softening, was determined by bolt
a value so low as to be negligible. slip; this is in contrast to the softening of the 1⁄4-in. angle
The expected stiffness of specimens from Fabricators 2 connections which was caused by yielding of the outstand-
and 3 is about twice that of specimens from Fabricators 1, ing angle legs. The uncertainty of this event seems to be about
4, 5, or 6. One might look for obvious manufacturing differ- the same, no matter what the cause, as evidenced by com-
ences among these fabricators. The last column of Table 2 parison of the coefficients of variation for the strength mea-
gives little clue as to causes: Three different bolt tension con- sures of Series 2 and 3.
trol methods were used by the fabricators of Population A, The statistical analysis summarized in Table 6 indicates
among whom two used the same method as one of the fabri- that at the 95 percent confidence level both strength and stiff-
cators of Population B. The reason for these seemingly sys- ness belong to one population. Values of strength and stiff-
tematic differences remains unknown. ness which may be expected to be exceeded in 95 out of the
next 100 specimens from Fabricator 3 are also shown in
Series 3 Table 6.
The 12 3⁄8-in. web angle specimens constituting Series 3 The coefficient of variation for the stiffness Ksec of
came from one Fabricator (No. 3). In fact, the M-θ curves the specimens of Series 3 is less than half of that of
of Fig. 6 show much less scatter prior to bolt slip than those Series 2, indicating good quality control within one fabrica-
of Fig. 5 for Series 2. The strength of these connections, tor. For strength, Series 2 and 3 have similar scatter,
Fig. 10. Properties of Test Series 2. Fig. 11. Properties of Test Series 3.
LRFD Procedures
For LRFD design, however, it is more appropriate to divide
the required moment strength Mu by Cb (rather than dividing
it into the unbraced length) and use Lb and Mu / Cb as the entry
point in the beam curves. This procedure, suggested on page
3-56 of the LRFD manual, may be justified by observing the
equation (LRFD F1-3) which usually governs for the most
economical section
Lb − Lp
Mn = Cb Mp − (Mp − Mr) ≤ Mp (5)
Lr − Lp
One may divide both sides of the equation by Cb to obtain
Mn / Cb, but there is no significance to the parameter Lb / Cb.
A typical plot of Eq. 5 with Cb = 1 is shown in Fig. 4. Mp is
the fully plastic moment, Lp is the maximum unbraced length Fig. 4. Design moment strength vs. unbraced length.
Fig. 5. Moment diagram for Example 1. Fig. 6. Moment diagram for Example 2.
Fig. 7. Bending strength for W21×68 in Example 2. Fig. 9. Moment diagram for Example 4.
about the y-axis and twisting about the shear center are
and the governing critical load will be the lowest load P. For
interdependent. These three differential equations must be
columns in which the shear center and centroid are coinci-
solved simultaneously in order to obtain the buckling loads.
dent, i.e., doubly symmetric shapes such as a wide flange,
The development and solution of these simultaneous, inter-
buckling will occur by the usual bending about one of the
dependent equations have been treated extensively by Hoff9
principal axes (flexural buckling) or by twisting (torsion)
and Chajes,10 and thus only the results will be presented here.
about the shear center (centroid). Combined flexural-tor-
For the unsymmetric case, the critical buckling load is the
sional buckling does not occur since there are three inde-
lowest of the three possible roots of the cubic equation
pendent solutions resulting in the fact that the twisting and
p2xO2 flexural modes do not interfere (interact) with one another. In
(Py −P)(Px −P)(Pz −P)−(Py −P) =0 (1)
rO2 addition, torsional buckling will not generally control the
design unless the member is relatively short, and this is not
where: usually encountered in practice. In fact, material yielding may
Px = π2EIx / L2 result before torsional buckling can occur in these sections.
When the cross-section has only one axis of symmetry, say
Py = π2EIy / L2 (2) the y axis, the shear center lies on that axis and xO = 0. For
this case the cubic equation for the critical buckling load
1 Cw π2
reduces to
Pz = 2 GJ + E
rO L2
p2yO2
rO = the polar radius of gyration of the cross-section with (Px − P) (Py − P)(Pz − P) − 2 = 0 (6)
rO
respect to the shear center.
whose solution yields
The first two expressions are the usual Euler flexural
buckling loads about the x and y axes, respectively. The third P = Px = π2EIx / L2
term Pz corresponds to torsional buckling in which Cw is the
warping constant and J is the torsional constant. Values of J or
for non-circular shapes are available in textbooks on the p2yO2
theory of elasticity. For structural shapes such as the angle, (Py − P)(Pz − P) − =0 (7)
rO2
W or I shapes, and channels made up of relatively thin,
rectangular elements, J may be taken as: The first expression is flexural buckling about the x axis and
the second is a quadratic in P whose roots correspond to
J = Σbt3 / 3 (3)
buckling by a combination of bending and twisting, i.e.,
where b and t are the width and thickness of the rectangular flexural-torsional buckling. The smaller of the roots is
elements of the cross-section respectively. Fortunately, the
1
torsional values (including rO) for most shapes are tabulated P = Pft = [P + Py − √
(Pz + Py )2 − 4kPz Py ] (8)
2k z
in Part 1 of the AISC LRFD and ASD manuals. It can be
clearly seen from the terms in this cubic equation that failure where:
√
2 2
If one takes the critical buckling load equations presented 1 1 1 1 − 1 + YO
herein, and converts them to critical stresses by dividing 2 = 2 + + 2r 2 2r 2 rt ry rO (14)
rft 2rt 2ry 2
through by the cross-section area A, these equations will t y
reduce to those presented in Appendix E of the AISC LRFD where rft is the equivalent radius of gyration (in inches) for
Specification, provided that some additional modifications flexural-torsional buckling and rO is the polar radius of gyra-
and substitutions are made such as tion (√
Ip /A ) where Ip is the polar moment of inertia about the
_ I +I shear center. It must be emphasized that since the expression
rO2 = xO2 + yO2 + x y for rft contains rt, then rft is also dependent on the column length
A
L.
xO2 + yO2 This equivalent radius of gyration can be employed as with
H =1 − _2 any radius of gyration. Therefore, if a singly symmetric
rO section is considered such that xO = 0, then (KxLx / rx) and
L = KL (9) (KzLz / rft) can be compared to determine which controls, since
it is these two buckling modes which have to be considered
rx = √
Ix /A for such singly symmetric shapes. The larger effective slen-
derness ratio value will govern the design and can be used
ry = √
Iy /A with the applicable stress equations (either Fcr in LRFD or Fa
in ASD) to determine the controlling design or allowable load.
EQUIVALENT RADIUS OF GYRATION CONCEPT In either case (LRFD or ASD), local buckling must be con-
Converting the expression for the critical torsional buckling sidered and the introduction of the form factors Qs and Qa can
load Pz given by Eq. 2 to a critical stress yields be incorporated as usual. For LRFD design, the additional
consideration of (KL / r)m for built-up members may also be
1 π2ECw
Fz = GJ + (10) incorporated when applicable using the usual procedures.
Ip L2 Before proceeding with specific design applications, some
attention must be devoted to the physical significance of the
Equating the critical Euler stress to this value yields
equivalent radius of gyration rft. A plot of the various radii of
π2E 1 ECw gyration versus effective lengths are presented in Fig. 2 for a
= GJ + π2 2 pair of 8×4×1 angles, long legs back-to-back (3⁄8-in. spacing).
(L / r) Ip
2
L
As was stated earlier, rft is a function of the effective length of
L2 EC the column while the other significant radii are constant for a
rt 2 = GJ + π2 2w (11) given section and separation distance. For sections with rx > ry,
π EIp
2
L
flexural-torsional buckling will always control the buckling
GJL2 Cw mode for any given effective length. For large effective
= EIp + lengths there will be essentially no difference between
π 2 Ip
flexural buckling about the y-axis and flexural-torsional
Taking G = 0.4E and π2 = 9.87 buckling, i.e., ry ≈ rft. For sections where rx < ry a different
relationship between these radii is obtained as shown in Fig.
0.04JL2 Cw
rt 2 = + 3. In this instance, it would appear that flexural-torsional
Ip Ip
buckling might control. However, since rft and rt are numeri- assume two intermediate connections.
cally close for these lengths, no accuracy will be sacrificed Solution:
by using rft for all cases. From the AISC LRFD Manual Part 1:
The equivalent radius of gyration, rft, was computed and
tabulated for all practical effective lengths for each double Qs = 0.982 rz = 0.654 in. Ag = 5.72 in.2
angle section (long legs and short legs back to back) as well rx = 1.61 in. ry = 1.23 in.
as for each structural tee (cut from W shapes) that appears in
the column load tables of the AISC manuals of steel construc- From the rft tables: rft = 1.19 in. (at KL = 14 ft.)
tion. For the pairs of angles, back to back spacings of 0 in.,
3⁄ -in., and 3⁄ -in. have been included. Since KLx = KLy and rft < ry < rx, flexural-torsional buckling
8 4
will control.
USE OF TABLES
Checking AISC LRFD Section E4:
In order to demonstrate the use of the equivalent radius of
gyration (rft) concept for flexural-torsional buckling in a de- a = (14)(12) / 3 = 56 in.
sign scenario, a series of examples is presented using both the
AISC LRFD and ASD Specifications. Each example is con- a / ri = 56 / 0.654 = 85.63 > 50. Therefore, a modified
cluded by demonstrating its accuracy using a comparison slenderness ratio using AISC LRFD Eq. E4-2 must be
with tabular values presented in the AISC manuals. It should computed.
Fig. 3. rft vs. KL for double angles 3×3×3⁄8, equal legs, 0-in.
Fig. 2. rft vs. KL for double angles 8×4×1 LLBB, 3⁄8-in. spacing. spacing.
Qs = 1.0 rz = 0.648 in. Ag = 7.5 in.2 From the rft tables: rft = 1.20 in. (at KL = 14 ft.)
ry = 1.12 in rx = 1.59 in.
Since KLx = KLy and rft < ry < rx, flexural-torsional buckling
From the rft tables: rft = 1.11 in. (at KL = 15 ft.) will control.
KLx / rx = (12)(20) / 1.59 = 150.9
√
KLy / ry = (12)(15) / 1.12 = 160.7 14(12) 36
λc = = 1.570 (AISC LRFD Eq. E2-4)
KLy / rft = (12)(15) / 1.11 = 162.2 1.20π 29,000
Since KLy / rft is the maximum effective slenderness ratio, since λc√
Q = 1.570√
0.733 = 1.34 < 1.5, use AISC LRFD Eq.
flexural-torsional buckling will control. E2-2.
Checking AISC LRFD Section E4: 2
Fcr = 0.733(0.658(1.34) )36 = 12.44 ksi
a = (15)(12) / 3 = 60 in. Pn = AgFcr = (7.36)(12.44) = 91.56
Pu = φPn = 0.85(91.56) = 77.82 kip, say 78 kip
a / ri = 60 / 0.648 = 92.6 > 50. Therefore, a modified slender-
ness ratio using AISC LRFD Eq. E4-2 must be computed. Using the AISC LRFD column load tables (p. 2-87) again for
verification,
√
2
KL 12(15) Pu = 77 kip
= 1.11 + (92.6 − 50) = 167.66
2
r m
Example 4
√
167.66 36 Given:
λc = = 1.88 (AISC LRFD Eq. E2-4)
π 29,000 Determine the allowable load using the AISC ASD Specifi-
cation for a pair of 7×4×3⁄4 angles (long legs back to back,
since λc > 1.5, use AISC LRFD Eq. E2-3. 3⁄ -in. spacing) with KL = KL = 12 ft. Use A36 steel.
8 x y
From the rft tables: rft = 1.56 in. (at KL = 12 ft.) P = Fa Ag = (10.92)(19.4) = 211.85 kip, say 212 kip
Since KLx = KLy and rft < ry < rx, flexural-torsional buckling Using the AISC ASD column load tables (p. 3-88) for
will control. verification
KL / rft = (12)(12) / 1.56 = 92.31 P = 211 kip
Cc = √
2π2E / Fy = √
= 126.1
2π2(29,000) / 36 CONCLUSIONS
Since KL / r < Cc, use AISC ASD Eq. E2-1. Flexural-torsional buckling is a concept unfamiliar to most
designers, and yet it can be the predominant factor in the
(92.31)2 design of singly symmetric compression members. A detailed
1 − 36 explanation of this buckling mode cannot be found in most
2(126.1)2
Fa = = 13.93 ksi elementary steel design texts, and thus the seasoned designer,
5 3(92.31) (92.31)3
+ − as well as the steel design student, are left to using a series of
3 8(126.1) 8(126.1)3
complicated design equations as a means of evaluating this
Or using AISC ASD Table C-36 (p. 3-16): phenomenon. While the column load tables in the AISC
manuals deal effectively with this buckling mode, a student
For KL / r = 92.31, Fa = 13.93 ksi or novice designer would have some difficulty duplicating
P = Fa Ag = (13.93)(15.4) = 214.5 kip, say 214 kip these tabular values. For grades of steel other than A36 or
Using the AISC ASD column load tables (p. 3-68) for GR50, these designers would be left to their own means to
verification consider the flexural-torsional contribution to the design
process.
