Chapter # 3 Wind Energy Fundamentals

3.1 Sources of energy

3.2 A Brief history of wind energy

3.3 Wind energy basics

3.4 The benefits of wind energy

3.5 Main components of a wind turbine

3.6 Performance metric of wind turbine generators

3.7 Wind power projects economics

3.8. Wind power projects value chain

3.9. Windy myths and facts

3.10 Wind power In India

Kites rise highest against the wind - not with it.

- Winston Churchill, Former Prime Minister of U.K.

3.1 Sources of energy

It is amply clear that energy is so very critical to survival and growth of any nation.
Not all nations are blessed with abundant sources and supplies of energy that would
last for decades or centuries. Energy experts in every nation work over time to
formulate an energy strategy that would secure their future. While doing so they have
to take in to consideration several critical aspects including existing and potential
captive sources of energy. Figure 3.1 below lists various sources of energy.

3.1.1 Non-renewable energy

Much of our energy supply comes from coal, oil, natural gas, or radioactive elements.
They are considered non-renewable because once they are removed from the
ground and used, they are not immediately replaced. In fact, the world's natural gas,
crude oil and coal deposits took millions of years to form. Once gas or oil is taken
from the earth and used, it cannot be replaced. Although it would take a very long
time to happen, fact is that these sources are still limited.

Figure 3.1 Types of energy Sources

3.1.2 Renewable Energy

Renewable energy on the other hand quickly recoups itself and is usually available in
a never-ending supply. Renewable energy comes from the natural flow of sunlight,
wind, or water all over the Earth. With the help of special collectors, we can capture
some of this energy and put it to use in our homes and businesses. As long as
sunlight, water and wind continue to flow and trees and other plants continue to grow,
we have access to a ready of supply of energy.

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Renewable energy supplies will never run out. While the supplies of coal, oil, and
natural gas are limited, sunshine, wind, biomass, and water power are considered
perennial almost limitless resources.

Table 3.1: Energy sources tabulated comparison

Before getting deeper in to topic of research i.e. wind energy, it is important to get
introduced to various other forms of renewable energy sources.

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3.1.2.1 Geothermal energy

It is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy
that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the
earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and
from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the
difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a
continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the
surface. Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and
environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate
boundaries. Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range
and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating,
opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release
greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much
lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the
potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.
Geothermal electric plants were traditionally built exclusively on the edges of tectonic
plates where high temperature geothermal resources are available near the surface.
The development of binary cycle power plants

3.1.2.2 Tidal power

Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into useful
forms of power - mainly electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has
potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind
energy and solar power. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal power has
traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with
sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability.
However, many recent technological developments and improvements, both in
design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g.
new axial turbines, cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal
power may be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and
environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels. Land locked nations
obviously have no possibility of accessing this energy source.

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3.1.2.3 Biomass

Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most
often refers to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically
called lignocellulose biomass. As an energy source, biomass can either be used
directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various
forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different
methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and
biochemical methods. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy
since the time when people began burning wood to make fire. Even in today's
modern era, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing
countries.

3.1.2.4 Solar energy

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal
electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active

solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active
solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors
to harness the energy.

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly

using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using Concentrated Solar Power (CSP). CSP
systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric
effect.

3.1.2.5 Hydro Energy

Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the

production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or
flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for
16% of global electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in
2010, and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.

The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of

renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10

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megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. Hydro is also a flexible source of
electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing
energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local
ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people
and wildlife. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no
direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse
gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants.

3.1.2.6 Wind power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as
using wind turbines to make electrical power. Wind power, as an alternative to fossil
fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse
gas emissions during operation and uses little land. The effects on the
environment are generally less problematic than those from other power
sources. Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion, also called wind. Wind
power in an open air stream is thus proportional to the third power of the wind speed;
the available power increases eightfold when the wind speed doubles. Following
table 3.2 gives a quick comparison of various power sources.

Thermal Hydal Power Wind Power

Parameter Power Project Projects
Projects
Gestation Period 3 – 5 Yrs. 3 - 5 Yrs. 3-6 Months

Modularity No No Yes

Rehabilitation No Yes No

Environment Clearances Yes Yes No

Conjunctive Use of
No No Yes
Barren Land

Employment in Rural
No No Yes
Areas

Project on Turn Key No No Yes

Facilities

Table 3.2: Overview Comparison of different power sources

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3.1.2.7 Concept of work power and energy

Work is defined as force multiplied by displacement. Power is the rate at which work
is done. It is the work/time ratio.

The standard metric unit of power is the Watt. As is implied by the equation for
power, a unit of power is equivalent to a unit of work divided by a unit of time. Thus, a
Watt is equivalent to a Joule/second. Megawatts are used to measure the output of
a power plant or the amount of electricity required by an entire city.

 One megawatt (MW) = 1,000 kilowatts =1,000,000 watts.

The average size of US power plants is 213 MW. A 1000 MW power plant is a large
plant.

Energy is defined as the capacity of doing work at certain Rate (Power X Duration).
Energy can neither be created nor consumed or destroyed. Total energy of the
universe remains constant energy, however may be converted or transferred to
different forms.

 1 kWh (kilowatt hour) = 3,600,000 Joule.

Everything what happens around is the expression of flow of energy in one of its
forms. Energy is an important input in all sectors of any country's economy.

3.2 A brief history of wind energy

When the term ―wind energy‖ comes to mind, people tend to think of the spinning
windmill blades of 1930s-era farmsteads; however, wind has been used as a source
of energy by sailors, farmers, and settlers for centuries. Since the earliest times, wind
has been used to move ships across seas, grind grains, and raise water from
beneath the earth.

Windmills have been in existence since at least AD 644, when they were used to
grind grains in Persia. From there, windmills spread to China and on to Europe,

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where they were common from the 12th to the 19th centuries. The introduction of
steam energy caused a slow decline in the use of windmills. Windmills on farms were
also used to replace animal energy and, in the 1920s and 1930s, provided electricity
in rural America.

Modern wind energy technology was pioneered in California in the 1970s and 1980s
sparked by soaring fossil fuel prices and a growing interest in more environmentally
sound energy. The first ―commercial-scale machines‖ emerged during this time (50-
300 kW at that time). Over 17,000 wind turbines of varying models and sizes were
installed in California between 1981 and 1990, and the state continued to dominate
the U.S. wind power market into the mid-1990s. Attractive state and federal
incentives combined with technical innovations to drive the wind industry in California
in the early 1980s. Not surprisingly, the U.S. wind industry suffered when some of
these incentives ended in the mid-1980s, allowing European turbines (mostly Danish
designs) to take over the market. As the U.S. industry lagged in the late 1980s and
early 1990s, the European market grew steadily as a result of stable, supportive
public policy, technology innovation, and the excellent wind regimes of northern
Europe. Much of the development in Europe came in the form of cooperatively
owned single turbines or small clusters of turbines, a model that did not gain much
attention in the U.S. until very recently. Figure 3.2 shows picture of legacy wind mill.

