Pork Quality Audit A Review of The Factors Influencing Pork Quality

PORK QUALITY AUDIT:
A REVIEW OF THE FACTORS

INFLUENCING PORK QUALITY’
J.E. CANNON2.4,J.B. MORGAN*, J. HEAVNER3, F.K. MCKEITH3.

G.C. SMITH’ and D.L. MEEKER5
’Department of Animal Sciences

Colorado State University
Ft. Collins, CO
and
3Department of Animal Sciences
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL
Received for Publication July 7, 1994

Accepted for Publication December 8, 1994
ABSTRACT
As part of the “Pork Quality Audit,” an extensive review of the literature

relative to pork quality has been conducted which describes the scientific basis
which the United States pork industry can utilize when addressing quality
defects. Specijic pork quality characteristics that are discussed include muscle
color, firmness and texture (specifically pale, soft and exudative muscle);
intramuscular fat; meat palatability (tenderness, juiciness and flavor);
ecchymosis; broken bones; meat shelf-life; and food safety. Specificfactors are
discussed in detail as to how they influence pork quality characteristics, Factors
which are discussed include carcass composition, genetics, nutrition, growth
promotants, preslaughter handling, immobilization, postmonem handling and
chilling, packaging, and long-tern storage. This review provides a foundation
for the identi$cation of factors which impact pork quality nonconformity.
INTRODUCTION
The National Pork Producers Council conducted a “Pork Quality Audit” to

evaluate the current status of the U.S.pork industry relative to the quality of
’ This review was pan of the Pork Chain Quality Audit funded by the National Pork Producers
Council. Des Moines, Iowa.
To whom correspondence should be addressed. He has relocated to DEKALB Swine Breeders,
Inc., 3100 Sycamore Dr., DeKalb, IL 60115. Phone: 815-758-9177.
’ National Pork Producers Council, Des Moines, Iowa.
Journal of Muscle Foods 6 (1995) 369-402. All Rights Reserved.

“Copyright 1995 by Food C? Nutrition Press, Inc., Trumbull, Connecticut. 369
370 J. CANNON et al.
pork it is providing to the consuming public. This Audit is part of a plan to

implement Total Quality Management (TQM) in the industry. In order to
successfully implement a TQM program, quality factors as well as deviations
must be identified. Proper identification of these factors provide a basis for
strategy implementation which will improve the overall uniformity and
consistency of pork.
The livestock and meat industries have perceived quality as being associated
with terms such as freshness, wholesomeness, grade, color (appearance), eating
satisfaction and processing attributes (functionality). In the 1990s, needs for
improvement of the quality of meat-animal food products are causing livestock
producers, packers, processors, purveyors and retailers to consider their
production practices in terms of which decisions affect value and/or desirability
of live slaughter animals, dress-off/offal items, carcasses, wholesale cuts, and
fresh and processed retail items. Quality defects represent lost revenue
opportunities for all sectors of the pork industry. With a complete understanding
of the extent and causes of these defects, production practices can be modified
to reduce or eliminate these defects.
This review addresses production factors as well as slaughter, processing and
handling practices that affect pork quality and was conducted to identify and to
describe previous research related to pork quality. Table 1 is presented as an
outline of this review and s u m z e s specific factors which affect pork quality.
Conclusions drawn from this review will identify areas for future research
endeavors as well as to provide information necessary to allow the pork industry
to develop critical strategies.
Before production factors are addressed, a brief overview of pork consump-
tion should be presented. While meat consumption has increased over the past
two decades, mainly because of increased fish and poultry consumption, pork
consumption has remained relatively static (American Meat Institute 1992). The
lack of directional movement in pork consumption might be related to the
balance between concerns related to dietary fat associated with meat consump-
tion and the successful producer driven promotional programs.
Before discussing the factors related to pork quality, it should be noted that
pork products (based on the market direction of boneless, skinned pork) are sold
in either fresh form, approximately 25% of pork, or processed form, approxi-
mately 75% of pork (Breidenstein and Williams 1987). Furthermore, processed
pork can be categorized primarily as either cured meats or sausage products (a
very small amount of precooked pork is available). Critical quality factors differ
depending on the form and category in which specific pork products are to be
merchandized.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PORK QUALITY 371
TABLE 1.
PRODUCTION FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE PORK QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS’
Specific topics
Production factor Quality characteristic discussed in review
Genetics Muscle color PSE - Halothane gene

Muscle water holding capacity
Carcass composition
Nutrition Carcass composition Dietary protein

Meat flavor Dietary fats
Vitamin E
Growth promotants Carcass composition Porcine somatotropin

Meat palatability Ractopamine
Preslaughter handling Muscle color Transportation

and transportation Muscle water holding capacity Fasting
Hog death during-transit Resting
Immobilization Muscle color Electrical stunning

Muscle water holding capacity CO, stunning
Blood splash Captive bolt stunning
Broken bones
Dehairing Meat shelf-life PSE

Muscle color Bacterial contamination
Muscle water holding capacity
Post slaughter handling Muscle color Chilling

Muscle water holding capacity Electrical stimulation
Shelf-life
Packaging and storage Shelf-life Packaging environment

Meat safety Storage temperature
I The specific factors affecting pork quality characteristics are discussed and referenced in the body
of this review
CARCASS COMPOSITION
Consumers have become more conscious of their eating habits related to health
and demand leaner food products. This perception of the need for healthfulness
of food products is true for both fresh and processed pork. The pork industry
has met the consumers’ demand through genetic selection of leaner breeding
stock and packer trimming of excess subcutaneous fat. In the future, dietary
372 J. CANNON er al.
manipulation to alter fat composition might also be used to improve the