P = 214 kip The introduction of the equivalent radius of gyration for
flexural-torsional buckling (and torsional buckling to some
Example 5 degree) is an effective way of introducing the concept of this
Given: buckling mode to the steel design student or the novice
Determine the allowable load using the AISC ASD Specifi- designer. The tables associated with this equivalent radius of
cation for a WT15×66 with KLx = 40 ft. and KLy = 20 ft. Use gyration provide an excellent supplement to the AISC manu-
GR50 steel. als and an easy way to introduce this buckling mode into the
usual design procedure for compression members. With some
Solution: brief initial explanation of this buckling phenomena and how
From the AISC ASD Manual Part 1: it interacts with the usual flexural buckling considerations (as
presented herein), the introduction of the equivalent radius of
Qs = 0.664 Ag = 19.4 in.2
gyration for flexural-torsional buckling blends right into
ry = 2.25 in. rx = 4.66 in.
usual design considerations and computations.
From the rft tables: rft = 2.12 in. (at KL = 20 ft.)
NOMENCLATURE
KLx / rx = (12)(40) / 4.66 = 103.0
The symbols used in this paper follow the usage of the AISC
KLy / ry = (12)(20) / 2.25 = 106.7
ASD Manual, 9th Edition and the AISC LRFD Manual, 1st
KLy / rft = (12)(20) / 2.12 = 113.21 ←
Edition.
Since KLy / rft is the maximum effective slenderness ratio,
flexural-torsional buckling will control. REFERENCES
1. American Institute of Steel Construction, Load and Re-
√
√
2π2E 2π2(29,000) sistance Factor Design Manual of Steel Construction, 1st
Cc′ = = = 131.31 ed., Chicago: AISC, 1986.
QFy (0.664)(50)
2. American Institute of Steel Construction, Allowable
Stress Design Manual of Steel, 9th ed., Chicago: AISC,
where Qs = Q
1989.
Since KL / r < Cc′, use AISC ASD Eq. A-B5-11. 3. Zahn, Cynthia J. and Iwankiw, Nestor R., “Flexural-Tor-
PROPOSED TECHNIQUE
The proposed technique is based on the fact that, typically,
there is a clear and direct relationship between the displaced
configuration of the braced element or structure and the
magnitude of the stabilizing force that must be provided by
the bracing system. It is important to note that the “displaced
configuration” in the preceding statement is the configuration
after all displacements have occurred, including those caused
by deformation of the bracing system. While bracing stiffness
is not mentioned explicitly, it is significant in that it affects
the displaced configuration. The proposed general procedure
for determining bracing forces for design consists of the
following steps:
1. Estimate the critical displaced geometry of the structure,
i.e., the geometry that results in the largest value of the
particular bracing force that is being determined. The
critical geometry may be different for different bracing
components; maximum forces on the different compo-
nents may not occur simultaneously. The estimated dis-
placed configuration should include the effects of initial
INTRODUCTION same setting. Load was applied via two 100 kip capacity
A literature search indicated a lack of test results regarding hydraulic jacks which allowed the load on each side of the
truss to be kept balanced. Each specimen was monitored with
non-slender single angle struts. The primary objective of this
paper is to present and discuss the results of the tests con- eight linear strain gages and displacements were measured in
ducted by the authors on non-slender single angle compres- two orthogonal directions at the center of the specimens. In
sion members. These angle members have equal legs and addition, each hydraulic jack had a corresponding load cell
were tested to failure as part of a three-dimensional truss. and digital readout to allow visual monitoring of the load
The paper briefly describes the authors’ experimental pro- during the test. All data was recorded by a computer except
gram. The method of calculation of the member forces from for the load cell readings which were taken manually. The
the strain readings is discussed. The test results are given and eight strain gages were located in pairs to account for differ-
six failure modes are identified. These failure modes depend ential strains through the leg thickness as shown in Fig. 3. The
on the member slenderness ratio, the angle leg width/thick- displacement transducers were located as shown in Fig. 4.
ness ratio, the end connection detail, and the eccentricity of Transducers 1 and 2 monitored the movement of the center
the applied load. These failure modes can be generally clas- of the specimen relative to the reaction frame, and transducers
sified as global with no appreciable local failures or local 3 and 4 measured the movement of the top and bottom joints
failures which triggered global failures in some cases. of the specimen relative to the reaction frame. Based on the
Finally, the design rules given by the AISC Specification four displacement readings, the displacements at the center
for Structural Steel Buildings1–3 and the ASCE Manual 52 for of the specimen in two orthogonal directions can be deter-
the Design of Steel Transmission Towers4 are evaluated. mined. It should be noted that it was assumed that the truss
did not deform out-of-plane and no provisions were made to
measure the torsional rotation at the center of the angle.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Calculation of Member Forces from Strain Readings:
The number of tests on slender members is sufficient to permit The method used to calculate member forces from strain
accurate recommendations for design. However, there is not readings involves numerical integration of the stress over the
enough data to allow accurate design recommendations for crosssectional area and was developed to handle the inelastic
non-slender members. In addition, many of the published failures encountered for the specimens tested. An advantage
tests do not reflect actual end conditions. The testing program of this method is that it easily allows the inclusion of residual
conducted by the authors directly addresses the lack of data stresses in the analysis. This is accomplished by combining
regarding non-slender single angle struts, while attempting to
model actual end conditions as closely as possible.
Test Specimens: Fifty single-angle members, with equal
legs, were tested as part of a truss. The tests included single
and double bolted end connections. The selection of member
sizes was based on the capacity of the truss and the need to
cover a slenderness ratio range from 60 to 120. Table 1 lists
the characteristics and numbers of the test specimens chosen.
Test Apparatus and Instrumentation: The three-dimen-
sional truss used to test each specimen is shown in Figs. 1 and
2. The truss was designed so that the “target angle” would fail
first without introducing significant deformations in the re-
mainder of the truss. Following each test, only the target angle
was replaced, allowing multiple tests to be conducted in the
the residual stress diagram with the stress distribution calcu- of the specimens tested. To provide a check on the accuracy
lated from the measured strains, and using elastic-perfectly- of the axial force calculated as described above, two compres-
plastic material properties. The residual stress distribution sion tests were conducted in a Baldwin testing machine. The
shown in Fig. 5 was assumed. A sensitivity analysis was ends were bolted in the same manner as the specimens tested
performed where the maximum value of the residual stress in the truss, and eight strain gages were mounted on both
was varied from 0 to 0.3Fy where Fy is the actual yield stress angles. For each test, the calculated axial load was compared
of the specimen. It was found that the effect on the calculated with the actual applied load which was read directly from the
axial force was on the order of five percent or less for most machine load indicator. The calculated failure load was two
percent below the actual applied load in one case and was
seven percent below the actual applied load in the other. Both
of these values are within the range of experimental error.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The failure loads and the observed failure modes will be
discussed. For the purpose of presenting and discussing the
results, the tests have been grouped into ten categories as
shown in Table 1.
Failure Modes: The first failure mode involves local buck-
ling of the connected leg. This local buckling is coupled with
torsional buckling or followed by flexural buckling about
Fig. 2. Location of target angle.
Fig. 10. Member force vs. strain and displacement Specimen 42.
of the leg is considered by calculating a local buckling stress Most single angle struts are eccentrically loaded and the
Fcr. Finally, the axial compressive stress Fa is calculated based effect of biaxial bending must be considered by using the
on KL/r, Fcr, and the yield stress Fy. appropriate interaction equation from Chapter H, in both the
AISC Specifications: Currently there are two versions of LRFD and ASD specifications. In the case of the LRFD
the AISC specification. One version is the Load Resistance Specification, when calculating the nominal bending mo-
Factor Design (LRFD), and the second is the Allowable Stress ments, the limiting extreme fiber flexural stress is usually
Design (ASD). The concepts of design of the concentrically assumed to be equal to the yield stress. In the case of the ASD
loaded single-angle strut are basically the same in the LRFD Specification the allowable bending stresses are calculated
and ASD specifications. An equivalent slenderness ratio is with due consideration of the member lateral stability.
calculated taking the effect of the angle leg width/thickness Evaluation of the Design Methods: Both the AISC LRFD
ratio into consideration. The nominal axial load or the allow- Specification, and Manual 52 are based on limit state design.
able axial stress is then calculated. The calculation is based Hence, the nominal loads without any reduction can be com-
on flexural and flexural-torsional buckling, and the smaller pared directly with the experimental failure loads. The test
value is used. specimens nominal loads as predicted by the AISC LRFD
Specification (with and without the effect of the load eccen- they are high if the effect of the load eccentricity is taken into
tricity), and Manual 52 are given in Tables 4 and 5. In the consideration in the manner described earlier.
same tables the experimental failure loads are given. One possible way to resolve the overdesign in the AISC
The predicted allowable loads for the test specimens (with specifications is to consider the end restraint effect by using
and without the effect of the load eccentricity) based on the an effective length factor less than one. Another issue, which
AISC ASD Specification are given in Tables 6 and 7. In the can be resolved more easily to get rid of the conservatism, is
same tables the actual failure loads and the corresponding not to add the worst case bending stresses due to load eccen-
factors of safety (Failure Load/Allowable Load) are given. tricities that do not occur at the same point of the angle cross
As can be noted from Tables 4 and 5, the nominal loads section as suggested in the AISC Manual. It is more correct
calculated from Manual 52 are very close to or exceed the to combine the axial and bending stresses at the angle tips and
actual failure loads. A similar conclusion can be reached by heel and then to use the interaction equation to determine the
examining the AISC LRFD Specification nominal loads for allowable load based on the most critical point.
the concentrically loaded struts. When the eccentricity of the
applied loads is taken into consideration, the AISC LRFD SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Specification nominal loads are very conservative. As can be In this paper a test program for non-slender single angle
noted from Tables 6 and 7, the safety factors are generally low members with equal legs, utilizing a three-dimensional truss,
if one ignores the effect of the load eccentricity. However, was briefly described. The test results were given and ana-
lyzed. Comparisons were made between the actual failure Maine Cascade Iron Works of Clinton, ME supplied the
loads and those predicted using methods given in the ASCE testing truss as a donation to the University of Maine.
Manual 52 for Steel Transmission Towers and the AISC
Specification for Steel Buildings. The test results reported in REFERENCES
this paper indicate that current design methods for nonslender 1. Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for
single angle members are not adequate. Structural Steel Buildings, AISC, 1986.
2. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, Allowable
Stress Design and Plastic Design, AISC, 1989.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3. Specification for Allowable Stress Design of Single-Angle
This study was partially funded by Bonneville Power Admini- Members, AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 9th ed.,
stration and Ontario Hydro. Funds were received from the 1989.
University of Maine in the form of release time for the first 4. ASCE Manual 52, Guide for Design of Steel Transmission
two authors and graduate assistantship for the third author. Towers, 2nd ed., 1988.
e = 0* e ≠ 0*
Failure
Load Ra Safety Ra Safety
Test (kips) (kips) Factor (kips) Factor
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
mens. Complete description of the specimens is pro- The slenderness ratios were approximately 60, 120, and
vided in Table 1(a). 200. The details of the specimens selected for the present
2. Mueller and Erzurumlu (1983): Test results of fourteen study are given in Table 1(b).
3×3×1⁄4-in. and two 5×3×1⁄4-in. single angle specimens 3. Ishida (1968): Tests were conducted by Ishida on seven
are included in the present study. The specimens had ball high strength steel angles of size 75×75×6 mm (3×3×1⁄4-
joints at the ends to permit free rotation in any direction. in.). Load was applied on the major principal axis to-
wards the shear center at an eccentricity with respect to All the eccentricities given above are with respect to the
minor principal axis equal to the minimum radius of principal axes as shown in Fig. 1.
gyration. Slenderness ratios of specimens varied from The main aim of the present paper is to bring to the attention
20 to 100. Complete description of the selected speci- of the designers the degree of conservatism involved in the
mens is provided in Table 1(c). design of eccentrically loaded steel single angle struts. The
Fig. 2. Load ratio vs. moment ratio for test specimens Fig. 3. Load ratio vs. moment ratio for test specimens as per
as per AISC LRFD provisions with critical bending AISC LRFD provisions with critical bending stress computed
stress equal to yield stress. from formulas adapted from AISC ASD specification.
study was originally undertaken in order to verify a growing LRFD—Figs. 2 to 4 and fa / Fa for ASD—Figs. 5 and 6). The
feeling among some of the practising engineers that the LRFD X-axis shows the corresponding moment ratios. The moment
formulas are conservative for the design of single angles even ratios in Fig. 2 are calculated using the present LRFD ap-
though the application of the formulas is quite involved in proach with a critical bending compresive stress equal to Fy
view of the necessity for solving cubic equations. (see example problem in AISC LRFD). Figure 3 calculates
the critical bending stress using the formulas similar to those
ANALYSIS OF TEST DATA given in the current ASD Specification and uses the moment
The data described above is used to evaluate the interaction ratios as per LRFD. This approach was undertaken in order
formulas of LRFD and ASD specifications. Figures 2 through to see the effect of a more rational calculation of critical
6 show different possible ways of combining the effects of bending stress (as per ASD formulas) when compared to the
axial load and bending moments on the steel single angle presently used value of Fy. Figure 4 shows results obtained
struts for use with the current design practice. In all the using the interaction formula at each of the possible critical
figures, the Y-axis shows the axial load ratio (Pu / φPn for points by considering the moment capacities due to the criti-
cal bending stress at that point (calculated using the formulas
adopted from the ASD provisions) simultaneously with re-
Fig. 4. Load ratio vs. moment ratio for test specimens using
AISC LRFD provisions with critical bending stress computed
from formulas adapted from AISC ASD specification and Fig. 5. Load ratio vs. moment ratio for test specimens
interaction applied at all possible critical points. as per AISC LRFD provisions.