Figure-3.2 Historical Turbines

The U.S. wind market began to rebound in the mid-1990s, with new renewable
energy policies and green power initiatives across the country. The first major wind
installations outside California were installed in Minnesota, Iowa, and Texas in 1994
and 1995, followed by even larger installations in several states in the late 1990s. In
2003, 30 states have or will soon have significant wind energy projects. Meanwhile,

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the European market continues to thrive, especially with the advent of offshore wind
applications that help the densely populated region conserve land. Wind
development has also been significant in India in recent years, and is emerging in
places such as China, Japan, and Australia.

3.3 Wind Energy Basics

Wind is moving air and is caused by differences in air pressure within our
atmosphere. As the sun strikes the earth, it heats the soil near the surface. In turn,
the soil warms the air lying above it. Warm air is less dense than cool air and, like a
hot-air balloon, rises. Cool air flows in to take its place and becomes heated. The
rising warm air eventually cools and falls back to earth, completing the convection
cycle. This cycle is repeated over and over again, rotating like the crankshaft in a car,
as long as the solar engine driving it is in the sky. The atmosphere is a huge, solar-
fired engine that transfers heat from one part of the globe to another. The large-scale
convection currents, set in motion by the sun's rays, carry heat from lower latitudes to
northern climates.

The flows of air that rush across the surface of the earth in response to this global
circulation are called wind. This wind resource is renewable and inexhaustible, as
long as sunlight reaches the earth.

The direction of the wind is expressed as the direction from which the wind is
blowing. For example, easterly winds blow from east to west, while westerly winds
blow from west to east. Figure 3.3 below explains how air currents are formed from
moving land mass to water and other way.

Figure-3.3 Wind Movement because of Pressure Deference

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During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air over water.
The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in
to take its place, creating winds. At night, the winds are reversed because the air
cools more rapidly over land than over water. This wind flow is called as local wind.

3.3.1 Coriolis force

Wind doesn't follow a straight path from high pressure systems to low pressure
systems. When you stand with your back to the wind direction, wind is deflected to
the right on the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left on the Southern Hemisphere.
This phenomenon is caused by the rotation of the earth and is called the Coriolis
force, after the Frenchman Gustave-Gaspard de Coriolis (1792-1843) who
discovered it in 1835 and can be better explained through figure 3.4 below.

Figure 3.4 Coriolis force

Due to the earth‘s rotation Objects deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere,
Objects deflect to the left in the southern hemisphere.

3.3.2 Power available in wind

The power that can be captured from the wind with a wind turbine with effective Area
Ar is given by:

Power available in wind (in Watts) = ½ * air density * swept area * wind velocity

Pa=1/2 *P*A*V or Pa=1/8 *P* D *V

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Where air density P = 1.23 kg per cubic meter at sea level, and swept area is in
square meters and wind velocity is in meters per second.

The only way to increase the available power in low winds is by sweeping a larger
area with the blades and that's the 2nd key concept from this formula. When the
diameter formed by rotation of the blades doubles, power available in wind increases
by a factor of four. However, there's no way to harvest ALL of this available energy
and turn it into electricity.

In 1919 a gentleman named Betz calculated that there's a limit to how much power a
turbine blade can extract from the wind. Beyond the Betz Limit of 59.26% energy
extraction, more and more air tends to go around the turbine rather than through it,
with air pooling up in front. So 59.26% is the absolute maximum that can be
extracted from the available power, very well explained in figure 3.5 below.

There are additional losses after Betz. Small wind turbine blades are never 100%
efficient, even when running at their favorite speed. No alternator or generator is
100% efficient in converting the energy in a rotating shaft into electricity. There are
friction losses from bearings, and from any gearing that's involved in the power
conversion. And there are magnetic drag and electrical resistance losses in the
alternator or generator.

Figure 3.5 Betz Limit (Cp)

Considering the Betz limit, the maximum power output from a 40 meter diameter
Turbine in a 10 m/s wind speed is calculated as follows: Power available (Watts)

Pmax= 0.5926* ½ * 1.23 * 1256 * 10 = 457747 Watts = .457 MW

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A ―perfect turbine‖ would work right at the Betz limit, the blades and the alternator
would match perfectly at all wind speeds, and the alternator would have no internal
magnetic or electrical losses. This is also known as coefficient of power Cp. Power
co-efficient (Cp), describes that fraction of the power in the wind that may converted
by the wind turbine in to mechanical work

It is the fraction of power in a wind stream that can be extracted. It has a theoretical
maximum value of:

 Cp (max) = 0.593 (popularly known as Betz co-efficient)

The actual power output of a wind turbine is given by

 3 P = 0.5 x P x A x Cp x V x x g b

Where:

 P = Power in watts (746 watts = 1 hp) (1,000 watts = 1 kilowatt)

 P = Air density (about 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level, less high up)
 2 A = Rotor swept area, exposed to the wind (m )
 Cp = Power Coefficient [0.59 {Betz limit}is the maximum theoretically
possible, .35 for a good design]
 V = Wind speed in meters/sec (20 mph = 9 m/s)

= Generator efficiency (80% or possibly more for a permanent magnet g

Generator or grid-connected induction generator)

= Gearbox/bearings efficiency (could be as high as 95% if good) B

Actual power conversion efficiency (Coefficient of Power or Cp) of a wind turbine is

Of the order of 0.20-0.35. Considering a Cp value of 0.3 for a turbine, the power
output from a 40 meter diameter turbine in a 10 m/s wind speed will be

P = 0.2319 MW act

WTGs combine number of engineering and sciences explained in figure 3.6 below.

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 Electrical
Polymer Mechani
& resin cal

Aerodyn Wind Instrume

ntation &
amics Energy Control

Electroni
cs &
Civil
Telecom Compute
m. r & IT

Figure 3.6 Various Sciences involved in wind turbines

3.4 The benefits of wind energy

The growth of the market for wind energy is being driven by a number of factors,
including the wider context of energy supply and demand, the rising profile of
environmental issues, especially climate change, and the impressive improvements
in the technology itself. These factors have combined in many regions of the world to
encourage political support for the industry‘s development.

3.4.1 Security of supply

Global demand for energy is increasing at a breathtaking pace, which will require
significant investment in new power generation capacity and grid infrastructure. Just
as energy demand continues to soar, supplies of fossil fuels are dwindling and prices
are at their most volatile. Wind energy, however, is a massive indigenous power
source which is available virtually everywhere in the world.