compositional characteristics of pork. Excessive subcutaneous and seam fat
needs to be eliminated; however, a minimal level of intramuscular fat (marbling)
may be needed to maintain acceptable pork quality, especially for fresh pork
products (Devol et al. 1988).
Quality and palatability changes as related to variation in backfat thickness
have been measured (Table 2). One concern is the possible reduction of
tenderness that might accompany decreased backfat (Tarrant 1993). Reduced
tenderness in cuts from leaner hogs could be the result of myofibrillar
cold-shortening. However, since postmortem metabolism occurs rapidly in pork
tissue, cold-shortening is probably not a major problem (Marsh ef al. 1972).
Although Martin and Freeden (1974) observed lower tenderness values for chops
from leaner carcasses, the majority of studies have indicated that backfat
thickness has a minimal effect on tenderness (Modes 1970; Wood ef al. 1981;
Wood ef al. 1986). Devol ef al. (1988) found minimal relationships between
average backfat thickness and Warner-Bratzler shear force or sensory panel
tenderness values (r = .03 and .07, respectfully). Backfat thickness could
influence juiciness (Wood et al. 1986) while flavor and overall acceptability are
only minimally influenced (Rhodes 1970; Wood et al. 1986; Devol et al. 1988).
Producing leaner pigs to meet consumer demand is not likely to negatively
influence the palatability characteristics of pork.
Although minimal for some characteristics, there appears to be a relationship
between intramuscular fat and palatability characteristics (Table 3). Devol ef al.
(1988) suggested a minimum threshold value for marbling (expressed as
percentage lipid) with relation to tenderness and reported an intramuscular lipid
percentage of 2.5% to 3.0%was needed to achieve acceptable tenderness and
that intramuscular lipid percentages below 2.5 % resulted in chops which were
significantly tougher than those with more than 2.5 % intramuscular fat. Juiciness
has been demonstrated to be related to marbling while the relationship between
marbling and pork flavor appears to be minimal (Wood et al. 1986; Devol et al.
1988). Hodgson et al. (1991) observed significant relationships between
marbling and tenderness, juiciness and overall palatability and determined that
marbling could be used as part of the criteria to stratify pork carcasses into
different palatability groups.
The quality and palatability of processed pork items (cured and sausage meats)
are influenced to a lesser extent by the amount and type of fat because adjuncts
and processing techniques can be manipulated to limit such problems. Low-fat
ham has been successfully merchandized; however, leaner bacon can pose
potential quality problems (Jabaay et al. 1976; McKeith and Merkel 1991).
Leaner bacon, although visually acceptable, becomes dry and chewy when
cooked to crispiness (McKeith and Merkel 1991). Stites ef al. (1989) observed
a direct relationship between belly thickness and both processing yield and bacon
TABLE 2.
SlMPLE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN BACKFAT THICKNESS AND PORK QUALITY/PALATABILITY CHARACTERISTICS
Percentage
Back fat Muscle Muscle intra- Overall ElP
thickness color firmness Marbling muscular Shear Tender- Juici- accept- vl
measures scores' scores scores fat value ness ness Flavor ability
Average backfat thickness -. 15b -__ .I0 .01 -.2Sb --- --- --- --- 8
(Martin and Freedan 1974) $
P, fat thickness _-- .73 ___ .56 --_ -.04 .31 .06 .04
3
2
(Woodet al. 1986) Q
Average backfat thickness .28b .21' -.IS --- .03 .07 -.04 -.]I --- $i
(DeVol er al. 1988) a
F
cej
'Values are for muscle color desirability (Martin and Freedan 1974) or muscle brightness (DeVol et al. 1988) .e
bP < .01
'P < .05
314 J . CANNON er al.
TABLE 3.
SIMPLE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE AMOUNT OF INTRAMUSCULAR FAT AND
THE EATING CHARACTERISTICS OF PORK
Shear Overall
Study value Tenderness Juiciness Flavor palatability
Martin and Fredeen (1974) -,12* ___ ___ -__ ___

DeVol er al. (1988Y -.14 .ll .23* -__ .__
DeVol er al. (1988)b -.29** .32*** .21* .23* ---
Hodgson er al. (1991)’ -,36** ___ .70** .__ .51**
Hodgson er al. (1991)b -.4g** .._ &j** ___ .51**
‘Simple correlation between amount of marbling and the specified trait

bSimple correlation between percent intramuscular fat and the specified trait
*P< .05
**P < .01
*** P < ,001
appearance but no relationship existed between belly thickness and sensory panel
acceptability. Due to thinner flank regions, bellies from leaner hogs can be less
desirable for processing than those from fatter hogs (Jabaay er nl. ,1976). As
processed pork items as well as carcasses needed to produce these products
become leaner or the fatty acid profile is altered, the adjuncts used as well as
the processing techniques employed will have to be monitored more closely
since the texture, juiciness and flavor can be adversely affected (McKeith and
Merkel 1991) .
Since carcass lean yield is dramatically improved by reducing carcass fat
(Cross er al. 1975), producers are urged to supply leaner pigs using proper
genetic and nutritional programs. This is essential since external fat content has
minimal effect on palatability characteristics.
PALE, SOFT AND EXUDATIVE PORK
The PSE condition occurs when the muscle from a pork carcass is pale in
color, has a soft texture and is exudative or watery. Genetics, environment and
handling of both the live animal and its carcass immediately before and after
slaughter can influence the incidence and magnitude of the PSE condition. A
rapid decline in pH, due to accelerated anaerobic glycolysis, combined with high
carcass temperature results in the denaturation of approximately 20% of the

sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins (Honikel and Kim 1986). High moisture
loss is caused by the denaturation of myosin prior to the onset of rigor mortis.
The fraction of myosin denatured will increase with the rate of pH decline. The
maximum pH drop is dependent upon the chilling rate and related conditions.
The percentage of denatured protein increases at a lower ultimate pH. In
general, with an increase in the rate of chilling, there is a decrease in the
percentage of denatured proteins because anaerobic glycolysis is retarded and the
rate of pH decline is slowed (Offer 1991). Low 45-min muscle pH and slow
heat dissipation from the muscle have been associated with PSE pork (Didley et
al. 1970). Large muscle fiber diameter and inadequate tenderness are also
common to the PSE condition (Didley ef al. 1970).
A survey of 14 packing plants by Kauffman el al. (1992), revealed that
approximately 26% of pork produced was undesirable (16% PSE and 10%dark,
firm and dry). Additionally, there was great variation in the muscle quality of
pork products between the different packing plants which could be attributed to
variations in a number of factors such as genetics, handling practices prior to
slaughter, immobilization techniques and carcass chilling procedures (Kauffman
et al. 1992).
Studies have been conducted to evaluate procedures, both antemortem and
postmortem, to reduce the incidence of PSE meat (Borchert and Briskey 1964;
Kastenschmidt et al. 1964; Honkavaara 1989a; Eikelenboom ef al. 1991; Offer
1991; Jones et al. 1993). It is believed that the most effective way to reduce the
incidence of poor-quality pork, other than through genetics, is to improve
preslaughter management and handling. Reduced stress during loading, transport
and handling, improved environmental conditions, and shorter travel times are
some of the methods which can reduce the incidence of PSE pork. The use of
improved preslaughter handling has proven to be an effective means of reducing
PSE and unnecessary death loss (Sybesma 1980; Murray 1982).
Handling of the pork carcass can also influence meat quality. Scalding and
dehairing of the carcass to remove hair increases carcass temperature due to
accelerated glycolysis (Honkavaara 1989b). These procedures increase the
incidence of PSE because the rates of glycolysis and glycogenolysis and thus pH
decline are increased while carcass temperature is high.
Potentially, the most economically important aspect of PSE pork is the
inability of meat to bind water. During transit, PSE hams lose three times more
moisture than do normal hams and seven times more moisture than dark, firm
and dry (DFD) hams (Kauffman el al. 1978). In addition, moisture losses during
curing, smoking and chilling are higher in PSE hams than in normal hams and
DFD hams (Kauffman et al. 1978). Hams with severe PSE have a water holding
capacity (WHC) of 33% below that of normal hams and PSE shoulders have
WHC values 11% below those of normal pork. Honkavaara (1990) found that
316 J . CANNON el al.
the addition of phosphate to pork with severe PSE does not improve water
holding capacity and that 1.5% more pork trimmings are needed for PSE pork
compared to normal pork to absorb the same amount of added water during
processing (Honkavaara 1990). Moisture loss is significant to pork processors
and meat retailers due to reduced processed and storage yields.
The inability of PSE meat to bind water also leads to tenderness problems,
often due to increased cooking losses (Tope1 ef al. 1976; van der Wal et al.
1989). Boles ef al. (1991a) observed similar tenderness problems when
comparing sensory characteristics of chops from animals of three different
halothane genotypes (PSE susceptibility - halothane negative < halothane carrier
< halothane positive).
Kauffman et al. (1992) has developed quality categories to help more
effectively classify the variations in pork quality which exist among and within
various pork muscles. This system includes the traditional PSE and DFD
definitions of pork quality as well as a category for reddish pink, firm and
nonexudative muscle (RFN or normal muscle) and reddish pink, soft and
exudative (RSE) muscle. Defects in pork quality and palatability associated with
the occurrence of PSE serve as sources of great economic loss to the meat
industry through moisture loss and decreased palatability. It should be a high
priority of the pork industry to attempt to eliminate the occurrence of PSE pork.
GENETICS AND BREEDING
The role of genetic selection and breeding schemes is very important within
the swine industry. Growth, feed efficiency, carcass composition and meat
quality can be influenced by an animal’s genetic background. Whether using
purebred or hybrid animals as parent stock, genetic selection is viewed as a
method of improving the value of animals and may be used to eliminate
problems that are genetically linked. Heritability estimates of important pork
characteristics are given in Table 4. Studies have been conducted to demonstrate
the influence of breeding decisions on pork muscle quality.
As previously mentioned, ultimate muscle pH directly influences muscle
quality and is related to the amount of anaerobic glycolysis which occurs in
response to stress immediately prior to slaughter. Pigs that either carry or
express the halothane gene have been utilized to improve carcass leanness;
however, this poses a potential problem because meat from these animals is
more susceptible to the quality problems related to pale, soft and exudative
(PSE) pork (Pommier and Houde 1993). The advantages of improved carcass
leanness are lost because of the loss in yields related to the reduction in water
holding capacity. Pommier and Houde (1993) concluded that preslaughter
handling and conditions must be improved in order to reduce the incidence of
PSE meat from hogs carrying or expressing the halothane gene. Additionally,
TABLE 4.
HERITABILITY ESTIMATES FOR GROWTH, CARCASS, MUSCLE QUALITY AND PALATABILITY TRAITS
~~ ~
Heritability Estimates
Jensen er al. Arganosa EI al. Bereskin Bereskin and Cameron Lo el al.