AISC LRFD 0.65 0.08 0.69 0.10 0.68 0.08 0.66 0.08
existing provi-
sions (Fig. 2)
Same as above 0.70 0.07 0.75 0.10 0.77 0.08 0.72 0.08
but with interac-
tion factor
changed to 2/3
AISC LRFD with 0.62 0.06 0.66 0.11 0.62 0.08 0.63 0.08
critical bending
stress as per
ASD provisions
(Fig. 3)
Same as above 0.67 0.07 0.71 0.11 0.69 0.08 0.68 0.08
but with
interaction factor
changed to 2/3
AISC LRFD with 0.63 0.06 0.71 0.09 0.64 0.08 0.65 0.08
critical bending
stress as per
ASD and with
interaction at all
critical points
(Fig. 4)
Same as above 0.68 0.07 0.76 0.09 0.72 0.08 0.71 0.08
but with
interaction factor
changed to 2/3
AISC ASD 0.77 0.08 0.83 0.14 0.76 0.10 0.78 0.10
existing provi-
sions (Fig. 5)
AISC ASD 0.79 0.07 0.90 0.12 0.79 0.10 0.81 0.10
with interaction
at all critical
points (Fig. 6)
than 6.0 for the cases listed and for several cases not presented comparison with test results. This has been done for the case
herein. A consistently high value for the reliability index of I-sections in braced frames and the corresponding formulas
shows that the present alternatives relying on simple variation are given in the appendix to AISC LRFD (1986). Such for-
to the current LRFD formulas are unusually conservative mulas tend to be very complicated for practical design appli-
when compared to the reliability index for the other types of cations and are not normally used. The alternative to such
members which is usually between two and four. Any further methods is simpler variations of the existing formulas in a
reduction in the degree of conservatism of the sections would more empirical sense. The present study shows the amount of
warrant recourse to more complicated but exact formulas. improvement possible through such methods. Any further
One such set of formulas derived for beam columns uses an improvement in the formulas would most likely result in more
exponential format for the two moment ratios (Chen and complicated formulas.
Atsuta, 1976 and Chen and Lui, 1987). The calibration of The calculations also show that the critical bending stress
these formulas involves extensive numerical integration and calculated using the more rational formulas of ASD is less
Table 2.
Cross-Section Properties
plastic moment capacity, as shown in Table 3. Figure 5 shows Table 4 compares the measured capacities versus calcu-
a typical failure, including the plastic hinge which was lated capacities. If the provisions of the LRFD specification
formed. Figure 6 is the moment versus deflection diagram for are followed directly, the stems of all three specimens are
Test 4. The deflections follow the predicted elastic deflections slender elements and the capacity of the sections must be
quite well until the initiation of yielding in the stem at My, reduced according to LRFD Appendix B. But the criteria for
then begin to gradually increase until the plastic capacity of tee stems was derived for stems in axial compression, not
the section is reached. Based on these measured deflections, stems in flexural compression and uses a very conservative
it is reasonable to allow a service load of 0.90My (0.90Fy) for assumption for the length of the unstiffened element. It is
serviceability reasons. possible to derive a somewhat less conservative limit for
Load versus deflection curves were also developed for stems in flexural compression, using the same basic criteria,
Tests 6, 7, and 8. These sections failed in the region of which shows the test specimen stems not to be slender ele-
negative bending where the stem was in flexural compres- ments. This derivation is shown in Appendix B of this paper.
sion. Figures 7 and 8 show a typical failure of the stem through The collected test data for negative bending is rather slim
buckling. Figure 9 shows the moment versus deflection dia- to base a specification provision on. It is possible, however,
gram for Test 7. Again, the measured deflections generally to conservatively set initiation of stem yielding (My) as an
follow the predicted elastic deflections once the slippage of upper limit for strength in negative bending. Further research
the specimen in the supports is considered. may reasonably allow a design moment greater than My.
Table 4.
Test Results for Negative Bending
Fig. 6. Moment vs. deflection for Test 4. Fig. 8. Lateral displacement of stem in negative bending.
APPENDIX B—SLENDERNESS LIMITS FOR This value must be reduced to account for residual stress,
STEMS OF TEES IN FLEXURAL COMPRESSION post-buckling effects, and imperfections (see Ref. 4). A re-
duction value of α = 0.7 is used. Therefore:
DERIVATION
Both ASD and LRFD set the noncompact or λr limit for tee (b / t) ≤ 161α√
k / Fy or
stems as:
(b / t) ≤ 113√
k / Fy
d / t ≤ 127 / √
Fy
Substituting in k = 1.277 produces the limit of 127 / √
Fy for
where: uniform axial load.
d = section depth Substituting in k = 1.61 produces a limit of 144 / √ Fy for
t = stem thickness flexural compression.
Next, it needs to be determined what is the correct value of
This is based on the assumption of a uniformly compressed b to use. Using the full depth of the section is unnecessarily
conservative. Considering that the elastic neutral axis for
almost all WT sections is somewhere in the stem near the
Fig. 9. Moment vs. deflection for Test 7. Fig. 10. Flexural strength of WT6×20, Fy = 50 ksi.
b = d − tf
where:
tf = flange thickness
d = section depth
The allowable ASD load for rupture of the net section is The allowable ASD load for yielding of the gross cross-
given by 0.5Fu UAn (ASD/D1), and the LRFD design strength section is given by 0.6Fy Ag, where Ag is the gross area. The
is 50 percent greater than the ASD allowable (LRFD/D1). LRFD design strength is 50 percent greater than this ASD
Due to the spacing used, failure through one hole never allowable. Neither yielding provision came close to govern-
governed for any connection when compared to the two-hole ing the strength of any connection tested.
stagger path. The shear lag reduction coefficients U used in For each connection tested, the ASD allowable load PA and
these calculations were obtained from the current AISC codes the LRFD design load φPn were calculated on the basis of the
and not the 1 − x / L contained in the original research.13 U actual yield and ultimate strengths given in Table 1. The ASD
was therefore set equal to 0.75 for all connections except and LRFD governing loads are presented in Table 2 along
those with the 3/30 and 4/40 patterns for which U was 0.85. with the code equation numbers which produce them. Most
cated the presence of bending for this tension loading. In fact, tion #1 has positive stagger (2/2+). Both connections are
the eccentricity associated with the loading was shown to 6×6×5⁄16 angles and have the same shear area. When the test
account for the observed test behavior. Eccentricity turns out results are nondimensionalized for material properties, the
to be the key to explaining the behavior shown in Fig. 4. effect of stagger can be isolated. Code equations predict an
Adidam,14,15 demonstrated this by analytically varying the increase in loads, as the result of the addition of the s2 / 4g
eccentricity. Chamarajanagar16 obtained the same conclu- factor to the width. There are two other sets of connections
sions using finite element studies. which differ only in that one has zero and the other has
Stagger—Connection #3 has no stagger (2/20). Connec- positive stagger. The ASD code predicted increase for these
2.1. Web-Gap Cracking During Service 1. floor beam connection plates in both the positive and
In-service web-gap cracking is illustrated in Figure 3.1 The negative moment regions,
floor-beam to girder connection detail shown in Fig. 3 is 2. diaphragm connection plates in both the positive and
susceptible to distortion-induced cracking at the small web negative moment regions,
gap at the top of the floor beam connection plate. As the floor 3. tied-arch floor beams in the web gap at the tie girder
beam carries traffic loads, the end of the beam rotates, forcing connection, and
the deflection of the girder web out of its normal longitudinal 4. horizontal connection plates or gussets at points of lat-
plane. There is a small (3⁄4-in. to 1 in.) gap between the top of eral bracing vibration as well as at gaps between stiffen-
the floor beam connection plate and the top girder flange. ers and gussets.
This web gap causes an abrupt change in stiffness, concen-
trating the rotation-induced distortion within a short length of 2.2. Web-Gap Cracking During Shipping and Handling
the girder web. Forcing the distortion to take place in such a Web-gap cracking happens not only under in-service condi-
small space introduces high stress ranges in the gap. Repeated tions but also during handling and shipping. Web-gap crack-
pumping of this short gap leads to longitudinal cracking of ing during transit is illustrated in Fig. 4.1 The conditions
the web at the weld at the top of the connection plate and at present (a stiffness discontinuity, a periodic displacement,
the weld connecting the top flange to the web. This type of and a weld toe) are conducive to distortion-induced cracking.
web-gap cracking at floor beam or floor beam truss connec- An abrupt change in stiffness occurs at the short web gap
tion plates is so prevalent that a survey in one state revealed between the inside face of the flange and the beginning of the
cracks in half of the bridges with this detail.6 Diaphragm and stiffeners. Such a gap may also occur between the inside face
cross-beam connections are frequently the sites of similar of the flange and the beginning of a connection plate. The
web-gaps, but have less severe imposed rotations that the periodic force operating within the gap is caused by the cyclic
floor beam case illustrated. This kind of web-gap detail
usually occurs where the top flange is in tension and arises
for the ironic reason that the connection plates were not
welded to the flange to eliminate an initiation site for load-in-
1. Fractographic examination of crack surfaces. 3.3. Fractographic Examination of the Crack Surfaces
2. Fatigue analysis. Pieces from two cracked trusses were used to prepare crack
3. Probable crack cause determination. surfaces for fractographic examination. The crack surfaces
4. Evaluation of appropriateness of repair procedures. were visually examined and photographically documented,
then examined using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
SEM examination of all cracks matched the characteristics of
known fatigue surfaces. Cracks were examined from all three
types identified in Section 3.1 and shown in Fig. 5, Detail A.
Figure 7 is a photograph of a crack surface located in the base
metal of the stem of tee top chord, running along the fillet
INTRODUCTION have also been adopted by Eurocode 314 which will ensure
A fter the advent of Hollow Structural Sections (HSS) in
widespread acceptance. These recommendations, for T, Y, X,
K and N-connections are given in Tables 1, 1a, 2, 2a, 3 and
Britain, experimental and theoretical studies on welded con-
3a, for circular and box tubes, and conform to the 1989 IIW
nections with square and round members took place at Shef-
recommendations13 with some further minor improvements.
field University, leading to the design recommendations of
In the latest (13th) edition of AWS D1.1 in 1992 these IIW
Eastwood and Wood.1,2 These were quickly implemented in
LRFD recommendations for box sections have been adopted,
Canada and publicized by Stelco3 in the world’s first HSS
with only a few very minor alterations to expressions or
connections manual. Shortly thereafter they were available to
resistances.15 The AWS5 design criteria for box connections
U.S. engineers in an AISI Guide.4 The more well known
are in an ultimate load format, with recommended resistance
reference document in the U.S. for the design of tubular
factors throughout. For Allowable Stress Design the allow-
connections is Chapter 10 of AWS D1.1.5 These AWS recom-
able capacity is the ultimate capacity divided by a safety
mendations originally evolved from a background of practices
factor of 1.44 / φ. Tables 1, 2, and 3 give factored resistances
and experience with fixed offshore steel platforms of welded
for design to the AISC LRFD specification,16 with the resis-
tubular construction. The connection capacities therefore were
tance factors already included, as also recommended for
expressed with much greater confidence for circular tubes than
Eurocode 3. Previous cross checks performed in Canada by
for box tubes (square or rectangular hollow sections).
Packer, et al. for box K and N gap connections,17 as well as
During the 1970s and 1980s a large amount of experimen-
circular T, Y, K and N gap and overlap connections,18 have
tal and theoretical research on connections between manufac-
indicated that very similar calibration coefficients to those
tured HSS has taken place in many countries, but almost
built into Tables 1, 2, and 3 would result for the Canadian
exclusively outside the U.S. Much of it has been coordinated
Limit States Design steelwork specification.19 The Canadian
and synthesized by technical committees of CIDECT (Comité
specification uses partial load factors of 1.25 and 1.50 for
International pour le Développement et l’Etude de la Con-
dead and live loads respectively, whereas the AISC LRFD
struction Tubulaire) and IIW (International Institute of Weld-
specification uses 1.2 and 1.6 for the same combination of
ing). An excellent appreciation of the behavior of welded
gravity loads. Thus these two specifications coincide for a
connections in HSS trusses has evolved and comprehensive
live-to-dead load ratio of 2:1, and only differ in total factored
design recommendations have consequently been issued by
loads by five percent at a live-to-dead load ratio of 5:1. Hence,
IIW,6 Kurobane,7 Wardenier,8 CIDECT9,10,11 and Dutta and
the factored connection resistances given in Tables 1, 2, and 3
Wurker.12 Very recently an international consensus has been
are sufficiently accurate for direct application to the AISC
obtained for LRFD design of statically-loaded, welded con-
LRFD specification for structural steel buildings.16
nections involving hollow section members in planar
The mathematical content of these tables may initially
trusses.13 These IIW recommendations are slightly different
appear forbidding but a large number of load cases and
from the 1981 first edition6 and other versions issued during
connection geometries is covered, resulting in only a small
the 1980s8,9,10,12 but have already been partially or fully im-
portion of the tables being applicable for a particular connec-
plemented in several countries. Of particular note is that they
tion. The symbols are defined in the list below and the
application of the design rules is demonstrated by the box
* Presented at the 1991 American Institute of Steel Construction National Steel
Construction Conference. section truss design example. This truss is designed to the
AISC LRFD specification16 using cold-formed box sections
Jeffrey A. Packer is professor, Department of Civil Engineer- (or HSS) conforming to ASTM A500 Grade C,20 for which
ing, University of Toronto. the minimum specified yield strength is 50 ksi (345 MPa). A
J. E. (Ted) Henderson is consultant, Henderson Engineering more complete description of the behavior of HSS connec-
Services. tions and trusses is available elsewhere (e.g., Refs. 8, 10, 21).