Depending on the efficiency measures implemented, by 2030, world energy needs

are predicated to be between 30 and 60% higher than current levels. The
International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that around 4,500 GW of new energy
capacity needs to be installed before 2030, requiring investments of more
than US$ 13 trillion. This sharp increase in world energy demand will require
significant investment in new power generating capacity and grid infrastructure,
especially emerging economies such as India and China.

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Industrialized countries face a different but parallel situation. While demand is
increasing, the days of overcapacity in electricity production are coming to an end.
Many older power plants will soon reach the end of their working lives. The IEA
predicts that by 2030, over 1,600 GW of power generation capacity will need to be
built in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
countries alone, including the replacement of retiring plants.

Just as energy demand continues to increase, supplies of the main fossil fuels used
in power generation are becoming more expensive and more difficult to extract. One
result is that some of the major economies of the world are increasingly relying on
imported fuel at unpredictable cost, sometimes from regions of the world where
conflict and political instability threaten the security of that supply.

In contrast to the uncertainties surrounding supplies of conventional fuels, and

volatile prices, wind energy is a massive indigenous power source which is
permanently available in virtually every country in the world.

3.4.2 Economic considerations

Wind energy makes sound economic sense. In contrast to other generation sources,
the price for the fuel needed over the total lifetime of a wind turbine is well known: it
is zero. This takes away a substantial part of the investor‘s risk. At many sites, wind
power is already competitive with new-built conventional technologies and in some
cases much cheaper. When taking into account the price of carbon, wind power is
even more attractive. Job creation and regional economic development are also key
favorable factors in economic considerations around wind power

3.4.3 No fuel price risk

In contrast to the uncertainties surrounding supplies of conventional fuels, and

volatile prices, wind energy is a massive indigenous power source which is
permanently available in virtually every country in the world. For conventional
generation technologies, the volatility of fuel price developments are a significant risk
factor, with oil prices recently fluctuating between 50 and 150 USD in the course of
just one year.

Wind farm owners, however, know how much the electricity they generate is going to
cost. No conventional technology (except hydro – the ‗established‘ renewable power
generating technology) can make that claim. This is of fundamental concern not only

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to individual utilities and power plant operators, but also to government planners
seeking to mitigate their vulnerability to macroeconomic shocks associated with the
vagaries of international commodity markets.

3.4.4 The cost of wind energy

At many sites, wind power is already competitive with new-built conventional

technologies and in some cases much cheaper. Although nothing can compete with
existing, embedded conventional generation plant that has already been paid off (and
was mostly constructed with significant state subsidies: governments still subsidize
conventional technologies at the rate of about 250 billion USD/year), wind power is
commercially attractive, especially when taking into account the price of carbon,
which is a factor in a growing number of markets.

One of the most important economic benefits of wind power is that it reduces the
exposure of our economies to fuel price volatility. This benefit is so sizable that it
could easily justify a larger share of wind energy in most European countries, even if
wind were more expensive per kWh than other forms of power generation. This risk
reduction from wind energy is presently not accounted for by standard methods for
calculating the cost of energy, which have been used by public authorities for more
than a century. Quite the contrary, current calculation methods blatantly favor the use
of high-risk options for power generation. In a situation where the industrialized world
is becoming ever more dependent on importing fuel from politically unstable areas at
unpredictable and higher prices, this aspect merits immediate attention.

Markets will not solve these problems by themselves because markets do not
properly value the external effects of power generation. Governments need to correct
the market failures arising from external effects because costs and benefits for a
household or a firm who buys or sells in the market are different from the cost and
benefits to society. It is cheaper for power companies to dump their waste, e.g. in the
form of fly ashes, CO2, nitrous oxides, sulphur oxides and methane for free. The
problem is that it creates cost for others, e.g. in the form of lung disease, damage
from acid rain or global warming. Similarly, the benefits of using wind energy accrue
to the economy and society as a whole, and not to individual market participants.

3.4.5 Investment and jobs

Already in 2008, over €36.5 billion were invested in wind energy worldwide, and the
sector is now employing well over 400,000 ‗green collar‘ workers. According to the

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Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) scenario, the annual value of global investment
in wind energy would reach €149.4 billion by 2020 and account for over 2.2 million
jobs.

Although these figures may appear large, they should be seen in the context of the
total level of investment in the global power industry. During the 1990s, for example,
annual investment in the power sector was running at some €158-186 billion each
year.

Especially at times of economic uncertainty and high unemployment rates, any

technology which demands a substantial level of both skilled and unskilled labor is of
considerable economic importance, and likely to feature strongly in any political
decision-making over different energy options.

3.4.6 Regional economic development

Regional economic development is also a key factor in economic considerations

surrounding wind energy. From Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany, to
Andalucía in Spain; from the US Pacific Northwest to west Texas to Pennsylvania;
and from Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia in China to Tamil Nadu and Gujarat in India,
the wind power industry is revitalizing regional economies, providing quality jobs and
expanding tax bases in rural regions struggling to keep their economies moving
ahead in the face of the global flight to the cities.

3.4.7 No geo-political risk

There are no fuel costs, no geo-political risk and no supply dependence on imported
fuels from politically unstable regions.

Every kilowatt/hour generated by wind power has the potential to displace fossil fuel
imports, improving both security of supply and the national balance of payments,
which is not only an issue for the United States which sends more than half a trillion
dollars a year out of the country to pay its oil bill. This is an even larger issue for poor
countries in Africa, Asia and South America whose economies have been devastated
by recent oil price hikes.

3.4.8 Speed of deployment

Wind power also has the advantage that it can be deployed faster than other energy
supply technologies. Building a conventional power plant can take 10 or 12 years or

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more, and it is not producing power until it is fully completed. Wind power deployment
is measured in months, and a half completed wind farm is just a smaller power plant,
starting to generate power and income as soon as the first turbine is connected to the
grid.

Wind power also has the advantage that it can be deployed faster than other energy
supply technologies. Even large offshore wind farms, which require a greater level of
infrastructure and grid network connection, can be installed from start to finish in less
than two years, a crucial asset given the pressing threat of climate change. Typical
project execution cycle for conventional thermal, nuclear or hydro power plants runs
for four to five years.

3.4.9 Emissions free

Climate change is now generally accepted to be the greatest environmental threat

facing the world, and keeping our planet‘s temperature at sustainable levels has
become one of the major concerns of policy makers. The United Nation‘s (UN)
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects that average
temperatures around the world will increase by up to 5.8°C over the coming century.
This is predicted to result in a wide range of climate shifts, including melting ice caps,
flooding of low-lying land, storms, droughts and violent changes in weather patterns.