Trait (1967) (1969) (1987) S t e l e (1988) ( 1990) (1992b)
_ _ _ _ ~ ~ ~
Average daily gain --_ .I1 .25 ___ .36
Average backfat thickness .69 .53 .63 .38 .54 .61
Longissimus muscle area .47 .41 .35 .31 .80
Muscle score ___ --_ .I7
Color score .28 .I0 .lI
Firmness score .21 .30 .29
Marbling score .I9 .28 ___ .17
Intramuscular fat, 96 .86 .42 .53 .52
Water holding capacity .63 .25
Shear force .25 .I7
Tenderness .45
Juiciness .I9 .I2
Flavor .58 .I3
Acceptability .__ ___ .34
Percentage lean cuts .40 .64 .41 _-.

378 J . CANNON e! al.
fresh and processed meat from halothane-positive animals has been shown to
have undesirable cooking and eating characteristics, especially tenderness,
compared to meat from halothane negative animals (Boles ef al. 1991a,b).
A quality concern which has recently been brought to the attention of the
pork industry relates to the low ultimate pH associated with the “Hampshire”
effect. The ultimate muscle pH is lower than the norm; however, pH decline is
normal. The Rendement Napole (RN) gene has been identified as the gene
responsible for the low ultimate pH. Monin et al. (1987) observed higher muscle
glycolytic potential, which favors anaerobic glycolysis, and lower ultimate pH
in hogs from Hampshire ancestry. In addition, Enfalt er al. (1994) found that
water-holding capacity and cooking yield was lower for meat from hogs
expressing the RN gene compared to those animals not expressing this trait. As
further research is conducted to characterize the RN gene, improved understand-
ing of this gene’s influence on meat quality will help determine if there is a
serious meat quality concern.
Studies have been conducted regarding the affects of different breeds on
growth performance, carcass composition and meat quality (Hiner et al. 1964;
Ellis et al. 1990a; Sather et af. 1991; Lo et al. 1992a). Generally, colored
breeds (Duroc and Hampshire) exhibit superior growth and carcass characteris-
tics while the white breeds (Large whites and Landrace) excel in the maternal
traits. Studies have demonstrated the superior pork quality and palatability
characteristics of the Duroc breed (Hiner et al. 1964; Lo er al. 1992a). With the
advent of biotechnology techniques, the potential can exist to efficiently combine
the traits of the various breeds to produce the optimal market hog.
NUTRITION
Numerous studies have shown an influence of swine diet on pork carcass

quality. In a study comparing the performance of hogs fed corn, sorghum or
wheat as the dietary grain source (Ramsey et al. 1990), corn-fed animals had
larger loin eye areas than sorghum-fed hogs and produced pork with less
marbling than those fed wheat. Additionally, corn-fed pigs produced pork with
lower Warner-Bratzler Shear values compared to the sorghum-fed group.
Feeding hogs ad libitum is the common feeding method used by U.S. pork
producers whereas European producers use restricted feeding methods.
Restricted feeding (85% of ad libitum diet) of hogs reduces carcass fat content
without any reduction in meat quality; however, average daily gain is reduced
(Haydon et al. 1989). U.S. producers have not extensively used restricted
feeding because of the extended feeding period required to attain desirable
finished weights as well as the lack of economic incentive to produce leaner
hogs (Haydon et af. 1989). Studies comparing the sensory characteristics of
fresh chops from hogs fed ad libitum and those from limit-fed pigs indicate that
restricted diets could reduce the sensory characteristics of pork (Ellis ef al.
1990b; Warkup er al. 1990).
Protein level and quality are important criteria which affect the growth
performance and carcass characteristics of swine (Kropf ef al. 1959). In general,
higher quality protein and a higher proportion of protein in the diet (16-17%)
will improve swine performance traits (Kropf er al. 1959; Cromwell er al.
1993). As dietary protein increased from 12% to 17%,Cromwell et al. (1993)
observed improved daily gain, feed efficiency, lean growth and carcass muscling
as well as reduced tenth rib backfat thickness and increased longissimus muscle
area. Kropf ef al. (1959) indicated that carcass muscle development is hindered
to a greater extent in the early growth phase than in the later growth phase by
low protein quality and/or level. Furthermore, because gilts are more efficient
and grow faster than barrows, gilts require higher dietary levels of protein to
maximize performance (Cromwell et al. 1993). Growth rate and carcass
characteristics of barrows are maximized at 13%dietary protein; however, gilts
require at least 17% dietary protein and could even require higher amounts to
maximize performance and carcass characteristics (Cromwell et al. 1990;
Cromwell et al. 1993). Lysine is the most important essential amino acid for
swine. Cromwell ef al. (1993) observed that the current National Research
Council recommendation of .60% lysine in a 13 % crude protein diet is sufficient
for barrows; but, a higher level of lysine is necessary for gilts. Cromwell et al.
(1993) recommended split sex feeding as a means to efficiently maximize growth
and carcass potential of both barrows and gilts.
Melton (1990) concluded that pork from pigs fed high-energy grain diets
tend to have more intense flavor and that feeding unsaturated fats to swine
increases the unsaturation of pork fat but has very little influence of pork flavor.
Rhee er al. (1988) reported similar results in a study in which swine were fed
high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO). HOSO is a monounsaturated fat and when fed
to swine (12%of total diet), the fat becomes less saturated and more monoun-
saturated; this latter change occurs mainly in fat depots and has little influence
on meat composition (Rhee ef al. 1988).
A quality concern influenced by fat composition is the rancid flavor
produced by lipid oxidation. Manipulation of the fatty acid profile of pork has
been used to increase the amount of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty
acids compared to saturated fatty acids (Leszczynski ef al. 1992). Adding
different oilseeds to an animal’s diet can successfully alter the fatty acid profile
of the tissue from that animal (Wahlstrom et al. 1971; West and Myer 1987;
Shackelford ef al. 1990; Leszczynski et al. 1992). Lipid oxidation occurs during
meat storage when the fatty acid chains are broken in areas of unsaturation. The
resultant formation of aldehydes and ketones is responsible for the undesirable
rancid flavor.
380 J . C A N N O N el al.
Use of antioxidants, specifically vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), as dietary