Jaap Wardenier is professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, When designing HSS trusses one should bear in mind that:
Delft University of Technology.
1. Chords should have thick walls rather than thin walls.
Table 1a.
Range of Validity of Table 1
NOTATION
Ai Cross-sectional area of member i (i = 0,1,2,3).
AV Effective shear area of the chord (See Table 3).
be Effective width of a web member (See Tables 2
and 3).
2. Web members should have thin walls rather than thick be(ov) Effective width for overlapping web member con-
walls. nected to overlapped web member. (See Tables 2
3. The web member should be fairly wide relative to the and 3).
chord member, but still able to sit on the “flat” face of bep Effective punching shear width (See Table 3).
the chord section, if possible. The outside corner radius bi External width of square or rectangular box section
of a North American coldformed box section can be member i (90° to plane of truss). (i = 0,1,2,3).
taken as 2ti.22 di External diameter of circular hollow section for
4. Gap connections (for K and N situations) are preferred member i (i = 0,1,2,3).
Note: a Outside this range of validity other failure criteria may be governing: e.g., punching shear, effective
width, side wall failure, chord shear or local buckling. If these particular limits of validity are violated the
connection may still be checked as one having a rectangular chord using Table 3, provided the limits of
validity in Table 3a are still met.
Try 3 × 3 × 3⁄16-in. Design compressive strength (φc Pn) = −53 bi = 4 in. or 5 in. ≥ 0.77 [(b1 + b2) / 2] = 3.5 in. o.k.
kips
b2 / bo = 4 / 6 = 0.67 ≥ 0.01 (bo / to) + 0.1
Diagonals 4-5 and 5-6: Loads are 84.4 kips and −84.4 kips = 0.01 (6 / (5 / 16)) + 0.1 = 0.29 o.k.
Use same sections as for members 2-3 and 3-4 to avoid a b1 / t1 = 26.7 ≤ 1.25√E / fy1 = 1.25√
29,000 / 50
= 30.1 o.k.
b2 / t2 = 4 / (3 / 16) = 21.3 ≤ 35 o.k.
bo / to = 6 / (5 / 16) = 19.2 ≥ 15
and ≤ 35 o.k.
Determine connection resistance of compression diagonal
(i = 1)
N∗1 = 8.9fyo to2 [(b1 + b2) / 2bo ]γ 0.5 f(n) / sinθ1 (Table 2)
Fig. 2. Preliminary selection of truss members with member
loads in kips. f(n) = 1.0 for a tension chord (Table 2)
Note that only the primary moment due to transverse Determine f(n) for Panel Point No. 6.
β = (5 + 3) / (2 × 7) = 0.571
n = No / Ao fyo + Mo / So fyo, by definition (See Notation)
Determine connection resistance of compression diagonal (Hence e / ho = 0.15 ≤ 0.25 which is acceptable)
(i = 1)
Determine bending moments in the chord at Panel Point 4.
N = 8.9fyoto [(b1 + b2) / 2bo]γ f(n) / sinθ1
∗
1
2 0.5
(Table 2) Moment from noding eccentricity
N∗1 = 8.9(50)(3⁄8)2[(5 + 3) / (2 × 7)](9.33)0.5(0.714) / 0.8 = e [(118 + 84.4) kips] cosθ = 131 kip-ins.
or 65.6 kip-in. each side of the panel point.
N∗1 = 97.5 kips Moment from purlin loads is considered to be 0.188PL at the
∗ connection = 375 kip-in., as discussed previously.
N ≥ N1 = 84.4 kips o.k.
1
For the design of the compression chord, both the moment
Note again that the connection resistance of the compres- due to transverse loading (purlin loads) and the moment due
sion diagonal would be inadequate with a thinner chord. to noding eccentricity must be taken into account. Thus,
Fig. 4 shows the moment combinations existing at Panel
Determine connection resistance of tension diagonal (i = 2) Point 4 which are:
As discussed previously, 375 + 65.6 = 441 kip-in., for chord length 2-4
N = N for this truss = 97.5 kips ≥ N2 = 59.1 kips
∗
2
∗
1 and 375 − 65.6 = 309 kip-in., for chord length 4-6.
Hence, Panel Point No. 6 is acceptable. Determine bending moments under the purlins.
Panel Point No. 8—another K-connection—can likewise be Use of the same model that was employed for the chord
shown to be acceptable. moment at Panel Point 4, (chord being two continuous spans
over the panel point), gives a conservative value of 0.156PL
Resistance of Top Chord as a Beam-Column between = 0.156(13.5)(147.6) = 311 kip-in. Figure 4 shows the total
Panel Points No. 2 and No. 6 midspan moments under the purlins, which are:
Determine nodal eccentricity at Panel Point No. 4
311 − 65.6 / 2 = 278 kip-in., for chord length 2-4
Minimum gap allowed = 0.5bo (1 − β) = 1.25 in., or and 311 + 65.6 / 2 = 344 kip-in., for chord length 4-6.
t1 + t2 = 0.375 in. (Table 2a) Member 2-4 Resistance as a Beam-Column
Therefore, gmin = 1.25 in., so use g = 1.25 in. (See Fig. 3) This is governed by Chapter H of the AISC LRFD specifica-
tion,16 formulas H1-1a and H1-1b, using KL = 0.9 (147.6 in.)
e = [(sinθ1sinθ2) / sin(θ1 + θ2)][(h1 / 2sinθ1) + (AISC LRFD Commentary)
(h2 / 2sinθ2) + g] − (ho / 2)
Pu / (φc Pn) = required compressive strength /
compressive resistance (AISC LRFD E2)
SUMMARY
The design of a welded planar truss has been demonstrated
using cold-formed Hollow Structural Section, or box section,
Fig. 5. KT Connection at Panel Point No. 7. members complying with ASTM A500 Grade C. Effective
Fs πx
2 ∫ L It ∫
f Q f Q L h
= τt dx = π P cos dx = π P α=
L L It π 2rib
0 0
or Thus,
Pcr
It should be noted that the above equation gives the total
The above equation gives the lateral deflection at mid-span shear force developed between the two individual compo-
and is applicable to all struts with any symmetrical end
condition. Equation 5 indicates that the amount of shear
developed between individual components increases as the
lateral deflection increases. If only the first buckling load is
of interest, however, it is reasonable to consider the value of
f when the stress in concave-side component reaches its
maximum value possible, that is the yield stress σy. Thus,
substitution of σy for σp in Eq. 6 results in: Fig. 1. Symmetric buckling shape of a hinged-end strut.
Fig. 3. Free body diagram of a half length hinged-end strut Fig. 4b. Free body diagram of a half length,
in post-buckling range. fixed-end strut after buckling.
a. Specimen AXH12
Specimen AXH12 had nine 2-in. long 1⁄4-in. stitch welds every
12 inches. For E70 electrodes, the ultimate strength of weld
metal in shear is taken as 60 / √
3 . If the two end gusset plates
are counted as two stitches, the ultimate shear capacity pro-
vided by the eleven 2-in. long stitch welds is, Fig. 8. General column strength curve according to LRFD. 2
2(2.46)2 286
=
(2.46) + 1 2.886
2
b . Specimen AXH13
Table 1 shows that Specimen AXH13 did not have adequate
stitch strength for the first buckling load as well as for the
post-buckling range. Consistent with the prediction by Eqs.
25 and 26, individual component bending was observed at the
first buckling of specimen AXH13 which caused the occur-
rence of unsymmetrical buckling mode. The individual bend-
ing of the two angle components in Specimen AXH13 is
shown in Fig. 9.
c. Specimen AB4
Table 1 indicates that Specimen AB4 had adequate stitch
strength for the first buckling load. Consistent with the pre-
diction by Eq. 25, individual bending was not observed at the
first buckling of specimen AB4. However, Table 1 shows that
the specimen did not have adequate stitch strength for the
Fig. 9. Unsymmetric buckling of Specimen AXH13. post-buckling range. Unlike the boxed specimen AXH13,
CONCLUSIONS
1. Built-up compression members are susceptible to indi-
vidual behavior of their components. Equation 25 can be
used to calculate the required stitch strength to ensure a
symmetric first buckling mode.
Fig. 10. Shear failure of two stitches in Specimen AXFS17. Fig. 11. Failure of Specimen AXFS17.
Σ(Ic / Lc)
GA = (1) 1.2. Sway Frames
Σ(Ib / Lb) If a rigid frame depends solely on frame action to resist lateral
forces, its sidesway is not prevented. In this case, the K-factor
is never smaller than 1.0. The mathematical equation for the
“sway uninhibited” case is:
Pierre Dumonteil is chief structural engineer, Robins Engi-
neers, Englewood, CO. GAGB(π / K)2 − 36 π/K
= (7)
6(GA + GB) tanπ / K
Table 2.
Comparison of Eqs. 7 and 8—Unbraced Frames
Although simpler than Eq. 2, this equation cannot be solved in the Column Section of the AISC Manuals, this accuracy
in closed form either. The French Rules recommend the may be about five percent. In view of the many simplifying
following approximate solution: assumptions needed to arrive at Eqs. 2 and 7, this accuracy is
certainly sufficient.
√
1.6GAGB + 4.0(GA + GB) + 7.5 The formula proposed by the ACI for braced frames gives
K= (8) K = 0.7 for a beam fully fixed at both ends, instead of 0.5. If
GA + GB + 7.5
GA = GB = 3.0, it yields K = 1.0, instead of the expected 0.89.
For a hinge at B, the formula simplifies to: The equations for unbraced frames are somewhat better: for
GA = GB = 2.0 for instance, they yield K = 1.56, instead of 1.61.
K=√
1.6GA + 4.0
(9) The French Rules indicate that Eq. 3 has an accuracy of
−0.5 percent to +1.5 percent, while Eq. 8 is accurate within
For complete fixity at B, the approximation is: two percent. Tables 1 and 2 report the accuracies found at a
few sample points. Again because of the nature of the sur-
√
4.0GA + 7.5 rounding assumptions, Eqs. 3 and 8 may be considered
K= (10)
GA + 7.5 mathematically exact.
When GA = GB = G: 2. BACKGROUND
K=√
0.8G + 1.0 (11) We have not been able to trace the origin of these equations,
although similar closed-form approximations are said to have
1.3. Accuracy of Equations been published by Donnell.
In the European Recommendations, Eqs. 3 and 8 are given
The accuracy that we can readily measure is of course the
in function of two factors βA and βB (rather than KA and KB as
mathematical accuracy, that is, the comparison of the results
in the French Rules). The definition of β differs from that of
given by an approximate formula to those obtained by solving
G, since, at each column end:
the corresponding “exact” equation. The accuracy of the
alignment charts depends essentially on the size of the charts,
Σ(Ib / Lb)
and on the reader’s sharpness of vision. For the small charts β= (12)
Σ(Ic / Lc) + Σ(Ib / Lb)
√
3.2ρAρB + 4ρA + 4ρB + 3.75 cases where the flexural spring model may be better, in truss
K= (20)
ρA + ρB + 3.75 calculations8 for instance.
If ρB > ρA, dimension a measured from point A sets the 3. VALIDITY OF ASSUMPTIONS
position of the point of inflexion in Fig. 3: The derivation of either the “exact” or the approximate equa-
tions requires several assumptions that are never exactly
√
a 1 4ρB− 2ρA + 3.75 fullfilled, whether the frame is braced or not. Examine the
= ⁄2 (21) frames of Figs. 2 and 4: it is evident that the assumed sym-
L ρA + ρB+ 3.75
metries seldom exist. With the flexural spring model, one
If ρA > ρB, the point of inflexion is located by dimension b could move the points of inflexion along the beams to see how
measured from point B: sensitive the K-factor is to their positions, but how much to
move them can only be estimated. Fortunately, the K-factor
is not too sensitive to variations in GA and GB, and its sensi-
√
b 1 4ρA − 2ρB+ 3.75
= ⁄2 (22) tivity is further dampened by the inelastic effect described by
L ρA + ρB+ 3.75 Yura.10 Nonetheless, estimating a K-factor is sometimes dif-
ficult, and it would certainly be desirable to do away with
Note that the buckling mode has only one point of inflexion K-factors and effective lengths altogether. There is a definite
within the length L, the other one being obviously at a distance trend in modern codes to do precisely that.