One of the main messages from the Nobel Prize winning IPCC‘s 4th assessment
report released in 2007 was that in order to avoid the worst ravages of climate
change, global greenhouse gas emissions must peak and begin to decline before
2020.

While the power sector is far from being the only culprit when it comes to climate
change, it is the largest single source of emissions, accounting for about 40% of CO2
emissions, and about 25% of overall emissions. The options for making major
emissions reductions in the power sector between now and 2020 are basically three:
energy efficiency and conservation; fuel switching from coal to gas; and renewable
energy, primarily wind power.

Wind energy emits neither climate change inducing carbon dioxide nor the other air
pollutants, and as a result has none of the high external costs related with
conventional energy sources. Within three to six months of operation, a wind turbine
has offset all emissions caused by its construction, to run carbon free for the

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remainder of its 20 year life. In an increasingly carbon-constrained world, wind power
is risk-free insurance against the long term downside of carbon intense investments

Given the crucial timeframe up to 2020 during which global emission must start to
decline, the speed of deployment of wind farms is of key importance in combating
climate change. Building a conventional power plant can take 10 or 12 years or more,
and until it is completed, no power is being generated. Wind power deployment is
measured in months, and a half completed wind farm starts generating power and
income as soon as the first turbines are connected to the grid. CO2 reduction existing
and forecasted is displayed in figure 3.7 below.

Figure 3.7: Cumulative CO 2 Reduction

The global wind industry has set itself a target of saving 1.5 billion tons of CO2 per
year by 2020, which would amount to a total of 10 billion tons saved in this period.
Annual CO2 reduction using wind power alone is displayed in figure 3.8 below.

Figure 3.8: Annual CO 2 Reduction

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While developments in 2008 show that the sector is well on track to meeting this
target, a strong global signal from governments is needed to show that they are
serious about moving away from fossil fuels and protecting the climate.
As positive outcome to the climate negotiations throughout this year, resulting in a
new global agreement in Copenhagen in December, is of fundamental importance
and will send the kind of signal that the industry, investors and the finance sector
need for wind power to reach its full potential.

"It‘s not an exaggeration to claim that the future of human prosperity depends on how
successfully we tackle the two central energy challenges facing us today: securing
the supply of reliable and affordable energy; and effecting a rapid transformation to a
low-carbon, efficient and environmentally benign system."

3.4.10 Remedy for Environmental concerns

Wind power is a clean, emissions-free power generation technology. Like all

renewable sources it is based on capturing the energy from natural forces and has
none of the polluting effects associated with ‗conventional‘ fuels.

Not only is wind energy the only power generation technology that can deliver the
deep cuts in CO2 emissions the world needs to combat the worst effects of climate
change, it also provides numerous other environmental benefits. It has a positive
effect on air pollution, which is choking cities around the world, by not emitting
dangerous air pollutants as other generation technologies. Wind energy does not
produce any toxic waste. And, in addition, wind energy uses virtually no water, which,
in an increasingly water stressed world, is a major environmental consideration.

3.4.11 Combating Climate change

First and foremost, wind energy produces no carbon dioxide - the main greenhouse
gas contributing to climate change – during its operation, and minimal quantities
during the manufacture of its equipment and construction of wind farms. By contrast,
fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil are major emitters of carbon dioxide.

Wind energy is a key solution in the fight against climate change, and it is well on
track to saving 10 billion tons of CO2 by 2020.

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3.4.12 Minimizing Air pollution

Wind power also has a positive effect on the quality of the air we breathe. The
combustion of fossil fuels also produces the gases sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide, both serious sources of pollution. These gases are the main components of
the ‗acid rain‘ effect - killing forests, polluting water courses and corroding the stone
facades of buildings; not to mention the human health effects.

In China, which depends for more than 80% of its electricity on coal-fired power
stations, pollution is so serious that the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates
that it kills upwards of 650,000 Chinese people per year.

Wind energy avoids the numerous issues associated with the discovery and
exploitation of fossil fuels. Deaths from mining, the massive destruction of strip
mining and ‗hill-top removal‘ and fuel spills are just some of the consequences of
dependence on recovering raw materials for electricity generation from under the
ground.

According to the Canadian government‘s environment department, air pollution

causes an estimated 5,000 premature deaths in Canada per year. Children and
elderly people face the greatest risk. Nearly 12% of Canada‘s smog is the result of
burning fossil fuels to produce electricity.

The American Bird Conservancy estimates that mining operations in the states of
West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia will leave a massive and
permanent impact on mature forest birds, including the loss of tens of thousands of
breeding Cerulean Warblers.

Shortage of supplies of natural gas in the US has resulted in a growing demand for
coal-bed methane extraction of gas. This is covering the country‘s western prairie
with drilling wells, noisy compressor stations and wastewater pits, all of which
threatens wildlife habitats.

The European Union-funded research study ‗ExternE‘ has examined in detail the
economic consequences for both the environment and human health of the different
ways in which electricity is produced in the EU and found that all renewable energy
sources have environmental and social benefits compared to conventional energy
sources such as coal, gas, oil and nuclear. These benefits can be translated into
costs for society. The EU study estimated the external cost of gas fired power

65
generation at around 1.1-3.0 €cents/kWh and that for coal at as much as 3.5-7.7
€cents/kWh, compared to just 0.05-0.25 €cents/kWh for wind. The study concluded
that the cost of producing electricity from coal or oil would double, and from gas
increase by 30%, if their external costs were taken into account.

3.4.13 Water Conservation

Another consideration of wind energy deployment concerns water. In an increasingly

water-stressed world, wind power uses virtually none of this most precious of
commodities in its operation. Most conventional technologies, from mining and
extraction to fuel processing and plant cooling, measure their water use in the
millions of liters per day.

Other environmental effects resulting from the range of fuels currently used to
generate electricity include the landscape degradation and dangers of fossil fuel
exploration and mining, the pollution caused by accidental oil spills and the health
risks associated with radiation produced by the routine operation and waste
management of the nuclear fuel cycle. Exploiting renewable sources of energy,
including wind power, avoids these risks and hazards.

In summary, Wind energy is an ideal renewable energy because:

 it is a pollution-free, infinitely sustainable form of energy

 it doesn't require fuel

 it doesn't create greenhouse gasses

 It doesn't produce toxic or radioactive waste.

 Wind energy is quiet and does not present any significant hazard to birds or other
wildlife.

 When large arrays of wind turbines are installed on farmland, only about 2% of
the land area is required for the wind turbines. The rest is available for farming,
livestock, and other uses.

 Landowners often receive payment for the use of their land, which enhances their
income and increases the value of the land.