supplements has shown promise in preventing lipid oxidation thereby increasing
the shelf-stability of pork (Yamauchi er af. 1980; Buckley et af. 1989; Monahan
et al. 1990; Kuhn et al. 1991; Monahan ef al. 1992). In a study conducted by
Buckley et af. (1989), hogs were supplemented with 200 mg/kg feed of
alpha-tocopherol for either 4 or 10 weeks. Animals fed vitamin E produced pork
that was significantly more stable than control pork; but, little difference was
observed in shelf-stability from meat from animals fed vitamin E for the short
period as compared to the long period (Buckley et al. 1989).
GROWTH PROMOTANTS
Growth promotants have received much attention because of their positive

affects on animal growth, feed efficiency and carcass composition. Interest in
these compounds has been heightened by the need to reduce fat in meat
products. Two types of growth promotants (also referred to as repartitioning
agents) are of interest: (1) Somatotropin (PST), and (2) beta adrenergic agonists.
Somatotropin and beta adrenergic agonists show potential as compounds which
can improve the rate and efficiency of growth and carcass composition (Table
5).
Administration of PST can reduce fat content and increase protein content
by as much as 36% and 16%, respectively (Table 5). Back fat thickness is
dramatically reduced, between 20 and 45%, and both feed/gain ratio and
average daily gain can be significantly improved by administration of PST to
growing swine.
Differences in carcass cutting yields, although minimal for untrimmed and
trimmed bone-in major wholesale cuts, are dramatically improved for the
boneless cuts from animals treated with PST. Intermuscular and intramuscular
fat are reduced in carcasses from pigs treated with PST; and, the fat content of
boneless trimmed cuts is decreased by 25 to 50% (McKeith el af. 1989).
The responses of pork quality and palatability traits to the administration of
PST to swine have been evaluated and limited effects were observed (Table 6).
No differences in muscle color and firmness values have been reported relative
to the administration of PST to swine. Porcine somatotropin has been shown to
increase shear force measurements and, to a lesser degree, to decrease sensory
measurements for tenderness and juiciness of pork. Prusa er al. (1989) observed
lower sensory juiciness, tenderness and flavor scores for chops from hogs
administered PST compared to those from control hogs; however, these
differences were not statistically significant.
Research has shown that pork from PST-treated swine is not inferior to pork
from non-treated swine for use in processed items such as ham and pepperoni
(Prusa er al. 1990; Boles et af. 1991b; Lonergan et af. 1992). Bellies from
TABLE 5 .
EFFECTS OF PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN OR RACTOPAMINE ON SWINE GROWTH PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS COMPOSITION
Study Treatment ADG FdlGain % Fat % Protein Backfat
or % lean'
Machlin (1972)' t 16% 1 13% -- --- b 20%
Chung er al. (1985) t 10% 14% ND' t 6% ---

Etherton er al. (1986) t 11% 1 19% b 18% t 8% ND
Etherton ct 01. (1987) t 14% b 17% 125% t 13% ND
Campbell et 01. (1989 )d t25% 122% t 18% ND 120%
Knight er al. (1!391)b ND 4 9% 113% t 4% 136%
Watkins ct 01. (1990) t 12% 1 14% b15% t 12% b 8%

Gu cr al. (1991) t 3% b 1% b 5% t 5% b 4%
Stite et al. (1991) t 9% 1 9% -- --- ND
Yen et al. (1991) t 8% b 16% --- -- ND
Bark ef al. (1992) t 10% b 15% b 37% t20% b9%
.
Utlarr, er al. (19931I 20 ppm t 20% 1 15% -- t 2% b 8%
Values for porcine sornatotropin are for % protein; values for ractopamine are for % lean
bValuesare for experiment 2 in the Machlin (1972)study and experiment 1 in the Knight et ul. (1991)study
"D = Not Different
Values arc for the overall live weight period w
c.
W
'Maximum dosage used in the Knight et al. (1991)and Watkins ef 01. (1990) trials
w
m
TABLE 6. N
EFFECTS OP PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN O R RACTOPAMINE O N PORK QUALITY AND SENSORY CHARACIUUSTICS
% Intra-
Amount of muscular Muscle Muscle Shear
Treatment marbling fat color firmness force Tenderness Juiciness
Solomon ct al. (1988) 100pg/(Kg .d) --- --_ -__ --- t 17% __- ---
&ermann ei al. (1990) 200 pg/Kg' 4 33% _-- ND' ND ND -- ___
Boles cr al. (1991b) 4 mgld 431% __- -- - 411%' t 15%
Knight CI al. (1991) 48 mg/wk ND _-_ ND ND t 11% __ ND