KL > L. In the AISC LRFD Specification, the designer has two
Referring to Fig. 4, which shows a symmetrical unbraced options: either make a P−∆ calculation, or determine the
frame in the sidesway mode, it is seen that, because of required flexural strength Mu by means of Eq. H1-2. In the
symmetry, the beams present a point of inflexion at mid-span. later case, one must establish not one, but two K-factors. The
The restraint on the columns is that provided by each half first one is calculated assuming that there is no lateral trans-
beam hinged at the axis of symmetry. Consequently, we find: lation of the frame; always smaller than 1.0, it serves to
3EIc (Lb / 2) calculate factor B1. The other one produces B2 which reflects
ρA = = 0.5GA (23) the effects of sidesway; it is always larger than 1.0. The latest
Lc 3EIb
Canadian code7 goes one step further: it eliminates K-factors
Equation 8 was derived by substituting ρA,B = 0.5GA,B in altogether for unbraced frames and calls for a P−∆ analysis
instead. Presumably, specifying K = 1.0 takes care of the
second-order effects (or P−δ effects) within the beam-column
itself. Professor McGuire9 expresses a fairly common point
INTRODUCTION At the close of the Fair, the Authority turned over the
A lthough the incidence of floor vibration problems appears building to the New York City Department of Parks and
Recreation, which leased it to a private caterer to generate
to be on the rise,1,2 the use of mechanical damping devices to
control vibrations is limited. In a recent survey of vibration income for the city. The caterer partitioned the ballroom level
control methods, Murray3 reports that passive-mechanical symmetrically into four dining/dancing halls at the corners of
damping methods, including viscous damping, visco-elastic the building, each served by an existing, central kitchen area.
damping, and tuned-mass dampers, have often gone untried Individual halls were arranged with dining tables near the
outside the laboratory or have had marginal impact in actual kitchen (and the center of the building); bandstands and dance
buildings. This is particularly unfortunate because mechani- floors were located at the tip of the cantilevered floors (Figs.
cal dampers can sometimes control floor vibrations more 2 and 3).
cheaply than structural stiffening, and are often the only As soon as the building’s cantilevered main floors were
viable means of vibration control in existing structures. used as dining and dance halls, guests complained about the
This paper details the successful implementation of a structure’s vibrations. Preliminary vibration tests performed
tuned-mass damping system to reduce the steady-state vibra- during dance events showed that the floor accelerations and
tions of the longspan, cantilevered, composite floor system at displacements sometimes reached 0.07G* and 0.13 inches,
the Terrace on the Park Building in New York City. The respectively. Observations of sloshing waves in cocktail
experience with this implementation suggests that tuned mass glasses and chandeliers that bounced to the beat of the band
dampers (TMDs) can be successfully employed to control gave credence to these measurements. Observations made
steady-state vibration problems of other composite floor sys- and complaints logged aside, the measured vibration—as
tems. The potential for general application of TMDs in com- interpreted by the modified Reiher-Meister scale4 or more
posite floor systems is discussed, and areas for further recent work by Allen1—are generally recognized as unaccept-
research are suggested. able for dining/dance floors. Floor displacements of 0.13
inches are considered “Strongly Perceptible,” as measured on
the modified Reiher-Meister scale; Allen’s recommendations
BACKGROUND
The Terrace on the Park Building was designed by The Port
Authority of New York and New Jersey as its exhibition * A “G” is equal to the acceleration of a body in a vacuum due to the force of gravity.
One G = 32.2 ft/second. 2
building for the 1964 Worlds Fair (Fig. 1). The building
features elliptical promenade and roughly-rectangular ball-
room levels, both suspended six floors above the ground on
four steel supercolumns. The columns support a cross-shaped
pattern of floor-girders and an elliptical ring girder, which in
turn support a radial set of cantilevered floorbeams (Fig. 2).
The floorbeams span between the floor and ring girders, and
cantilever from the ring girder to the face of the building
(Fig. 3). The ballroom sub-floor is a reinforced concrete
deck-formed slab, resting on top of and periodically welded
to the floor-beams.
Computer model 2.22 3.91 — This gave an estimated maximum floor displacement of
about 0.11 inches corresponding to the measured 0.06G peak
RMS acceleration.
quency, and the damping in the first mode. Using a variable
ASSESSMENT OF MECHANICAL VIBRATION
speed, largemass shaker, our prediction of the floor’s resonant
CONTROL SYSTEMS
frequencies was confirmed. By simultaneously recording ac-
celerations at a number of locations along the floor, we also The decision to employ tuned mass dampers was influenced
confirmed the computer model’s prediction of the first mode by the functional layout and geometry of the structure; the
shape. Using the half power method,7 the damping in the first client’s budget; the fact that the floors were being excited
mode was determined. The measured frequencies and experi- primarily at their first resonant frequencies; the large ampli-
mentally obtained damping values for each floor quadrant are tudes of floor motion; and the light structural floor damping.
given in Table 1. The floors were typically covered with
wood, and supported a lightweight steel-panel building-enve- Simple Passive Dampers
lope system from the bottom flanges of the floor-beams. Simple passive dampers, including viscous, friction, and
The most important empirical data was obtained during visco-elastic systems, rely on a damper mounted between a
actual dancing. Spectral transforms of the acceleration time- vibrating structure and a stationary object to dissipate vibra-
histories obtained during dancing showed that each floor tion energy as heat. As the two systems move relative to each
quadrant was vibrating almost exclusively at its first mode other, the simple passive damper is stretched and compressed,
(Fig. 4). This result substantially simplified our later analyses reducing the vibrations of the structure by increasing its
and helped us determine an appropriate damping method. effecting damping. At the Terrace, there was no non-moving
The peak root mean square (RMS) acceleration we meas- element nearby to attach a damper to, so these systems were
ured at the extreme cantilevered corner of a dining/dance hall rejected.
was 0.06 G, recorded during a rock and roll dance. Assuming
the floor to be vibrating in its first mode, we used this Tuned Mass Dampers
measured peak acceleration to determine the maximum floor Tuned mass dampers (TMDs) work by fastening a mass-block
displacement at the same location. With the floor vibrating in to a structural component (such as a floor) via a spring
its first mode, both the displacement, y2(t), and acceleration, (Fig. 3). This system is set up so that, when the floor vibrates
at a resonant frequency (which could be caused by dancing,
for example), it induces analogous movement of the mass
k2 m2 c2 ζ2
(kips/in.) (kips) (kips*s/in.) (% of Critical)
frequency equal to the floor’s first resonant frequency structural floor. The function was assumed to be sinusoidal
[F(t) = Fo sin(ωf1t), where ωf1 is the first resonant frequency of (which is arguably a fair approximation for dancing1), i.e.:
the floor quadrant (rad/sec) and t = time (sec)]. In this case, __
the floor behaves as a one degree of freedom system, whose F2(t) = Fo sin(ω t), (kips) (10)
steady-state response is given by : __The force amplitude (Fo) was adjusted so that at frequencies
(ω) close to the beat of previously measured dancing at the
y2(t) = Fo sin(ωf1t + h) / (2ζk2) (Ref. 7) (5)
Terrace, the maximum steady-state acceleration of the 1 DOF
where: model would match the RMS peak acceleration at the tip of
Fo = the amplitude of the forcing function driving the floor the actual floor during an instrumented dance event.
at its cantilevered tip
y2 = the peak floor response measured at the same location Two Degree of Freedom, Floor-TMD Model
ωf1 = the resonant frequency of the floor After the equivalent-displacement 1 DOF system was devel-
h = a phase angle oped, tuned mass dampers were added, creating a two degree
k2 = the equivalent displacement generalized stiffness of of freedom (2 DOF) system (Fig. 7). Using this system, the
the floor TMD parameters of mass (m1), stiffness (k1), and damping
ζ = the measured damping of the floor, expressed as a (c1), were optimized to reduce the dynamic displacement of
percent of the floor’s critical damping, cc* the floor (y2), due to the forcing function F2(t), representing
dancers on the real structural floor.
from which:
and:
* Values are presented for the Rose floor quadrant, whose measured natural frequency without TMDs installed was
2.23 Hz. Results for other quadrants are similar.
.. .
The TMDs needed to minimize the floor’s vibrations with- m1 0 ..y1 + c1 −c1 y. 1 + k1 −k1 y1
out using so much mass that the existing floorbeams would 0 m1 y2 −c c +c y2 −k k +k y2
1 1 2 1 1 2
be overstressed. Although to a point TMDs become more
effective with increased mass,10 calculations showed that the 0 __ kips
=
F2 (t) = Fo sin(ω t )
floorbeams supporting the TMDs would be overstressed with (14)
masses greater than about 20 kips located at tips. Therefore, __
18 kips became our trial-optimal TMD mass. This corre- Where ω is the frequency of the forcing function (rad/sec).
sponds to a mass ratio (m1 / m2) of about 4.6 percent. These equations were used to: check the validity of the
Because each actual ballroom floor was responding pri- TMD parameters given in Eqs. 12 and 13; predict the reduc-
marily in its first mode shape, the TMDs needed to be oper- tion in floor acceleration caused by the TMDs; and estimate
ating near the associated resonant frequency to maximize the the maximum accelerations and relative displacements of the
amount of energy shifted from the vibrating floor to them- TMD mass (m1). Because Eq. 14 cannot be solved modally
selves. Various approaches to optimizing a TMD’s natural (due to the high damping in the system), they were integrated
frequency have been reported.11,12 As a start point, we used __ with the Runge-Kutta fourth order method. For
13
numerically
the approach outlined by Reed,12 in which the natural fre- values of ω between 1 and 8 Hz, time histories were produced
..
quency of the TMD attached to a fixed base is denoted ω1. and maximum values of y2, y2, and y2 − y1 were recorded.
Then: Because it was our experience that TMDs needed to be
adjusted in the field, we designed the actual TMDs to be
ω1 = √
(k1 / m1) , (rad/sec) (11) “tuned” for frequency and damping after installation. This
where k1 and m1 are the spring-stiffness and mass, respec- was done by varying the TMDs’ mass (m1) with 200 pound
tively, of the TMD. steel plates, and adjusting its damping (c1) with variable
energy dissipation dashpots. Two types of variable energy
And Reed’s optimum value for ω1 is given by: dissipation viscous dashpots were tested at the Carleton Lab
ω1,optimum = 1 / [1 + (m1 / m2)], (rad/sec) (12) of Columbia University’s Engineering School (Fig. 8), and
found to need a minimum stroke (in the form of enough
where m2 is the equivalent-displacement generalized floor relative floor-TMD mass movement) of about 0.05 inches to
mass defined above. be effective. In practice, the relative motion between the
With m1 and m2, determined, ω1optimum was found by Eq. 12, TMD and floor (y2 − y1 in Fig. 7) is reduced with increasing
and k1 was determined by Eq. 11. We also used Reed’s method TMD mass (m1) and increased damping (c1). To obtain a
for obtaining a trial value of optimum damping, c1: desired stroke, it was found by manipulating m1 and c1 in
Eq. 14 that the TMDs performed better if their damping was
c1,optimum = √
2m1k2 / [1 + (m1 / m2)] , (kip × sec/in.) (13)
slightly decreased than if their mass was reduced. Thus,
The trial-optimum values, k1, c1, and m1, computed using ensuring the stroke of the TMDs was large enough effectively
Eqs. 11 through 13, are summarized in Table 3. put an upper bound on their damping.
Starting with the maximum safe mass and predicted-opti- The TMD stiffness, k1, was limited by the properties of
mum values for c1 and k1, the 2 DOF model of the floor-TMD commercially available springs. The spring stiffness, of
system (Fig. 7) was analyzed. The system’s equations of course, could not be modified in the field, which did not pose
motion are: much of a problem because the natural frequency of the
B lock shear is a fracture type failure in which fracture may Shear fracture (Eq. J4-1)
occur either along the shear plane or along the tension plane
(see Fig. 1). The first plane to reach its fracture strength will RSF = φFu Ans
not fail (separate) but is restrained by the stronger plane until dhs
= φ0.6Fu tw N (3 − dhs) + − 3 + lv
the fracture strength of the second is reached. Just before 2
fracture along the stronger plane the total strength will be the where
sum of the fracture strength along the stronger plane plus the φ = resistance factor, 0.75
yield strength of the weaker plane. Fu = specified minimum tensile strength, ksi
Tables are provided in the AISC LRFD Manual which give
tw = thickness of element (web), in.
values of C1 and C2 for two modes of failure. One mode is
lh = distance from center of hole to edge along tension
tension fracture, shear yield. The other is shear fracture,
plane, in.
tension yield. The strength of the connection is given by the
equation lv = distance from center of hole to edge along shear plane,
in.
RBS = tw (C1 + C2) dht = diameter of hole (bolt diameter + 1⁄8-in.)
where tw is the thickness of the element being considered. dhs = diameter of hole (hole diameter + 1⁄16-in.)
The method described in the LRFD Manual uses the larger d = bolt diameter
value of RBS calculated for each failure mode as the strength N = number of bolts
of the connection. The value thus calculated does not always Let lv = 1.5d (lower bound), set RTF = RSF and solve for lh.
agree with the phenomenon described in the first paragraph
above. lh = 2.375 − 0.4d
A convenient method is offered herein for accurately and
quickly determining which mode of failure to use. RBS is For this value of lh both planes have the same fracture
determined for that mode by using the values of C1 and C2 in strength. Since this is a special value of lh it will be called lh*.
the tables for that particular mode of failure. For a value of lh less than lh* it is obvious that shear fracture
This method is limited to the following conditions: will be the stronger fracture strength and the table in the
Manual for “shear fracture, tension yield” is used for selecting
1. There is one row of bolts (same as for Manual tables). values for C1 and C2. If the number of bolts is increased shear
2. Bolt spacing is three inches (same as for Manual tables). fracture strength will increase (shear area increases) and will
3. Bolt hole dimensions are bolt diameter plus 1⁄16-in. for continue to be the failure mode to use. If lh exceeds lh* tension
shear fracture and bolt diameter plus 1⁄8-in. for tension fracture will be the stronger and the table for “tension fracture,
fracture. shear yield” is used for determining C1 and C2.
4. Vertical edge distance, lv, is equal to or greater than 1.5 For different bolt sizes and number of bolts the values of lh*
times the bolt diameter. have been calculated and are tabulated below (Table A). If
5. No less than two bolts are used. lh is less than the value tabulated the “shear fracture, tension
These conditions are shown in Fig. 2. yield” table should be used. For the designer’s convenience,
Equations for fracture are: values of lv = 1.5d are included in the table.