 Ownership of wind turbine generators by individuals and the community allows

people to participate directly in the preservation of our environment.

66
 Each megawatt-hour of electricity that is generated by wind energy helps to
reduce the 0.8 to 0.9 tons of greenhouse gas emissions that are produced by
coal or diesel fuel generation each year.

3.5 Main components of a wind turbine

3.5.1 Types of wind turbines

A wide variety of types and sizes of wind machines exist today. Wind turbines are
classified into two general types, drag and lift. On a drag device the wind pushes the
blade forcing the rotor to turn about its axis; the most common example of a drag
device is the farm windmill. Drag devices characteristically produce high starting
torque and are well suited to pumping water in low volumes; however they are limited

In the amount of energy they can extract from the wind. Wind turbines that use lift
have only a few (two, three or four) blades in contrast to the multiple blades of a drag
device. One blade rotating very fast can extract as much energy as many blades
rotating slower. Lift devices use slender airfoils for blades, whose shape is the same
as an airplane wing. Lift devices are much more efficient than the drag devices, thus
the blade area can be reduced considerably. Lift devices are further classified by axis
type: horizontal (HAWT) and vertical (VAWT).

Figure 3.9 Types of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines come in many different sizes for different applications. When
classifying wind turbines, it is typical to use what is called the nameplate capacity

67
rating, which refers to its peak energy output at a certain wind speed. Turbines in use
today range from tiny, less than 1 kW machines to enormous machines with 3 MW or
more of nameplate capacity. Many wind turbine manufacturers are rapidly developing
even larger machines, especially for offshore applications.

3.5.2 The wind turbine

Wind turbines or wind generators are machines that capture the kinetic energy in the
wind and convert it to mechanical or electrical energy that can then be applied to
some use. When hot or cool breezes blow, a wind turbine produces electricity. The
wind blows through blades, which converts the wind's energy into rotational shaft
energy. The blades are mounted atop a high tower to a drive train, usually with a
gearbox, that uses the rotational energy from the blades to spin magnets in the
generator and convert that energy into electrical current. The shaft, drive train and
generator are covered by a protective enclosure called a nacelle. Electronic and
electrical equipment including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment,
and interconnection equipment control the turbine, ensure maximum productivity, and
transmit the electrical current. Today's utility-scale turbines can be 100 meters high
or more.

Figure 3.10 Components of Wind Turbines

68
Although machines vary, most wind turbines begin spinning at wind speeds of about
3-4 m/s and begin generating electricity at 9-11 mph (4-5 m/s). They produce
increasing power with increasing wind speeds until wind speeds reach about 11-14
m/s, at which speed most wind turbines reach their ―rated‖ output. Most wind turbines
do not operate in wind speeds above 25-30 m/s.

Modern wind energy systems operate automatically. The wind turbines depend on
the same aerodynamic forces created by the wings of an aero plane to cause
rotation. An anemometer that continuously measures wind speed is part of most wind
turbine control systems. When the wind speed is high enough to overcome friction in
the wind turbine drive train, the controls allow the rotor to rotate, thus producing a
very small amount of power. This cut-in wind speed is usually a gentle breeze of
about 4 m/s. Power output increases rapidly as the wind speed rises. When output
reaches the maximum power the machinery is designed for, the wind turbine controls
govern the output to the rated power. The wind speed at which rated power is
reached is called the rated wind speed of the turbine, and is usually a strong wind of
about 15 m/s. eventually, if the wind speed increases further, the control system
shuts the wind turbine down to prevent damage to the machinery. This cut-out wind
speed is usually around 25 m/s.

The major components of modern wind energy systems typically consist of the
following:

 Rotor, with 2 or 3 blades, which converts the energy in the wind into
mechanical energy onto the rotor shaft;
 Gearbox to match the slowly turning rotor shaft to the electric generator;
 Wind turbine generator
 Tall tower which supports the rotor high above the ground to capture the
higher wind speeds;
 Solid foundation to prevent the wind turbine from blowing over in high winds
and/or icing conditions;
 Control system to start and stop the wind turbine and to monitor proper
operation of the machinery.

Overarching high level technical specifications of S.64 1.25MW wind turbine

generator are attached as annexure-II in the annexure section.

69
3.5.3 Rotor

Part of rotor can broadly divided in to following categories

1. Hub

2. Blade

3. Nose Cone

Technical Specification of Rotor

 Rotor cone angle – 5 Deg.

 Rotor speed at rated power – 15.47 rpm

 Tip speed at rated power – 71.0 m/s

 Rotor shaft tilt angle – 4 Deg.

 Power Regulation – Through pitching action and through SFS

Three bladed pitch regulated wind turbine with rated power of 2100 kW. Glass fiber
reinforced plastic rotor blades aerodynamically optimized with

 High strength to weight ratio

 Good fatigue properties and high elasticity

 Integrated lightening protection

Blades are mounted on slew bearings, which in turn are mounted on a Spheroidal
Graphite (SG) iron hub. Rotor is mounted on rotor shaft with through hole for pitch
wiring

3.5.3.1 Hub

Blades are mounted on Hub. Hub possesses the necessary strength and rigidity
which is required for mounting the blades. Hub is attached to the low speed shaft,
which is further connected with gearbox. It can withstand extreme load cases and
has high factor of safety. Its ductility is very high. Hub consists three of Pitch
bearings and three pitch drives. Function of hub is to interconnect rotor blades and
rotor shaft.

70
Hub Housing Technical Specification

 Source: FAW / PASL

 Qty. 1 no. / set
 Material: SG Iron, GGG 35.3
 Weight: 9,736 kg

3.5.3.1.1 Pitch drives with motor

Pitch mechanism: The rotor blades are connected to the hub via pitch ball bearings
and can swivel fully perpendicular to the sense of rotation. The motors of the pitching
system have an inbuilt intelligent system, with frequency control drives controlled by
their own microprocessor. These intelligent frequency drives talk with the control
system in real-time. The control system updates the motors after gauging the
available wind regime, and the motors constantly update the control system on the
instant blade angle. The precision electromechanical micro pitch mechanism
achieves 0.1 deg. pitching resolution, resulting in extreme fine-tuning of the
aerodynamic profile. The major components of the pitching systems are shown in
following table.

The pitch motors are mounted on the pitch drive. The pinion of drive turns the slew
ring and in turn pitches blade. There are 15 teeth‘s in pitch drive. Pitch drive rotates
the slew ring with low speed and high torque.

Pitch motors give torque for turning or pitching the blades. The resolver is mounted
on the shaft of the motor to measure the speed of the motor or speed of pitching.
Three pitch motors can individually pitch the blades. The blades can be positioned
with an accuracy of 0.1 degrees. Resolver gives feedback of the motor speed to the
controller to ensure the simultaneous pitching of all the blades.