Goodband cr al. (1993) 8 mgld' 4 56% ___ ND ND t 12% ND ND
'Maximum dosage used in the Beermann cr al. (1990) trial, Goodband cf al. (1993) trial and Watkins cf al. (1990) trial
bND = Not Different
'Initial tenderness values
PST-treated animals are acceptable for bacon production (McKeith and Merkel
1991; Lonergan ef al. 1992) although reduced processing yields for such bellies
have been reported (McKeith and Merkel 1991).
The second group of growth-promoting compounds being researched are the
beta-adrenergic agonists. Compounds classified as beta-adrenergic agonists are
clenbuterol, cimaterol, L-644,969, ractopamine and salbutamol. All of these
compounds have been investigated for use with swine; however, research
suggests that ractopamine may have the most potential for future applications in
producing pork (Anderson ef al. 1990). Ractopamine is effective in increasing
lean growth rate, decreasing the amount of carcass fat and improving feed
efficiency (Table 5). Dressing percentage is also improved when ractopamine is
administered to swine (Stites ef al. 1991).
Ractopamine improves carcass cutting yields by decreasing the amount of fat
in cuts by up to 25% (Stites ef al. 1991). The magnitude of fat reduction is not
as dramatic in pigs administered ractopamine as it is for those treated with PST.
The reduction in fat content is primarily due to reduced subcutaneous and
intermuscular fat while intramuscular fat is not significantly altered by
administration of ractopamine to swine (Stites ef al. 1991).
Ractopamine has no adverse effects on meat quality or palatability
characteristics (Table 6). Values for color, firmness or marbling are either not
influenced or are slightly improved by administration of ractopamine to swine
(Watkins ef al. 1990; Stites ef al. 1991). Research has demonstrated that some
beta-adrenergic agonists reduce tenderness (Jones ef al. 1985; Warriss ef al.
1990 a,b); however, ractopamine does not adversely affect the tenderness of
pork (Yen ef al. 1991; Stites ef al. 1994). The differences in tenderness as
influenced by the various beta-adrenergic agonists may be related to shifts in the
calcium-dependent protease activities which appear to be influenced at different
rates by the different compounds (Merkel 1988).
Ractopamine does not affect processed pork yields or palatability characteris-
tics (Stites el al. 1991, 1994). Additionally, tissue cholesterol content is reduced
by treatment with ractopamine (Perkins el al. 1992). Anderson ef al. (1990)
described some advantages of using pork from ractopamine-treated animals for
the manufacture of processed products. The major advantage was in the
reduction of fat content and improvements in related yields.
Anderson ef al. (1990) suggested that new lower-fat sausage products could
be developed, especially those utilizing the Boston butt and picnic shoulder.
Myofibrillar proteins may be more readily extractable because muscle from these
animals possess a greater percentage of white type I1 muscle fibers (Aalhus ef
al. 1992)which would lead to increased functionality of the myofibrillar proteins
and to increased yields and improved texture of processed meats (Anderson ef
al. 1990).
Both somatotropin and beta-adrenergic agonists have the potential to provide
384 J. CANNON er 01.
the pork industry with significant economic advantages through improved

production efficiencies and the movement of leaner pork through the various
sectors of the pork chain. The increased value of these leaner hogs will be even
more dramatic when animals are marketed in value-based marketing programs.
Meisinger (1989) estimated that the total benefit (sum of performance and
carcass benefits) would be $9.46 and $16.94 for pigs treated with PST while on
feed for 63 or 73 days, respectively; and animals treated with beta-adrenergic
agonists while on feed for 63 or 73 days would have total benefits of $6.20 and
$1 1.35, respectively.
PRESLAUGHTER HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION
The stress placed on an animal prior to slaughter directly influences meat

quality. Various production practices can be used to either reduce stress on an
animal or alter the metabolism of the animal prior to slaughter. Fasting pigs
prior to transport decreases the mortality rate from the production facility to the
packing facility (Williams 1985). Eikelenboom et al. (1991) reported that short
periods of fasting prior to transport results in improved meat color, firmness and
water holding capacity. In addition, decreases in chilling and cutting losses were
observed for carcasses from pigs fasted prior to transport (Warriss and Brown
1985). Fasting after transport can increase ultimate pH, meat color intensity and
water holding capacity (S.D.M. Jones et al. 1985). Disadvantages of fasting
prior to slaughter are increased incidence of DFD muscle and decreased carcass
yield (S.D.M. Jones et al. 1985; Eikelenboom et al. 1991). Fasting of swine has
no apparent effect on the sensory characteristics of cooked pork (Becker et al.
1989).
Death loss during transit is a producer-related problem that can be avoided.
Studies have revealed increased mortality rates for pigs during transport when
the animals were fed the same day (Eikelenboom 1988; Guise and Warriss
1989). Guise and Warriss (1989) found that pigs transported under cold
conditions had slightly lower ultimate pH than those transported at more
moderate temperatures. Additionally, the length of transport plays a role in
swine mortality. Honkavaara (1989a) concluded that mortality rates are the
iowest for a 10-25 min transport and highest for a 45-80 min transit. In the
U.S., approximately 80% of all hogs are shipped more than 50 miles prior to
slaughter, With an increase in the time of transit, it is necessary for swine
producers to implement management practices that will minimize death loss.
Loading density during transport has an effect on death loss as well as the
incidence of injury and PSE muscle. It is important to allow enough room in the
truck or trailer for each individual pig, particularly in hot, humid weather to
reduce injury. Overcrowding also contributes to stress-related meat quality
problems, particularly during periods of hot weather. The Meat and Livestock
Commission in the United Kingdom has recommended a space allowance of

0.4-0.5mz for pigs being transported to slaughter (Guise and Warriss 1989).
Furthermore, Grandin (1994) recommended a 2-4h resting period after arrival
for hogs prior to slaughter to help reduce the incidence of PSE meat.
Honkavaara (1989a) conducted a study to evaluate environmental conditions
for holding pigs prior to slaughter. Optimum ranges for temperature, humidity,
and time of holding were evaluated. The optimum lairage temperature, humidity
and holding periods are 15-18C, 59-65% relative humidity and 3-5 h, respective-
ly. The result of optimum holding facility conditions was low muscle lactate
which resulted in a higher ultimate pH and a lower incidence of PSE pork.
IMMOBILIZATION
Swine are immobilized via stunning techniques that render the animal
unconscious. When properly stunned, they remain unconscious until death
occurs. Stunning must be conducted humanely and must ensure that optimal
muscle quality of the muscle is attained. Electrical, captive bolt and carbon
dioxide are immobilization techniques which have been investigated (Carr 1985).
The major concerns about pork quality that are related to methods/conditions of
stunning are PSE, ecchymosis (blood splash) and broken bones. None of the
stunning techniques completely eliminate meat quality problems or concerns
related to humane treatment; therefore, proper management of the immobiliza-
tion process is necessary to insure acceptable immobilization.
Pale, soft and exudative pork becomes a problem when hogs are stressed
immediately before stunning, Struggling at death will increase lactic acid
production and will accelerate the decline in muscle pH (Carr 1985). All
stunning methods cause some stress to the animal; however, the magnitude of
the stress depends on the individual stunning technique (Carr 1985). Overstreet
ef al. (1975) compared the rate of muscle glycolysis in pigs stunned using 90
volts vs 120 volts of electricity, carbon dioxide and the captive bolt pistol and
recommended that stunning with the captive bolt pistol should not be used
because of increased anaerobic glycolysis in pork muscle. Results suggested
minimal differences in muscle quality between electrical stunning and carbon
dioxide stunning (Overstreet efal. 1975). Electrical stunning is the most widely
used stunning technique currently being used in the U.S.
Broken bones are directly related to electrical stunning. The scapula and/or
femur, for example, may fracture during stunning while the pigs feet are in
contact with the floor. Additionally, when pigs are stunned head to back at
excessive voltage, the vertebrae may fracture (Tarrant 1993). Costly trimming
to remove damaged tissue and bone chips is required in the area surrounding
broken bones.
Another quality problem related to improper stunning is that of blood splash.
386 1. CANNON er 01.
Blood splashing probably results from blood-vessel aneurysms caused by severe