An examination of Table A indicates that, for most beam
Tension fracture (Eq. J5-2) end connection situations, “shear fracture, tension yield” will
RTF = φFu Ant govern the strength of the connection. For instance, if three
d or more bolts of 11⁄2-in. or less in diameter are used “shear
= φFu tw lh − ht fracture will govern if lh is less than 33⁄8-in. This is also the
2
governing case for two bolts if lh is less than 23⁄32-in.
Example:
Lewis B. Burgett is Associate Director of Education, AISC,
For the connection shown in Fig. 3, determine R using
Lilburn, GA.
Table A.
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD) 5 69⁄32 61⁄8 531⁄32 525⁄32 55⁄8 59⁄32 55⁄16 55⁄32
The ninth edition of the ASD Manual does not have tables lv = 1.5d 15⁄
16 11⁄8 15⁄16 11⁄2 111⁄16 17⁄8 21⁄16 21⁄4
similar to those in the LRFD Manual for checking block shear
Figure 1
Figure 2 Figure 3
φ (0.6Fu Ans) 0.3Fu Anw Ans Manual of Steel Construction—Allowable Stress Design,
= = 0.6 Ninth Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.,
φFu Ant 0.5F A
u nt Ant 1989.
Table A is applicable to ASD as well as LRFD.
Table B provides values of C1 and C2 for checking for block
shear when using ASD.
C1
lh
lv 1 11⁄8 11⁄4 13⁄8 11⁄2 15⁄8 13⁄4 17⁄8 2 21⁄4 21⁄2 23⁄4 3
11⁄4 43.4 46.1 48.8 51.5 54.2 56.9 59.6 62.3 65.0 70.4 75.8 81.2 86.6
13⁄8 45.5 48.2 50.9 53.6 56.3 59.0 61.7 64.4 67.1 72.5 77.9 83.3 88.7
11⁄2 47.7 50.4 53.1 55.8 58.5 61.2 63.9 66.6 69.3 74.7 80.1 85.5 90.9
15⁄8 49.9 52.6 55.3 58.0 60.7 63.4 66.1 68.8 71.5 76.9 82.3 87.7 93.1
13⁄4 52.1 54.8 57.5 60.2 62.9 65.6 68.3 71.0 73.7 79.1 84.5 89.9 95.3
17⁄8 54.2 56.9 59.6 62.3 65.0 67.7 70.4 73.1 75.8 81.2 86.6 92.0 97.4
2 56.4 59.1 61.8 64.5 67.2 69.9 72.6 75.3 78.0 83.4 88.8 94.2 99.6
21⁄4 60.8 63.5 66.2 68.9 71.6 74.3 77.0 79.7 82.4 87.8 93.2 98.6 104.0
21⁄2 65.1 67.8 70.5 73.2 75.9 78.6 81.3 84.0 86.7 92.1 97.5 103.0 108.0
23⁄4 69.5 72.2 74.9 77.6 80.3 83.0 85.7 88.4 91.1 96.5 102.0 107.0 113.0
3 73.8 76.5 79.2 81.9 84.6 87.3 90.0 92.7 95.4 101.0 106.0 112.0 117.0
C2
Bolt Diameter
n 3⁄ 7⁄
4 8 1
C1
lh
lv 1 11⁄8 11⁄4 13⁄8 11⁄2 15⁄8 13⁄4 17⁄8 2 21⁄4 21⁄2 23⁄4 3
11⁄4 47.0 50.6 54.2 57.9 61.5 65.1 68.7 72.4 76.0 83.2 90.5 97.7 105.0
13⁄8 48.8 52.4 56.0 59.7 63.3 66.9 70.6 74.2 77.8 85.0 92.3 99.6 107.0
11⁄2 50.6 54.2 57.8 61.5 65.1 68.7 72.3 76.0 79.6 86.8 94.1 101.0 109.0
15⁄8 52.4 56.0 59.6 63.3 66.9 70.5 74.1 77.8 81.4 88.6 95.9 103.0 110.0
13⁄4 54.2 57.8 61.4 65.1 68.7 72.3 75.9 79.6 83.2 90.4 97.7 105.0 112.0
17⁄8 56.0 59.6 63.2 66.9 70.5 74.1 77.7 81.4 85.0 92.2 99.5 107.0 114.0
2 57.8 61.4 65.0 68.7 72.3 75.9 79.5 83.2 86.8 94.0 101.0 109.0 116.0
21⁄4 61.4 65.0 68.6 72.3 75.9 79.5 83.1 86.8 90.4 97.6 105.0 112.0 119.0
21⁄2 65.0 68.6 72.2 75.9 79.5 83.1 86.7 90.4 94.0 101.0 108.0 116.0 123.0
23⁄4 68.6 72.2 75.8 79.5 83.1 86.7 90.3 94.0 97.6 105.0 112.0 119.0 127.0
3 72.2 75.8 79.4 83.1 86.7 90.3 93.9 97.6 101.0 108.0 116.0 123.0 130.0
C2
Bolt Diameter
n 3⁄ 7⁄
4 8 1
C1
lh
lv 1 11⁄8 11⁄4 13⁄8 11⁄2 15⁄8 13⁄4 17⁄8 2 21⁄4 21⁄2 23⁄4 3
11⁄4 54.4 58.1 61.9 65.6 69.4 73.1 76.9 80.6 84.4 91.9 99.4 107.0 114.0
13⁄8 56.8 60.6 64.3 68.1 71.8 75.6 79.3 83.1 86.8 94.3 102.0 109.0 117.0
11⁄2 59.3 63.0 66.8 70.5 74.3 78.0 81.8 85.5 89.3 96.8 104.0 112.0 119.0
15⁄8 61.7 65.4 69.2 72.9 76.7 80.4 84.2 87.9 91.7 99.2 107.0 114.0 122.0
13⁄4 64.1 67.9 71.6 75.4 79.1 82.9 86.6 90.4 94.1 102.0 109.0 117.0 124.0
17⁄8 66.6 70.3 74.1 77.8 81.6 85.3 89.1 92.8 96.6 104.0 112.0 119.0 127.0
2 69.0 72.8 76.5 80.3 84.0 87.8 91.5 95.3 99.0 107.0 114.0 122.0 129.0
21⁄4 73.9 77.6 81.4 85.1 88.9 92.6 96.4 100.0 104.0 111.0 119.0 126.0 134.0
21⁄2 78.8 82.5 86.3 90.0 93.8 97.5 101.0 105.0 109.0 116.0 124.0 131.0 139.0
23⁄4 83.6 87.4 91.1 94.9 98.6 102.0 106.0 110.0 114.0 121.0 129.0 136.0 144.0
3 88.5 92.3 96.0 99.8 104.0 107.0 111.0 115.0 119.0 126.0 134.0 141.0 149.0
C2
Bolt Diameter
n 3⁄ 7⁄
4 8 1
C1
lh
lv 1 11⁄8 11⁄4 13⁄8 11⁄2 15⁄8 13⁄4 17⁄8 2 21⁄4 21⁄2 23⁄4 3
11⁄4 57.5 61.1 65.6 69.7 73.7 77.8 81.9 85.9 90.0 98.1 106.0 114.0 122.0
13⁄8 60.0 64.1 68.1 72.2 76.2 80.3 84.4 88.4 92.5 101.0 109.0 117.0 125.0
11⁄2 62.5 66.6 70.6 74.7 78.8 82.8 86.9 90.9 95.0 103.0 111.0 119.0 127.0
15⁄8 65.0 69.1 73.1 77.2 81.2 85.3 89.4 93.4 97.5 106.0 114.0 122.0 130.0
13⁄4 67.5 71.6 75.6 79.7 83.7 87.8 91.9 95.9 100.0 108.0 116.0 124.0 132.0
17⁄8 70.0 74.1 78.1 82.2 86.2 90.3 94.4 98.4 102.0 111.0 119.0 127.0 135.0
2 72.5 76.6 80.6 84.7 88.7 92.8 96.9 101.0 105.0 113.0 121.0 129.0 137.0
21⁄4 77.5 81.6 85.6 89.7 93.7 97.8 102.0 106.0 110.0 118.0 126.0 134.0 142.0
21⁄2 82.5 86.6 90.6 94.7 98.7 103.0 107.0 111.0 115.0 123.0 131.0 139.0 147.0
23⁄4 87.5 91.6 95.6 99.7 104.0 108.0 112.0 116.0 120.0 128.0 136.0 144.0 152.0
3 92.5 96.6 101.0 105 109.0 113.0 117.0 121.0 125.0 133.0 141.0 149.0 157.0
C2
Bolt Diameter
n 3⁄ 7⁄
4 8 1
Materials used in steel structures are increasingly becoming This is plastic strain and results in energy being absorbed.
thicker and heavier. A greater chance of cracking during In Fig. 2a, the member is subjected to a tensile stress σ under
welding of beams to columns, for example, has resulted due the yield strength σy. As in Fig. 1b, this results in elastic strain
to increased thickness of material. With weld shrinkage re- and is recoverable when the stress is removed. Notice also in
strained in the thickness, width, and length, triaxial stresses Fig. 2a that a shear stress occurs which has a maximum value
develop that may inhibit the ability of steel to exhibit ductility. of τ = 1⁄2σ on a plane at 45°, with the axis of the applied tensile
This paper will try to explain why these cracks may occur and stress. If the applied stress σ is increased to a value of σy, the
what can be done to help prevent them by expanding on
information presented in the AISC Supplement No. 1 (LRFD)
or No. 2 (ASD).
We will first consider the pulling of a simple tensile speci-
men to find out what conditions cause this ductile behavior.
Then we will find out why this behavior goes from ductile to
brittle when triaxial tension is applied. Finally, we will see
what conditions under triaxial stresses the ductility can be
restored.
This information is then applied to the practical question
of how wide the weld access hole in the web of a connection
should be to avoid brittle behavior.
In Fig. 1a the member is unstressed and the atoms are
spaced the proper amount.
In Fig. 1b, a tensile stress is applied and the atoms move
apart elastically in the direction of the stress. If the stress is
removed, the atoms will move back into their proper positions
as in Fig. 1a.
In Fig. 1c a compressive stress is applied and the atoms
move together elastically in the direction of the stress. Again,
if the stress is removed, the atoms will move back into their
initial proper positions, as in Fig. 1a.
In both tension and compression, if the applied stress does
not exceed the yield strength σy, the action is elastic and the
member will come back to the initial dimensions when the
stress is removed.
In both cases the energy stored in the stressed member is
elastic energy. Examples would be a wound-up clock, a
structural member when stressed, etc.
If, however, as in Fig. 1d, the member is subjected to a shear
stress that exceeds the critical value τcr = 1⁄2σy, then a perma-
nent sliding action occurs along a plane between atoms which
will not be recovered when the stress is removed.
Figure 4a
Figure 2
Figure 3 Figure 4b
Figure 7
Figure 5
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 6 Figure 10
direction of σ3. Plastic strains ε3(1−3) and ε3(2−3) from circle 1-3
and circle 2-3 act in this direction and are helpful. Plastic
strain ε from circle 1-2 does not act in this direction and does
not help.
Figure 11
We are not talking about overall elongation of a specimen.
This is complex and consists of varying amounts of plastic
strain along the length of the necked-down specimen.
We have here a practical problem of predicting a crack next
to a weld access hole (a very limited region), so we are
interested in the plastic strain at this critical point to see if it
is sufficient to relieve tensile stress σ3 and prevent a crack
from forming.
Figure 12 shows the beneficial effect of having at least one
stress in compression. When stress σ3 reaches the critical
value σcr for failure, shear stress τ1−3 has been above its critical
value for some time, resulting in quite a bit of plastic strain
in the direction of the stress σ3. Although stress τ1−2 is above
Figure 12 Figure 13
the critical value, its plastic strain does not act in the direction REFERENCE
of stress σ3. 1. AISC Supplement No. 1 (LRFD) or No. 2 (ASD), Jan. 1.,
This condition should result in rather ductile behavior. Plastic 1989.
behavior occurs from σ = 26 ksi up to 70 ksi. (See Fig. 13.) 2. Blodgett, Omer W., “Distortion,” The James F. Lincoln Arc
It would be very helpful if this data on plastic strain could Welding Foundation Bulletin, G261, Nov. 1984.
be put into the form of a stress-strain curve for this critical 3. Gensamer, Maxwell, “Strength of Metals Under Combined
location. Stresses,” American Society of Metals, 1984, p. 10.
Table 1 lists the data from a typical stress-strain curve for 4. Bjorhovde, Brozzetti, Alpsten, and Tall, “Residual Stresses
structural steel (Fig. 14a). Total strain is listed in Column 3. in Thick Welded Plates,” AWS Welding Journal, Aug. 1972,
The elastic strain, calculated from ε = σ / E, is listed in Col- p. 397.
umn 2. By subtracting the elastic strain from the correspond- 5. Estuar and Tall, “Experimental Investigation of Welded
ing total strain, we obtain the plastic strain (Column 4). This Built-Up Columns,” AWS Welding Journal, April 1963,
plastic strain is shown in Fig. 14b. p. 170.
Since the plastic strain in Column 4 and Fig. 14b is caused 6. Parker, Earl R., Brittle Behavior of Engineering Structures,
by the corresponding shear stress τ which exceeds its critical John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957, p. 19.
value τcr, we would like to convert the tensile plastic stress 7. Gayles and Willis, “Factors Affecting Residual Stresses in
tensile-strain curve into a plastic stress shear-strain curve Welds,” AWS Welding Journal, Aug. 1940, p. 303.