Technical Specification of Pitch Motor

 Voltage: 230V +/- 10%
 Kw: 7.5
 Frequency: 50Hz
 Current: 27.2-15.0 Amp
 RPM: 1440 – 1445 rpm
 Power Factor: 0.81/0.80
 Insulation Class: F

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Rotor assembly comprises of rotor hub and rotor blade assembly. Rotor hub houses
control panels and batteries for rotor blade operation and actually helps join 3 blades.
It also has nose cone in front for minimizing air resistance. Rotor blades are made of
fiber glass and more recently carbon fiber for weight reduction and its unique
aerodynamic profile of blades that actually helps harness every unit of electricity
using wind.

3.5.3.2 Rotor blades

The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the rotor.
The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which
rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by the wind speed
and the shape of the blades. The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is
attached to the main shaft.

Rotor blade of wind turbines operate on either the principle of drag or lift. For the
drag design, the wind literally pushes the blades out of the way. Drag powered wind
turbines are characterized by slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities.
They are useful for the pumping, sawing or grinding work that Dutch, farm and similar
"work-horse" windmills perform.

For example, a farm type windmill must develop high torque at start-up in order to
pump, or lift, water from a deep well. The lift blade design employs the same principle
that enables airplanes, kites and birds to fly. Picture of rotor is shown in figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11 Rotor

The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing. When air flows past the blade, a wind
speed and pressure differential is created between the upper and lower blade

72
surfaces. The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the blade.
When blades are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift is
translated into rotational motion. Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher
rotational speeds than drag types and therefore well suited for electricity generation.
The concept of lift can be understood by following example:

If you cut the wing of a glider in half you can see that the upper side is curved
whereas the lower side is almost straight. When the wing whistles through the air the
air moves faster across the curved surface. This creates a low pressure pulling the
glider wing up. Since the beginning of the modern wind power era, the preferred
designs for wind turbines have been with either two or three blades. Many early
prototypes have two blades, but the three-bladed concept has been the most
frequently used during recent years.

Basic aerodynamic principles determine that there is an optimal installed blade area
for a given rotational speed. A turbine for wind farm applications generally has a tip
speed of 6070 m/s. With these tip speeds a three-bladed rotor is 23% more efficient
than a two-bladed rotor. It is even possible to use a single bladed rotor if a
counterbalance is mounted. The efficiency loss is about 6% compared with the two
bladed rotor construction. The tip-speed is the ratio of the rotational speed of the
blade to the wind speed. The larger this ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind
turbine rotor at a given wind speed. Electricity generation requires high rotational
speeds. Lift-type wind turbines have maximum tip-speed ratios of around 10, while
drag-type ratios are approximately 1. Given the high rotational speed requirements of
electrical generators, it is clear that the lift-type wind turbine is most practical for this
particular application.

The number of blades that make up a rotor and the total area they cover affect wind
turbine performance. For a lift-type rotor to function effectively, the wind must flow
smoothly over the blades. To avoid turbulence, spacing between blades should be
great enough so that one blade will not encounter the disturbed, weaker air flow
caused by the blade which passed before it. It is because of this requirement that
most wind turbines have only two or three blades on their rotors.

Picture of rotor blade ready for dispatch from factory is shown in figure 3.12.

73
 Figure 3.12 Blade

3.5.4 Nacelle

On top of tower rests nacelle that houses host of components major ones being,
gearbox, control panel, shaft motors and of course generator. Nacelle is connected to
tower at the bottom and also connected to rotor assembly on the side. It is here that
electricity generation takes place when kinetic energy of wind by way of rotor
assembly & gear box and shaft rotate rotor within stator assembly thus producing
electricity. Control system is really brain of system with several unique algorithms
stored in a computer thus making it intelligent in terms of operations.

The nacelle contains the key components of the wind turbine, including the gearbox
and the electrical generator. The bedplate is generally made of steel. In modern wind
Turbines, service personnel may enter the nacelle from the tower of the turbine.
Schematic diagram of nacelle is shown below in figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13 Nacelle Schematic

74
3.5.5 Main Shaft

The rotor is bolted to a very strong disc on the main shaft of the wind turbine. It is
important that the rotor is firmly secured by a lot of bolts. The gearbox is placed at
the other end of the main shaft. Picture of main shaft is shown in figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14 Main Shaft

3.5.6 Gearbox

The gearbox is required to speed up the slow rotational speed of the low speed shaft
before connection to the generator. The speed of the blade is limited by efficiency
and also by limitations in the mechanical properties of the turbine and supporting
structure. Cross section of multistage gear box can be seen in figure 3.15.

Figure 3.15 Gear Box

75
The gearbox ratio depends on the number of poles and the type of generator. A fixed
speed generator generally has a gearbox ratio of 75:1 to give accurate frequency.

The windmill gear unit is a multi-stage helical gear unit, which is usually mounted in
the drive train of the windmill in an inclined position with the rotor side upwards; the
input unit drive is realized via the rotor shaft & output drive realized via the shaft to
the Generator. It is designed for a horizontal mounting position.

It is designed for reduced noise level, carrying optimal load, reduce torque value &
increase rotational speed to that required for operation of generator.

Technical Specification of Gear Box for S88 WTG:

Type
50 HZ 60 HZ
Description
Gear box type 1 planetary stage, 2 helical stages
Material of Gear box
Cast
housing
Transmission ratio 1 : 98.8 1 : 118.1
Mechanical Power 2130 KW
Shaft seal Maintenance-free labyrinth seal

Table 3.3 Gear Box Specifications

Multi stage helical spur gear box that ensures the highest possible mechanical
efficiency and power. The first planetary gear stage takes up the slow rotor rotation
and distributes the high torque input into subsequent planetary gears. High precision
manufacturing and Finite Element Methodology (FEM) calculations of the planet
carrier ensures optimal load distribution to the helical gears. Reduced torque values
and increased rotational speeds are optimally converted to the high-speed operation
of the generator.

The helical stage is responsible for a low sound power level, which is further reduced
by impact sound isolation via rubber bushings between gear box and main frame.

76
3.5.7 Main bearing and rotor shaft

3.5.7.1 Main bearing

These are highly engineered and precision made components, which enable various
aspects to move at high speeds.

When it comes to wind turbine bearings, the manufacturers need a bearing supplier
with experience and capability to support critical pitch, yaw and gearbox applications
in systems.