muscle contractions while systolic blood pressure is high (Gregory 1987).
Electrical stunning as well as captive-bolt pistol stunning are the primary
contributors to blood splashing. When using electrical stunning, previous work
has recommended the use of higher voltage (240v) as a means to reduce the
incidencelseverity of blood splash (Cooper ef al. 1980). The most practical
method of reducing the incidence of blood splashing is to reduce the time
between stunning and bleeding. Tarrant (1993) recommended sticking no later
than 10 s after stunning which is well before the kicking phase that results from
severe muscle contractions. Additionally, Carr (1985) recommended that the
time between stunning and bleeding should not exceed 60 s as the incidence of
blood splash increases after this time period.
Humane concerns must be addressed with regard to immobilization of swine.
High voltage electrical stunning has been preferred because the animal is
rendered insensible quickly and remains insensible during bleeding (Gregory
1988). Immobilization at lower voltage (80-1OOv) takes longer and the
effectiveness of the stun is reduced (Anil 1991). Troeger and Woltersdorf (1990)
recommended use of 250v of electricity as this provides complete stunning in a
relatively short period of time (7-10 s). When lower voltage is used, longer
periods of stunning are recommended (180v for 10-15 s). Carbon dioxide
immobilization has been criticized because some researchers feel that the animal
is exposed to stressful conditions before loss of consciousness (Tarrant 1993).
Troeger and Woltersdorf (1991) observed lower incidence and intensities of
excitation in halothane-positive pigs when carbon dioxide concentrations were
equal to or greater than 80% (compared to concentrations of 60%).
Clearly, no immobilization technique totally eliminates problems related to
meat quality or humane concerns. As concerns increase with a progressively
more humane-sensitive, consuming public, improvements in immobilization
techniques must continue. Presently, management practices such as reducing
preslaughter stress, using adequate voltage and limiting the interval between
stunning and bleeding can minimize meat-quality problems.
DEHAIRING
Scalding and dehairing is the most common technique used by the major
U.S.packers to remove hog hair. Carcasses are scalded (60C) then run through
a dehairing machine. After washing, to remove loose hair, the carcass is singed
to eliminate the remaining hair. Compared to skinning, scalding/dehairing is a
more efficacious means of removing hair from pigs at the high chain-speeds
currently being used in the U.S.
A disadvantage to using the scalding/dehairing process is quality problems
which are influenced by accelerated postmortem glycolysis (Carr 1985).
Postmortem anaerobic glycolysis is accelerated at high carcass temperatures and

excessive lactic acid is produced. The resultant low ultimate pH (Troeger and
Woltersdorf 1987; Honkavaara 1989b) as well the reduced pH at high body
temperature leads to protein denaturation and produces the characteristic PSE
muscle condition. Troeger and Woltersdorf (1987) suggested that muscle from
skinned carcasses (compared to scalded) has improved muscle color and water
holding capacity.
Another possible disadvantage to scalding/dehairing relates to the hygienic
care given to the carcasses during the process. Although heat treatments
associated with scalding and singeing should kill most bacteria, the warm, humid
environment associated with the area encompassing the scald tank favors
microbial growth. According to Gill et al. (1992) the singeing process does not
consistently destroy the bacteria that has been transferred to the carcass during
dehairing. Troeger and Woltersdorf (1987) found higher microbial counts on the
surface of scalded carcasses compared to the surface of skinned carcasses. Meat
contamination during scalding/dehairing should be minimal unless there is a
puncture of the skin and tissues or there is excessive contamination through the
stick wound; however, skin contamination can be transferred to the carcass
during splitting and fabrication (Gill et al. 1992).
Scalding/dehairing will continue to be used in the high-speed slaughter
operations due to the advantages in efficiency and timeliness. Therefore,
management must focus on limiting factors such as stress prior to slaughter
which will help minimize accelerated postmortem glycolysis.
POSTSLAUGH'IER HANDLING
Rate of carcass chilling influences the quality and shelf-life of pork with
regards to future uses as both fresh and processed meat. Quality characteristics
such as water holding capacity, tenderness and microbial load can be affected
by chilling. Chilling rate (Borchert and Briskey 1964; Crenwelge e? al. 1984a.b;
Gigiel et al. 1989; Ortner 1989; Feldhusen and Kuhne 1992; Feldhusen et al.
1992; Jeremiah e? al. 1992b; S.D.M.Jones e? al. 1993) and electrical
stimulation (Crenwelge ef al. 1984a,b; Gigiel and James 1984) have been
evaluated in efforts to improve pork quality.
Electrical stimulation is commonly used in the beef industry to accelerate
postmortem metabolism, brighten muscle color, improve quality grade and
improve tenderness (Cross 1979). In beef and lamb, electrical stimulation
reduces toughness problems related to cold-shortening. Electrical stimulation is
not widely used in the pork industry because the onset of rigor mortis occurs
much faster in pork compared to beef and lamb (Greaser 1986). Thus, pork
tenderness problems related to cold-shortening are minimal (Gigiel and James
1984; Crenwelge e?al. 1984a,b). Electrical stimulation accelerates postmortem
388 J. CANNON er 81.
glycolysis in muscle which would help explain the pork quality problems
observed by Crenwelge et af. (1984a,b) who observed increased occurrence of
pale muscle color, muscle separation and muscle softness in electrically
stimulated pork carcasses. As pigs become leaner, tenderness problems related
to cold-shortening could become more prevalent and electrical stimulation might
then be used on a commercial basis.
Rapid chilling is a procedure used in the pork industry to improve pork
quality characteristics. Rapid chilling, immediately after slaughter, slows the rate
of postmortem glycolysis resulting in higher ultimate muscle pH and reduced
incidence of PSE pork (Can 1985). Borchert and Briskey (1964) observed
reduced incidence of PSE pork when cuts were immersed in liquid nitrogen.
Crenwelge ef af. (1984a,b) reported improved pork color and firmness and
decreased muscle separation when carcasses were rapidly chilled (3 h at -34C
then 21 h at 2C). In studies conducted by S.D.M. Jones et af. (1993) and
Jeremiah et al. (1992b), carcasses that were subjected to rapid chilling had
darker meat and had less shrinkage during chilling, an important economic
concern of the pork packing industry.
In addition, muscle temperatures required for extended shelf-life were
reached twice as quickly when rapid chilling was used (Crenwelge ef af. 1984a).
According to Gill ef af. (1992), improper chilling can decrease meat shelf-life
and rapid chilling is crucial in order to maintain maximum shelf-life.
Cold-shortening is not a major problem in pork; however, studies have
shown that cold-shortening does occur among carcasses from pigs with normal
glycolytic rates that have been rapidly chilled (Feldhusen et al. 1992; Feldhusen
and Kuhne 1992). In the Feldhusen and Kuhne (1992) study, tenderness levels
for rapidly chilled pork were the same as those for conventionally chilled pork.
Jeremiah ef af. (1992b) observed lower tenderness levels for cuts from carcasses
that were rapidly chilled compared to those from conventionally chilled
carcasses; however, the differences in tenderness was determined to be
commercially impractical.
As pigs become leaner, pork muscle can be more susceptible to either PSE
conditions or the cold-shortening phenomenon. Continual monitoring of the
positive and negative influences of rapid chilling on pork quality is appropriate.
SHELF-LIFE AND FOOD SAFETY
An important concern to the entire meat industry relates to the control of