(Fig. 14c). This can be done with Fig. 14b by taking one-half 8. Shanley, F. R., Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill Book
of the tensile stress value, since τ = 1⁄2σ, and also one-half of Co., 1957, Chapter 11, “Plastic Strain-Combined Load-
the plastic strain, since, in a simple tensile specimen, we ing,” pp. 178–200.
found ε3 = 2ε3(1−3). From this we get the curve of Fig. 14c.
For plastic strain in terms of tensile stress:
6.8
σ3
ε3 =
116
Figure 14 Figure 15
0.196 .3068 .4418 .6013 .7854 .9940 1.227 1.485 1.767 2.405 3.142 3.976
A307 — 20.0 3.9 6.1 8.8 12.0 15.7 19.9 24.5 29.7 35.3 48.1 62.8 79.5
A36 36 19.1 3.8 5.9 8.4 11.5 15.0 19.0 23.4 28.4 33.7 45.9 60.0 75.9
A325* 92 44.0 8.6 13.5 19.4 26.5 34.6 43.7 54.0 65.3 77.7 105.8 138.2 174.9
81
B) Shear, kips
0.196 .3068 .4418 .6013 .7854 .9940 1.227 1.485 1.767 2.405 3.142 3.976
A307 — 10.0 2.0 3.1 4.4 6.0 7.9 9.9 12.3 14.8 17.7 24.1 31.4 39.8
A36 36 9.9 1.9 3.0 4.4 6.0 7.8 9.8 12.1 14.7 17.5 23.8 31.1 39.4
A325* 92 21.0 4.1 6.4 9.3 12.6 16.5 20.9 25.8 31.2 37.1 50.5 66.0 83.5
81
*A325 spec. includes bolt diameters from 1⁄2-in. to 11⁄2-in. for bolt diameter geater than 11⁄2-in., equivalent strength material is available.
INTRODUCTION for which vibrations were barely or not at all perceptible had
O ccupants of some buildings may observe that routine damping exceeding five percent of critical, and that vibrations
were definitely perceptible in floors with damping less than
activities cause floors to vibrate noticeably. This may be a
consequence of the high strength-to-weight ratio of the struc- three percent of critical. He stated that “The main factor
tural material and system, and is not necessarily indicative of influencing the effect of vibrations on the human was the
inadequate strength or excessive deflection. In addition to damping.”
assuring that a floor satisfies strength and static deflection Wiss and Parmelee12 conducted experiments in which hu-
requirements, the designer should be concerned with vibra- man subjects recorded their responses to the vibration of a
tion perceived by occupants. The chart presented as Fig. 1 shaker on which they stood. The amplitude of vibration first
facilitates estimating the level of acceptability of the expected increased over several cycles, peaked, and then decreased
vibration of an office or residential floor. The chart imple- over several cycles, with total duration ranging from one-
ments two acceptance criteria8,10 of many that have been third to five seconds. The rate of decrease in amplitude
proposed. Those criteria were developed by determining oc- simulated damping, and that parameter was included in the
cupants’ perceptions of vibrations caused by routine activities rating formula that resulted from the study.
and then correlating those perceptions to measured or pre- D. L. Allen4 reviewed perceptibility scales for floor vibra-
dicted levels of vibration caused by heel-drop tests. Applica- tion and methodology for estimating vibrational response,
tion of the criteria embodied in Fig. 1 is limited to quiet but presented guidelines for estimating damping, and discussed
tolerant environments such as offices and residences, and to remedial modifications.
vibration caused by activities normally associated with those D. E. Allen and Rainer3 developed acceptance criteria for
occupancies. In particular, the criteria in the chart may be floor vibration based on peak acceleration, frequency, and
unconservative for floors supporting precise work such as damping. The criteria were presented as a chart that is appli-
surgery, and for excitation by vehicles, machinery, or rhyth- cable to offices, residences, and schoolrooms, and for either
mic activities such as dancing and aerobic exercise.
BACKGROUND
In 1931 Reiher and Meister11 published a study on human
sensitivity to continuous vibration that included empirical
functions of amplitude and frequency that define thresholds
of various levels of perception. The perceptibility scale for
standing persons subjected to vertical vibration suggests a
methodology for rating floors.
People are less sensitive to vibration of short duration than
to continuous vibration. In order to develop acceptance crite-
ria for transient floor vibration, Lenzen7 conducted laboratory
tests on concrete floors supported on steel joists and also
collected data on actual building floors. Based on results of
those tests, he modified the Reiher and Meister functions by
a factor of 10. However, Lenzen observed that his data
supported an alternative interpretation, namely that the floors
SUMMARY
The recommended serviceability design method is somewhat
more conservative than that now used in both the ASD and
LRFD AISC Manuals in that bolt yield strength rather than
bolt tensile strength is used, but the recommended method for
strength, which is justified by comparison to actual test data,
Fig. 1. Test specimens for Douty and McGuire tests. can result in much more economical connections because
A1 0.751 0.438 Rigid Rigid 7⁄ 1.50 2.43 1.94 1.59 0.82 37.40 56.0 34.5 60–75
8
A3 1.680 0.945 Rigid Rigid 7⁄ 1.50 1.78 1.94 1.34 0.69 37.40 62.0 26.0 60–75
8
A4 2.000 1.000 Rigid Rigid 7⁄ 1.50 1.75 1.94 1.31 0.68 37.40 59.0 31.1 60–75
8
A5 0.751 0.438 Rigid Rigid 11⁄8 1.50 2.03 2.06 1.47 0.71 58.75 102.0 33.3 60–75
A7 1.680 0.945 Rigid Rigid 11⁄8 1.50 1.78 2.06 1.22 0.59 58.75 102.0 27.0 60–75
A8 2.500 1.000 Rigid Rigid 11⁄8 1.50 1.75 2.06 1.19 0.58 58.75 105.7 31.0 60–75
A9 0.751 0.438 Rigid Rigid 7⁄ 1.75 2.03 2.19 1.59 0.73 37.40 56.0 34.5 60–75
8
A10 1.102 0.625 Rigid Rigid 7⁄ 1.66 1.94 2.10 1.50 0.72 37.40 61.0 31.1 60–75
8
A11 1.680 0.945 Rigid Rigid 7⁄ 1.75 1.78 2.19 1.34 0.61 37.40 61.7 26.0 60–75
8
A12 2.000 1.000 Rigid Rigid 7⁄ 1.75 1.75 2.19 1.31 0.60 37.40 59.7 31.1 60–75
8
A13 0.751 0.438 Rigid Rigid 11⁄8 1.75 2.03 2.31 1.47 0.64 58.75 101.0 33.3 60–75
A14 1.102 0.625 Rigid Rigid 11⁄8 1.66 1.94 2.22 1.38 0.62 58.75 97.0 29.5 60–75
A15 1.680 0.945 Rigid Rigid 11⁄8 1.75 1.78 2.31 1.22 0.53 58.75 100.0 27.0 60–75
A16 2.500 1.000 Rigid Rigid 11⁄8 1.75 1.75 2.31 1.19 0.51 58.70 106.0 31.0 60–75
B1 0.751 0.438 1.128 0.695 7⁄ 1.50 2.03 1.94 1.59 0.82 37.40 64.0 34.5 60–75
8
B3 1.102 0.625 1.128 0.695 7⁄ 1.66 1.94 2.10 1.50 0.72 37.40 62.0 31.1 60–75
8
B4 1.102 0.625 2.093 1.310 7⁄ 1.66 1.94 2.10 1.50 0.72 37.40 60.0 31.1 60–75
8
B5 1.102 0.625 3.033 1.875 7⁄ 1.66 1.94 2.10 1.50 0.72 37.40 60.0 31.1 60–75
8
B6 1.680 0.945 1.128 0.695 7⁄ 1.50* 2.40* 1.94* 1.96* 1.01* 37.40 60.0 33.0* 60–75
8
B7 1.680 0.945 2.093 1.310 7⁄ 1.50 1.78 1.94 1.34 0.69 37.40 55.5 26.0 60–75
8
B9 1.680 0.945 1.128 0.695 11⁄8 1.50* 2.40* 2.06* 1.24* 0.89* 58.75 97.0 33.0* 60–75
B10 1.680 0.945 2.093 1.310 11⁄8 1.50 1.78 2.06 1.22 0.59 58.75 99.0 27.0 60–75
B12 2.500 1.000 1.128 0.695 11⁄8 1.50* 2.40* 2.06* 1.84 0.89* 58.75 100.0 33.0* 60–75
B13 2.500 1.000 2.093 1.310 11⁄8 1.50 1.75 2.06 1.14 0.58 58.75 99.4 31.0 60–75
A1 1.32 23.10 92.5 1.04, .69 40.2–43.5 161–174 128 273–279 88 176 Flange, Bolts Bolt Fracture
A3 –.27 37.40 150.0 –.47, –.48 62.0 248 209 482–602 136 256 Bolts Bolt Fracture
A4 –.48 37.40 150.0 –.53, –.58 59.0 236 264 510–638 140 219 Bolts Nut Stripping
A5 2.70 23.40 93.4 2.57, 1.89 52.6–65.8 168–210 124 223–279 108 224 Flange Flange
A7 –.10 58.75 235.0 –.27, –.39 102.0 408 217 482–602 180 392 Bolts Bolt Fracture
A8 –.58 58.75 235.0 –.60, –.66 105.7 423 263 510–638 240 >404> Bolts Did Not Fail4
A9 1.39 23.10 92.5 1.09, .73 40.2–44.3 161–177 128 223–279 96 177 Flange, Bolts Bolt Fracture
A10 .30 32.90 132.0 .14, –.04 57.1–61.0 228–244 165 319–398 112 240 Bolts, Flange Bolt Fracture
A11 –.28 37.40 150.0 –.43, –.50 67.1 247 209 482–602 —5 256 Bolts Bolt Fracture
A12 –.50 37.40 150.0 –.56, –.60 59.7 239 264 510–638 140 245 Bolts Bolt Fracture
A13 2.82 23.40 93.4 2.65, 1.95 52.6–65.8 168–210 124 223–279 108 228 Flange Web
A14 .97 46.80 187.0 .62, .33 81.4–86.7 325–345 157 319–398 140 3
2863 Flange, Bolts, Web Web3
A15 –.01 58.75 235.0 –.27, –.42 100.0 400 217 482–602 —5 404 Bolts Bolt Fracture
A16 –.61 58.75 235.0 –.63, –.69 106.0 424 263 510–638 240 >404> Bolts Did Not Fail4
B1 1.32 23.10 92.5 1.29, .89 40.2–47.9 161–192 128 223–279 100 202 Flange, Bolts Bolt Fracture
6
B3 .51* 29.00* 116.0* .15, –.03 57.6–62.0 231–248 165 319–398 936 230 Bolts, Flange Bolt Fracture
B4 .29 32.90 132.0 .12, –.05 56.5–60.0 226–240 165 319–398 96 228 Bolts, Flange Bolt Fracture
B5 .29 32.90 132.0 .12, –.05 56.5–60.0 226–240 165 319–398 120 230 Bolts, Flange Bolt Fracture
1
B6 .51* 28.70* 115.0* –.05*,–.16* 60.0 240 2091 482–602 100 254 Bolts Bolt Fracture
B7 –.27 37.40 150.0 –.44, –.59 55.5 222 209 482–602 — 233 Bolts Bolt Fracture
1
B9 1.35* 39.00* 156.0* .25*, .07* 84.4*–92.5* 338*–370* 2191 482–602 140 348 Bolts, Flange Bolt Fracture
B10 –.10 58.75 235.0 –.29, –.40 99.0 396 217 482–602 220 403 Bolts Bolt Fracture
2
B12 1.35* 39.00* 156.0* .28*, .09* 86.2*–94.0* 345*–376* 2642 510–638 160 378 Bolts, Flange Bolt Fracture
B13 –.58 58.75 235.0 –.62, –.67 99.4 398 264 510–638 216 >404> Bolts Did Not Fail
Construction, LRFD, 1st Edition, 1986, AISC, Chicago, Engineering Journal, AISC, Second Quarter 1985, Vol. 22,
Illinois, U.S.A., pp. 5-119 through 5-125. No. 2, pp. 67–75.
3. Kulak, Geoffrey L., Fisher, John W., and Struik, John H. 5. Douty, R. T. and McGuire, W., “High Strength Bolted
A., Guide to Design Criteria of Bolted and Riveted Joints, Moment Connections,” Journal of the Structural Division,
Second Edition, Wiley-Interscience, 1987, Chapter 15, pp. ASCE, Vol. 91, No. ST2, April 1965, pp. 101–128.
277–288. 6. Kato, B. and McGuire, W., “Analysis of T-Stub Flange to
4. Thornton, W. A., “Prying Action—A General Treatment,” Column Connections,” Journal of the Structural Division,
ASCE, Vol. 99, No. ST5, May 1973, pp.865–888.
Test Actual Pya Theoretical Pyt Actual/Theoretical Actual Pua Theoretical Put Actual/Theoretical
No. (kips) (kips) Pya / Pyt (kips) (kips) Pua / Put
Table 4.