Wind turbine bearings need to be corrosion resistant due to their constant exposure
to the elements. Without this resistance the bearings ability would be slowly reduced,
affecting its performance, which would then go on to cause the wind turbine to stop
working. In order to ensure that all wind turbine bearings are corrosion resistant they
should come available with a wide range of surface treatments. If for whatever
reason this isn't the case then you should enquire into what forms of surface
treatments are available as the last thing you want to do is spend a lot of money on
your bearings only to find that they need replacing in a short space of time. But what
exactly should you be looking for when it comes to wind turbine bearings?

Technical Specification

 Main bearing type: Spherical roller bearing

 Total Number used: One (1)

Description STV LTV

Type Cast housing, flanged feet
Material EN-GJS-400-18U-LT EN-GJS-350-22U-LT
Number of 1

Table 3.4 Main bearing Housing Specifications

Well with all modern forms of wind turbines you will find spherical roller bearings as
the main bearings that are present. So what does this mean to you? Well the term
spherical means that the inside of the bearings outer ring is shaped to resemble a
cross section of a ball. The reason for this is that it allows the inner and outer rings of
the bearing to appear with a slight slant and they are out-of track in relation to each
other without damaging the bearing while running. The inner and outer rings of the

77
bearing can slant to a maximum of half a degree. This may not sound like a large
amount but this is all that is needed as it is a big enough slant to ensure that any
possible small errors in alignment between the wind turbine shaft and the bearing
housing will not give excessive edge loads, which could result in possible damage to
the bearing.

With the spherical bearing you will find that it has two sets of rollers, which both allow
for absorption of radial loads, which come from across the shaft from the weight of
the rotor and shaft etc. and from the large axial forces, again across the shaft, which
results in wind pressure on the rotor.

3.5.7.2 Rotor main shaft

Type Forged shaft and flange

Material 42CrMo4/42CrMoS4
Corrosion protection Anti-corrosion paint

Table 3.5 Rotor Main shaft Specifications

Specifications:

• Rotor main shaft diameter at main bearing 710 (+0.088 /+ 0.138) mm

• One end is connected to hub and another to gearbox.

• Function: To transmit speed of rotor to gearbox

3.5.8 Yaw mechanism

It is necessary to align the rotor axis with the wind in order to extract as much energy
from the wind as possible. Most horizontal axis wind turbines use forced yawing. An
electrical or hydraulic system is used to align the machine with the wind. The yaw
drive reacts on signals from, e.g. a wind vane on top of the nacelle. Almost all
manufacturers of upwind machines, brake in the yaw mechanism is not used. The
yaw motor has a small wheel that engages a huge wheel. The large wheel is called
the yaw bearing. On some yaw bearings the teeth point outwards, while on others
they are turned inwards. It all depends on the position of the yaw motor.

The Yaw Mechanism senses the wind direction, with the help of wind vane. This in
turn uses electrical motors to turn the nacelle so that it always faces against the wind.

78
The yawing movement is activated and controlled by 3 (In some cases 4) electrically
braked yaw motors Yaw Assembly can broadly be divided in to following three parts

3.5.8.1 Main frame

1. Yaw Rim( Gear Rim)
2. Yaw Drives with Motors
Main Frame Detail
 Qty/Set: 1
 Size: 4.283 х 1.3 х 1.215 m
 Weight: 13,330 kg
 Material: SG Iron, GGG 35.3

Figure 3.16 Main frame

Specifications:
 Cross section thicknesses 40/60/80/100 mm
 Gear rim Bore Dia. 1810 mm
 PCD of Yaw Motor Mounting 3318 mm
 Yaw motor Mounting Bore Dia. 410 mm
 Gear rim, Yaw Motor, Polyamide Pads are mounted on Yaw Base.

3.5.8.2 Yaw Rim Detail
 Qty/Set : 1
 Size: OD 3.06 meter & 125 mm thick
 Weight: 2,058 kg
 Material: 42CrMo4V

Specifications
Gear data as per DIN 867
 No. of teeth: 150 Figure 3.17 Yaw Rim
 Module: 20
 Pressure Angle: 20 deg. Figure 3.17 Yaw Rim
 Gear ID: 2380 mm
 Gear OD: 3060 mm
 Mounting Holes PCD: 2825 mm
 Function: To rotate the yaw base

79
3.5.8.3 Yaw Drives with Motors
Source: C.H.SCHAFER, Germany
 Qty/Set: 3 (Except 1.5MW WTG)
 Size: Dia. 0.49 х 1.14 meter length
 Weight: 2220 Kg
 Gearbox Ratio: 2169.2 :1 ,5 Stage Reduction
 Oil Using: SCH XMP 150
 Figure 3.18 Yaw Motors
 Qty.: 17.8 lt.
 Motor: 4 Pole, 1440 rpm
 Breaking Torque: 100 Nm.
 Function: It rotates Yaw Base

3.5.9 Towers

It is that tall vertical component made of comprising of three sometimes four

depending on height 3-4 sections steel tubes each weighing several tons joined
using nut, bolts and flanges. Tower is firmly planted to ground again using very
strong nut, bolt and flange assembly bolted to a strong civil foundation that is
designed to weather static and dynamic loads of wind turbine generators.

The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support structure. It also
raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground and so it can reach
the stronger winds at higher elevations. Maximum tower height is optional in most
cases, except where zoning restrictions apply. The decision of what height tower to
use will be based on the cost of taller towers versus the value of the increase in
energy production resulting from their use.

Studies have shown that the added cost of increasing tower height is often justified
by the added power generated from the stronger winds. Larger wind turbines are
usually mounted on towers ranging from 40 to 70 meters tall.

Towers for small wind systems are generally "guyed" designs. This means that there
are guy wires anchored to the ground on three or four sides of the tower to hold it
erect. These towers cost less than freestanding towers, but require more land area to
anchor the guy wires. Some of these guyed towers are erected by tilting them up.
This operation can be quickly accomplished using only a winch, with the turbine
already mounted to the tower top. This simplifies not only installation, but

80
maintenance as well. Towers can be constructed of a simple tube, a wooden pole or
a lattice of tubes, rods, and angle iron. Large wind turbines may be mounted on
lattice towers, tube towers or guyed tilt-up towers. Installers can recommend the best
type of tower for your wind turbine. It must be strong enough to support the wind
turbine and to sustain vibration, wind loading and the overall weather elements for
the lifetime of the wind turbine. Tower costs will vary widely as a function of design
and height. Some wind turbines are sold complete with tower. More frequently,
however, towers are sold separately.

Typically wind industry uses following two type of tower in Wind Turbine.

3.5.9.1 Lattice tower

Lattice towers are manufactured using welded steel profiles. The basic advantage of
lattice towers is cost, since a lattice tower requires only half as much material as a
freely standing tubular tower with a similar stiffness. The basic disadvantage of lattice
towers is their visual appearance, (although that issue is clearly debatable). Be that
as it may, for aesthetic reasons lattice towers have almost disappeared from use for
large, modern wind turbines.