microbial growth because such proliferation can directly influence shelf-life and
food safety of meat products. Manipulation of microbial growth, especially
bacterial growth, has gained interest because of the need for longer product
shelf-life as well as to ensure the consuming public that pork is safe and
wholesome.
Muscle tissue is microbially sterile in the living animal. When spoilage

occurs, contamination immediately postmortem is probable, a problem which is
greatly influenced by slaughter conditions, and could be minimized by control
of the amount and type of processing, packaging and storage (Kraft 1986). The
majority of microbial growth occurs on the surface of meat. The aerobic
conditions of the surface of meat compared to the anaerobic conditions in the
interior of meat favor the growth of surface bacteria associated with meat
spoilage and foodborne illness.
Deterioration or spoilage accompanies the storage and handling of meat and
is associated with microbial, chemical and physical changes which occur during
this time (Judge ef al. 1989). Bacterial growth is an important factor that
influences pork spoilage. Bacterial growth is affected by various intrinsic and
extrinsic factors which differ depending upon meat production conditions (Judge
ef al. 1989). Intrinsic factors include pH, availability of nutrients, moisture
content and oxidationheduction potential while extrinsic factors include
temperature, size of cut and availability of oxygen (Judge et al. 1989). Many of
these factors are manipulated during storage, handling and processing to reduce
microbial growth in meat products.
Different populations of bacteria will grow on meat depending on the
temperature of storage and the availability of oxygen. Additionally, the microbial
flora of fresh meat differs from that of processed meat. Pseudomonas fluores-
cence is the most common spoilage microorganism associated with meat stored
aerobically at refrigerated temperatures while the Lactobacilli are the most
common bacteria associated with vacuum packaged meat (Smulders and van
Laack 1992).
Storage conditions (such as temperature and packaging) are the most
important factors influencing microbial growth. At colder temperatures,
shelf-life can be extended because the rate of bacterial growth is slowed.
Quickly lowering carcass temperature is important to the achievement of optimal
shelf-life. According to Gill ef al. (1992), improper chilling procedures can
decrease meat shelf-life by as much as two weeks. Gill ef al. (1992) recom-
mended both rapid chilling of carcasses and rapid drying of carcass surfaces to
attain maximum shelf-life. A temperature of 5C has been identified as the
critical temperature of meat storage and handling; below 5C, growth of both
spoilage and pathogenic bacteria is greatly reduced (Judge el al. 1989).
Combining low temperature storage with packaging that reduces oxygen
availability as well as using improved sanitation practices will dramatically
increase the shelf-life of pork.
Many of the bacterial species associated with meat grow within the pH range
of 5.0-8.0 with optimum growth occurring around pH 7.0. Microbial growth is
inhibited at low pH; therefore, subjecting pork to acidic conditions can increase
shelf-life (Mendonca ef al. 1989; Cannon ef al. 1993). If pork is subjected to
390 J . CANNON et nl.
acidic conditions, quality problems related to pale color and reduced water
holding capacity could become a concern (Mendonca ef al. 1989). Modification
of bacterial growth on PSE, normal and DFD pork, which differ quite widely
in ultimate muscle pH, have been demonstrated (Greer and Murray 1988). In
simulated retail display studies, counts for psychrotrophic Pseudomonas,
Enterobacteriaceae and Brochfhrix thermosphacta were lower on PSE pork and
higher on DFD than on normal pork. Greer and Murray (1988). Gill and
Harrison (1989), and Jeremiah ef al. (1992a) observed greater deterioration in
lean color of PSE pork as compared to color deterioration of normal or DFD
pork.
Processed meat has a different microbial flora than fresh meat. Adjuncts
such as salt and nitrite are used to inhibit bacterial growth. Additionally, nitrite
inhibits oxidative rancidity in processed meat (Judge ef al. 1989). Dry and
semi-dry sausages have extended shelf-life because both water activity and pH
are reduced which inhibits bacterial growth.
A microbial inhibitor which is receiving current interest is sodium lactate.
Studies have shown that sodium lactate can extend shelf-life in both fresh and
processed pork (Brewer et al. 1991; Lamkey er al. 1991; O’Connor ef al.
1993). If sodium lactate can be successfully added to pork to extend shelf-life,
an added benefit would be the reduction of the use of sodium chloride, a major
human-health concern.
Food safety, as affected by foodborne pathogens, is an additional concern
related to microbial populations on meat. The recent outbreak of E. coli
0157:H7 in undercooked hamburger patties has heightened public awareness of
potential problems with meatborne pathogens. Other meatborne pathogens
include Salmonella, Campylobacter, Yersinia, Listeria (Smulders and van Laack
1992), Clostridium perfringens and Staphylococcus (Judge ef al. 1989). Publicity
regarding foodborne illness caused by bacteria can influence consumer
purchasing habits and harm the demand for pork.
Much of the illness related to pathogenic bacteria is caused by mishandling
and abuse of meat products. Currently, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
(HACCP) programs are being implemented throughout the livestock and meat
industries to reduce the possibility of pathogens harming consumers. Additional-
ly, the incidence of foodborne illness can be reduced by properly storing meat
under refrigerated or frozen conditions, cooking meat to the necessary degree
of doneness, eliminating cross-contamination between raw meat and other food
products, keeping meat out of the temperature danger zone (7.2C to 6OC),
properly storing “leftover” meat and by following safe handling labels.
Mention of trichinosis is warranted in this section because of problems in the
past. The incidence of trichinosis is extremely low as compared to other food-
related illnesses. In 1992, a total of 131 cases of trichinosis were reported
(USDA 1993). The risk of contracting trichinosis from eating pork can be
essentially precluded by cooking products to 58.5C3, by using salt as an

ingredient, or by freezing pork by use of specified time and temperature
combinations, for example, 20 days at -lOC or and 12 days at -2OC (USDA
1965). Additionally, freezing the product to -29C provides immediate destruction
of the parasite (Rust and Zimmerman 1972). Presently, low level irradiation is
permitted by the FDA to inactivate the trichinella spiralis organism.
Controlling microbial growth is important as it influences the shelf-life and
safety of pork. Although bacterial growth will never be completely eliminated,
further research into controlling bacterial growth could optimize pork quality and
reduce safety concerns about its consumption. Use of HACCP programs,
appropriate handling, maximum sanitation, etc., will maintain pork quality and
shelf-life and will reduce the incidence of foodborne illness.
PACKAGING AND STORAGE
Extended shelf-life has become increasingly important as more pork is being