Comparison of Ultimate Strength Design Values with
Actual Yield Strength Values
Put
Pud= Pya
2 Pya
Test No. (kips) (kips) Pud
A1 84.0 88 1.05
A3 124.0 136 1.10
A4 118.0 140 1.19
A5 94.5 108 1.14
A7 204.0 180 .88
A8 212.0 240 1.13
A9 84.5 96 1.14
A10 118.0 112 .95
A11 124.0 — —
A12 120.0 140 1.17
A13 94.5 108 1.14
A14 168.0 140 .83
A15 200.0 — —
A16 212.0 240 1.13
B1 88.5 100 1.13
B3 120.0 93 .78
B4 117.0 96 .82
B5 117.0 120 1.03
B6 120.0 100 .83
B7 111.0 — —
B9 177.0 140 .79
B10 198.0 220 1.11
B12 181.0 160 .88
B13 199.0 216 1.08
√
leaner columns. π2EIi
Over the years, various papers3–11 which address the inade- Ki = (4)
Pi ′L2i
quacies of the alignment charts for determining the effective
length factors for framed columns have been published. where Ki is the effective length factor of column i; Pi ′, Ii, Li
Modifications to rectify certain deficiencies in the chart solu- are the axial (compression) force at buckling (i.e., the critical
tions were also reported. Nevertheless, all these approaches load), the moment of inertia and length of column i, respec-
entail a procedure which continue to make use of the align- tively, and E is the modulus of elasticity. Equation 4 is
ment charts for solutions. In some cases, special charts are applicable for isolated columns as well as for framed columns
also required to obtain solutions. In this paper, a simple and in multistory multibay frames. If Pi ′ equals zero, Ki is indefi-
straightforward approach for determining the effective length nite. This is because the effective length factor is defined only
factors for framed compression members which does not rely for members with finite compressive forces. Members which
on the use of the alignment charts nor the use of any special are subjected to negligible axial forces should be designed as
charts is presented. The validity of the proposed approach will beams which do not require the use of the K factors.
In evaluating the effective length factors for framed col-
umns, it is important for a designer to account for the inter-
Eric M. Lui is associate professor, Department of Civil and action effect that exists among the various members of the
Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, frame. It is a well-known fact that a “strong” column braces
NY.
a “weak” column at buckling. The result is that the K factor
MA =
EI
(4θA + 2θB) (8a) EI s2ij
L MB = sii − θB (17)
L sii
EI
MB = (2θA + 4θB) (8b) and Eq. 8b becomes
L
3EI
For the case in which the member bends in reverse curva- MB = θ (18)
L B
ture so that θA = θB = θ, Eqs. 7a and 7b become
EI A Taylor series expansion for the terms in parenthesis in
MA = MB = (s + s ) θ (9) Eq. 17 gives
L ii ij
and Eqs. 8a and 8b become s2ij PL2
sii − =3− +… (19)
sii 5EI
6EI
MA = MB = θ (10)
L which, upon substitution into Eq. 17 gives
Using Taylor series expansion for (sii + sij), we obtain 3EI PL2
MB ≈ 1 − θ (20)
PL2 L 15EI B
sii + sij = 6 − +… (11)
10EI A comparison between Eq. 20 and Eq. 18 reveals that the
Substituting Eq. 11 into Eq. 9, we have member instability effect reduces the flexural rigidity of this
member by a factor of 1 − PL2 / 15EI.
6EI PL2 In the foregoing discussions, it was seen that when MA / MB
MA = MB ≈ 1 − θ (12) = 1, member instability effect would reduce the flexural stiff-
L 60EI
ness of the member by a factor of 1 − PL2 / 60EI. When
The approximation sign is used in the above equation because MA / MB = 1, this stiffness reduction factor was 1 − PL2 /
only two terms are retained in the Taylor series expansion. 15EI, and when MA / MB = 0 the factor was 1 − PL2 / 15EI.
Upon comparison of Eq. 12 with Eq. 10, it can be con- Assuming that the stiffness reduction factor varies paraboli-
cluded that when a member bends in reverse curvature, the cally from a moment ratio of −1 to 1, a general stiffness
member instability effect reduces the flexural rigidity of the reduction factor suitable for any moment ratio which can be
member by an amount of 1 − PL2 / 60EI.
Similarly, for the case in which the member bends in single
curvature so that θA = −θB = θ, Eqs. 7a and 7b become
EI
MA = −MB = (s − s ) θ (13)
L ii ij
and Eqs. 8a and 8b become
2EI
MA = −MB = θ (14) Fig. 4. A beam-column element.
L
stiffness are related by the equation Equation 29 is the proposed K factor formula. In the
design. In applying Eq. 29, the designer must perform a Equation 32 was proposed by Cheong-Siat-Moy.13 In Ref. 13,
first-order frame analysis under a small disturbing force ΣH AF is defined as the ratio of the second-order deflection to the
to determine ∆I and the member-end moments. The member first-order deflection of a given story. Thus, the use of Eq. 32
stiffness index η (Eq. 22) is then calculated for each member. necessitates a second-order frame analysis. On the contrary,
Once η and ∆I are calculated, Eq. 29 can be used to calculate the use of the proposed K factor equation (Eq. 29) only
K. The procedure will be demonstrated in an illustrative requires the designer to perform a first-order analysis.
example in a following section. Now, suppose we use Eq. H1-6 of the AISC-LRFD Speci-
Before proceeding any further, it is of interest to compare fication2 as the P−∆ moment magnification factor, i.e.,
Eq. 29 with Eq. 4. In Eq. 4, the term Pi ′ is the axial force in
1
the column at buckling (i.e., the critical load). Both the P−δ AF = (33)
and P−∆ effects are implicit in Pi ′. In Eq. 29, Pi is the axial ΣP
1−
force in the column without accounting for the two instability ΣPek
effects. These effects are accounted for explicitly by the terms
Substituting the above equation for AF into Eq. 32, we obtain
in brackets. A relationship between Pi ′ and Pi can be obtained
by equating the two equations giving
Pi P 1
= Σ +
∆I
Pi ′ L 5Ση ΣH
(30)
Ki =
√ π2EIi ΣP
Pi L2i ΣPek
(34)
Column I L P MA MB m = MA / MB η P/L K
are not affected by the value of lateral load used. This is figuration can be approximated by subjecting the frame to a
because in a first-order analysis, all quantities vary linearly small disturbing force as shown in Fig. 5b. The direction of
with the applied load and so the ratio of the quantities will this disturbing force is applied from left to right for this
remain unchanged. problem because the structural geometry and loading are such
It is important to note that the term ΣH represents a small that the frame will most likely buckle in that direction. For
disturbing force. It is not the actual lateral load that the frame frames which exhibit no preferred direction for buckling (e.g.,
may be subjected to. In fact, for frames which are subjected frames which are symmetric in terms of both structural ge-
to a system of lateral loads, these lateral loads should be ometry and loading), the direction of this disturbing force is
removed in the analysis for the effective length factor K. The unimportant.
reason for this is that in a buckling analysis, only the effect of Applying a disturbing force ΣH of 0.005P to the frame, a
axial forces but not the lateral forces should be considered. first-order analysis yields ∆I = 7.13 × 10−4P. So ∆I / ΣH =
The purpose of applying a small disturbing force to the frame 0.143. The remaining calculations are depicted in tabulated
is merely to establish an adjacent equilibrium configuration form (see Table 5). (Units are in kips and inches).
for the frame. This adjacent equilibrium configuration will be For comparison, the theoretical K values obtained from an
the preferred configuration for the frame when the original eigenvalue analysis15 are 1.347 and 0.710 for the left and right
configuration ceases to be stable once the axial loads in the columns, respectively. Thus, excellent correlation is ob-
columns reach their critical values. In theory, this adjacent served.
equilibrium configuration is the buckled shape of the frame. If one uses the alignment chart, the K factor are obtained
The exact buckled configuration of the frame can be obtained as 1.09 for the left column and 1.07 for the right column. The
from an eigenvalue analysis. In practice, this buckled con- errors are rather significant. Using Eq. 34, the K factors are
calculated to be 1.44 and 0.76 for the left and right columns,
respectively.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
A valid K factor formula suitable for design application must
satisfy the following criteria:
1. Simple to use
2. Transparent in form
3. Versatile in application
4. Accurate for design purpose
The proposed formula is simple to apply since it only
requires the user to perform a first-order analysis; the use of
special charts are not required. It is transparent in form
because the two instability effects (P−δ and P−∆) that have a
predominant influence on K are explicitly accounted for in
the equation. In what follows, it will be demonstrated that the
proposed equation is also applicable to a variety of conditions
and it gives sufficiently accurate results for design applica-
tion.
Example 1
The objective of this example is to demonstrate that the
proposed K factor equation is applicable for frames with
unequal distribution of column stiffness and gravity loads.
The demonstration frame is shown in Fig. 6. The frame is a
Fig. 5. An unequal leg frame. simple portal frame and consists of one beam and two col-
Alignment
Load Case Column Eq. 29 Theoretical Chart Eq. 34
Table 7
K Factors
Alignment
Load Case Column Eq. 29 Theoretical Chart Eq. 34
umns. The flexural rigidity of the right column is three times 0.1 percent times the total gravity loads acting on the frame
that of the beam and the left column. Three load cases are (i.e., 0.1 percent × 2P = 0.002P) was applied laterally to the
investigated. In Load Case A, a gravity load of 2P is applied frame to establish an adjacent equilibrium configuration for
to the left column only. In Load Case B, the gravity load of the frame from which the moment ratios were calculated
2P is evenly distributed on the columns. In Load Case C, all using a first order analysis. The K factors for the loaded
gravity loads are applied on the right column. As in the columns evaluated using Eq. 29 are compared with those
illustration example shown earlier, a small disturbing force of evaluated using an eigenvalue analysis as well as those evalu-
Column I L P m η P/L K
Second-story
Column I L P m η P/L K
Table 9
K Factors
Alignment
Story Column Eq. 29 Theoretical Chart Eq. 34
Example 2
In this example the ability of the proposed K factor equation
to evaluate effective length factors for columns in frame with
leaner columns will be demonstrated. Such a frame is shown
in Fig. 7. Two load cases are used. In Load Case A, a gravity
load of P is applied on each column and in Load Case B, the
entire gravity load of 2P is applied on the right column. To
establish an adjacent equilibrium position for the frame, a
small disturbing force of 0.1 percent × 2P = 0.002P was
applied laterally to the frame and the moment ratios were
calculated using a first-order analysis. The K factors for the
right column evaluated using Eq. 29, the alignment chart, and
Eq. 34 are compared with the theoretical K factors evaluated
using an eigenvalue analysis in Table 7.
Again, the accuracy of Eq. 29 and the inability of the
Fig. 8. Frame for Example 3. alignment chart to give correct values of K are demonstrated.
Fig. 1. Plane frame force distribution, 1977. Fig. 2. Plane frame response curve, 1977.
Fig. 5. CU-STAND LRFD equation page, 1988. Fig. 6. Building frame study, 1990.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7. Integrated analysis and design program. Fig. 8. Earthquake resistance, inelastic behavior study.
Courtesy of the Intergraph Corporation. Courtesy of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.
SUBJECT INDEX
ANCHOR BOLTS Fast Check for Block Shear — Burgett, Lewis B. . . . 125
Design Aid: Anchor Bolt Interaction of Shear and Reliability of Rotational Behavior of Framing
Tension Loads — Scacco, Mario N. . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Connections — Rauscher, Thomas R. and Kurt H.
High-Strength Bolts for Bridges — Verma, Krishna K. Gerstle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fred R. Beckman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Strength and Serviceability of Hanger Connections
— Thornton, W. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
BEAMS
Structural Details To Increase Ductility of
Flexural Strength of WT Sections — Ellifritt,
Connections — Blodgett, Omer W. . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Duane S., Gregory Wine, Thomas Sputo,
and Santosh Samuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 ERECTION
The Significance and Application of Cb in Beam Distortion-Induced Cracking During Transit —
Design — Zuraski, Patrick D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Roddis, W. M. Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
BRACING FRAMES
Forces on Bracing Systems — Nair, R. Shankar. . . . 45 A Method for Incorporating Live Load Reduction
BRIDGES Provisions in Frame Analysis — Ziemian,
High-Strength Bolts for Bridges — Verma, Krishna K. Ronald D. and William McGuire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Fred R. Beckman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
BUCKLING Load and Resistance Factor Design of Welded Box
An Equivalent Radius of Gyration Approach Section Trusses — Packer, Jeffrey A., J. E. (Ted)
to Flexural-Torsional Buckling for Singly Henderson, and Jaap Wardenier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Symmetric Sections — Bakos, Jack D. Jr.
and James A. O’Leary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 SINGLE-ANGLE
Eccentrically Loaded Steel Single Angle Struts —
BUILT-UP MEMBERS Adluri, Seshu Madhavarao and Murty
Analytical Criteria for Stitch Strength of Built-up K. S. Madugula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Compression Members — Aslani, Farhang and Non-Slender Single Angle Struts — Elgaaly, M.,
Subhash C. Goel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 W. Davids, and H. Dagher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
COLUMNS TUBULAR SECTIONS
A Novel Approach for K Factor Determination — Load and Resistance Factor Design of Welded Box
Lui, Eric M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Section Trusses — Packer, Jeffrey A., J. E. (Ted)
Simple Equations for Effective Length Factors — Henderson, and Jaap Wardenier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Dumonteil, Pierre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
VIBRATION
COMPUTERS
Application of Tuned Mass Dampers To Control
Computers and Steel Design — McGuire, W. . . . . . . 160
Vibrations of Composite Floor Systems —
CONNECTIONS Webster, Anthony C. and Rimas Vaicaitis . . . . . . . 116
An Experimental Study of Block Shear Failure of Design Chart for Vibration of Office and Residential
Angles in Tension — Epstein, Howard I. . . . . . . . 75 Floors — Hatfield, Frank J.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141