fabricated into case-ready retail cuts at central processing locations and more
pork is being exported. Pork shelf-life is influenced by the combination of
packaging environment and storage temperature. Packaging serves to protect
meat against microbial, physical and chemical changes as well as to present an
attractive product to the consumer.
At the pork packing level, fresh cuts are packaged by placing under vacuum
or modified atmosphere, by wrapping in parchment paper or by placing into
combo-bins (Morgan et al. 1994). At the retail level, fresh pork cuts have been
traditionally wrapped in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film. Exposing pork to oxygen
influences the shelf-life and appearance. Cuts packaged in parchment paper or
PVC film, which allow exposure to oxygen, have minimal periods of shelf-life
compared to the packaged under vacuum (Smith et al. 1974; Weakley ef al.
1986). Under optimal sanitary conditions and temperature (-1 SC), pork can be
stored under vacuum for much longer periods of time (Jeremiah ef al. 1992~).
Packaging pork under modified atmospheric conditions by replacing oxygen
with different levels of carbon dioxide (CO,) can lengthen the shelf-life of pork
(Gill and Harrison 1989; Jeremiah ef al. 1992c; Scholtz el al. 1992; Greer ef al.
1993). Cuts packaged with CO, have remained unspoiled for 24 weeks of
storage (Jeremiah et al. 1992~).An advantage to using modified atmosphere
packaging instead of vacuum packaging is that the consumer acceptable
grayish-pink pork color (oxymyoglobin)can be maintained. Pork cuts packaged
under vacuum exhibit the purplish gray color associated with native myoglobin
and have reduced consumer appeal.
Maximum shelf-life of fresh pork is obtained as storage temperatures are
lowered (Gill and Harrisong 1989). Gill and Shand (1993) stated that storing
meat at 2.0C compared to -1.5C reduces product storage life by 50% and
recommended a temperature of -1.OC for unwrapped meat and -1SC for

packaged meat as optimal storage temperatures. Utilizing sanitary procedures
and packaging with reduced amounts of or void of oxygen as well as storing at
reduced temperatures will increase the shelf-life of U.S. pork so that it can be
more readily marketed as case-ready cuts or so that it can be more attractive to
the export market.
CONCLUSIONS
Factors such as pork composition, genetics, nutrition, preslaughter animal
handling, stunning, carcass chilling, packaging and long-term storage influence
pork quality, palatability and shelf-life characteristics. Currently, money is lost
to elements/entities/sectors of the pork production chain because of failure to
prevent or eliminate quality defects or failure to produce high-quality slaughter
pigs, carcasses or fresh/processed retail pork products. By identifying these pork
production factors, members of the pork chain can develop the necessary
strategies needed to optimize pork quality and acceptability. Individual
components of the pork chain have unique quality factors which affect their
production while other quality factors are influenced by the entire pork chain.
Using TQM practices will permit the pork industry to manage these quality
protecting and enhancing factors and will allow the industry to provide more
uniform and consistent products to pork consumers.
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Pork Quality Audit A Review of The Factors Influencing Pork Quality

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PORK QUALITY AUDIT:

A REVIEW OF THE FACTORS

J.E. CANNON2.4,J.B. MORGAN*, J. HEAVNER3, F.K. MCKEITH3.

’Department of Animal Sciences

Received for Publication July 7, 1994

As part of the “Pork Quality Audit,” an extensive review of the literature

The National Pork Producers Council conducted a “Pork Quality Audit” to

Journal of Muscle Foods 6 (1995) 369-402. All Rights Reserved.

pork it is providing to the consuming public. This Audit is part of a plan to

Genetics Muscle color PSE - Halothane gene

Nutrition Carcass composition Dietary protein

Growth promotants Carcass composition Porcine somatotropin

Preslaughter handling Muscle color Transportation

Immobilization Muscle color Electrical stunning

Dehairing Meat shelf-life PSE

Post slaughter handling Muscle color Chilling

Packaging and storage Shelf-life Packaging environment

manipulation to alter fat composition might also be used to improve the

Martin and Fredeen (1974) -,12* ___ ___ -__ ___

DeVol er al. (1988)b -.29** .32*** .21* .23* ---

Hodgson er al. (1991)’ -,36** ___ .70** .__ .51**

Hodgson er al. (1991)b -.4g** .._ &j** ___ .51**

‘Simple correlation between amount of marbling and the specified trait

PALE, SOFT AND EXUDATIVE PORK

carcass temperature results in the denaturation of approximately 20% of the

GENETICS AND BREEDING

Jensen er al. Arganosa EI al. Bereskin Bereskin and Cameron Lo el al.

Average daily gain --_ .I1 .25 ___ .36

Average backfat thickness .69 .53 .63 .38 .54 .61

Longissimus muscle area .47 .41 .35 .31 .80

Muscle score ___ --_ .I7

Color score .28 .I0 .lI

Firmness score .21 .30 .29

Marbling score .I9 .28 ___ .17

Intramuscular fat, 96 .86 .42 .53 .52

Water holding capacity .63 .25

Shear force .25 .I7

Juiciness .I9 .I2

Flavor .58 .I3

Acceptability .__ ___ .34

Percentage lean cuts .40 .64 .41 _-.

Numerous studies have shown an influence of swine diet on pork carcass

Use of antioxidants, specifically vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), as dietary

Growth promotants have received much attention because of their positive

Machlin (1972)' t 16% 1 13% -- --- b 20%

Chung er al. (1985) t 10% 14% ND' t 6% ---

Watkins ct 01. (1990) t 12% 1 14% b15% t 12% b 8%

EFFECTS OP PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN O R RACTOPAMINE O N PORK QUALITY AND SENSORY CHARACIUUSTICS

Knight CI al. (1991) 48 mg/wk ND _-_ ND ND t 11% __ ND

the pork industry with significant economic advantages through improved

PRESLAUGHTER HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION

The stress placed on an animal prior to slaughter directly influences meat

Commission in the United Kingdom has recommended a space allowance of

Blood splashing probably results from blood-vessel aneurysms caused by severe

Postmortem anaerobic glycolysis is accelerated at high carcass temperatures and

SHELF-LIFE AND FOOD SAFETY

An important concern to the entire meat industry relates to the control of

Muscle tissue is microbially sterile in the living animal. When spoilage

essentially precluded by cooking products to 58.5C3, by using salt as an

PACKAGING AND STORAGE

Extended shelf-life has become increasingly important as more pork is being

recommended a temperature of -1.OC for unwrapped meat and -1SC for

AALHUS, J.L., SCHAEFER, A.L., MURRAY, A.C. and JONES, S.D.M.

Martin and Fredeen (1974) -,12* _ _ - _

DeVol er al. (1988)b -.29 .32* .21* .23* ---

Hodgson er al. (1991)’ -,36 _ .70 . .51**

Hodgson er al. (1991)b -.4g .._ &j ___ .51**

Acceptability . _ .34