3.5.9.2 Tubular Tower

Most large wind turbines are delivered with tubular steel towers, which are
manufactured in sections of 20-30 meters with flanges at either end, and bolted
together on the site. The towers are conical (i.e. with their diameter increasing
towards the base) in order to increase their strength and to save materials at the
same time.
Tower section weight in
in mm Only
Tower KG Total
Section Acces
Ht Max Tower Total WT
Length Flange sories
Dia. Shell Wt.
1 17290 4040 57530 3840 61370

77.5 2 17315 4030 44290 3390 47680 4100 180970

Mtr. 3 19705 4024 37550 1880 39430 KG KG

4 23190 4016 27260 1130 28390

Table 3.6 Tubular Tower Dimension and Weight for S88 WTG

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Choosing the correct tower height

Two most important considerations in planning the tower height for a wind turbine are

1. Avoidance of turbulent air flow produced near ground level by the 'roughness'
of the terrain over which the wind flows.

2. Avoidance of excessive ground drag which lowers wind velocity near the
ground and severely restricts the performance of a wind turbine.

The optimum height of the tower is a function of:

1. tower costs per meter

2. how much the wind locally varies with the height above ground level, i.e. the
average local terrain roughness (large roughness makes it more useful with a
taller tower),

3. The price the turbine owner gets for an additional kilowatt hour of electricity.

Manufacturers often deliver machines where the tower height is equal to the rotor
diameter. Aesthetically, many people find that turbines are more pleasant to look at, if
the tower height is roughly equal to the rotor diameter. Tower assembly at site can be
seen from picture shown in figure 3.19.

Figure 3.19 Tubular tower

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3.5.10 Generator

The generator is the unit of the wind turbine that transforms mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The blades transfer the kinetic energy from the wind into rotational

Energy in the transmission system and the generator is the next step in the supply of
energy from the wind turbine to the electrical grid.

The wind turbine generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The
efficiency of an electrical generator usually falls off rapidly below its rated output.
Since the power in the wind fluctuates widely, it is important to consider the relation
between rated wind speed and rated power. In order to make the wind turbine as
efficient as possible manufactures have developed techniques to raise efficiency at
low revolution velocities. Whether it is worthwhile to use techniques able to efficiently
handle low wind speeds depends on the local wind distribution and the extra cost
associated with more expensive equipment. The most common generator in wind
turbines is the induction generator, sometimes called the asynchronous generator

Another type of generator is the synchronous one. The synchronous generator

dominates in directly driven turbines, but is not very common in other wind power
applications. The advantages of the induction generator are mechanical simplicity,
robustness and closed cooling. A weakness is that the stator needs to be magnetized
from the grid before it works. It is possible to run an asynchronous generator in a
standalone system if it is provided with additional components. The synchronous
generator is more complicated than the induction one. It has more parts and is
normally cooled with ambient air internally.

Compared to the induction generator, a synchronous generator can run without

connection to the grid. Most large wind turbines use induction generators and
produce utility-compatible electricity directly. These wind turbines produce 480/ 690
volt, three-phase alternating current at a steady 50/60 hertz, which is suitable for
supplying a utility with electricity or for meeting the electrical loads at homes, farms,
and businesses.

When a wind turbine rotates, some power is required to overcome the rotational and
frictional losses, even when there is zero power output. The wind speed at which the
wind turbine starts to generate output power is the cut-in wind speed (typically 3-
5m/s). When the wind turbine reaches its rated power output (the level of power

83
corresponding to the nameplate rating of the turbine) the wind speed is defined as
the rated wind speed. Cross section of generator can be seen in figure 3.20.

Figure 3.20 Induction Generator

At high wind speed the forces experienced by a wind turbine are substantial.
However, high wind speeds occur only rarely and therefore the wind turbine is shut
down at a cut-out wind speed (typically 25m/s). The loss of energy at wind speeds
above the cutout wind speed is more than compensated by the lower capital cost
obtained by designing the turbine for reduced operating loads.

I-02

Figure 3.21 Induction Generator Solutions

Figure 3.21 shows schematic of functioning of induction generator. For wind speeds
above the rated wind speed and below the cut-out wind speed a wind turbine
requires some form of power regulation, primarily to limit the loads on the turbine, but
also to improve the efficiency. This can be achieved either passively through
aerodynamic design) or by active mechanisms. Passive control relies on the natural

84
aerodynamic behavior of the blade (the flow separates or stalls at high flow angles)
to reach a maximum power level without any change in pitch angle of the blades, and
is referred to as stall regulation. Active control includes varying the pitch of the whole
blade (or blade tips) hence the name - pitch regulation. In addition there is a control
method that combines both pitch and stall regulation to limit the power. The relation
between wind speed and generated power is given by the power curve.

3.5.10.1 Technical specification of induction generator

 Type - Slip Ring Asynchronous Generator

 Synchronous Speed - 1500rpm/1800 rpm
 Rated Torque -11430 Nm
 Rated Current - 2190 A
 Rotor - Star Connected
 Stator - Delta Connected
 Connections
 Type of Winding - (Stator & Rotor) Form Wound
 Overload - 10% Continuous
 Duty Continuous - ( S1)
 Standard - IS4722, EN60034-1
 Insulation - Class H (Stator and Rotor)
 Frequency – 50Hz/60 Hz
 No. of Phases - Three
 Voltage – 690V/ 600V
 No. of Poles - 4 Pole
 Rating - 2100 KW

3.5.10.2 Working principle of induction generator in wind turbine

Three phase supply is given to three phase winding of Induction motor which
produces a rotating magnetic field. This field rotates at synchronous speed (Ns),
Where, Ns = 120*f / P, Ns = Synchronous speed, f = frequency in Hertz and P = No
of poles. Relative motion is created between this field and standstill rotor. Voltage is
induced in rotor bars and currents are established which produces a torque in rotor
hence motor starts rotating with a SLIP with respect to the rotating magnetic field.
Speed of the generator is brought above synchronous speed by wind turbine. This
reverses the relative motion of rotor conductors with respect to rotating magnetic

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field. Rotor induced voltage direction reverses. Rotor current changes its direction.
Stator current changes its direction. Machine now starts giving electrical power
output as it starts operating as a Generator

3.5.10.3 Advantages of using Induction Generator over Synchronous Generator

 The construction of Induction generators is less complicated than the

construction of synchronous generators.

 Induction generators require no brushes and thus no brush maintenance.

Induction generators require relatively complicated electronic controllers.

 They are usually not started without an energized connection to an electric power
grid, unless they are designed to work with a battery bank energy storage
system.

 With Induction generator and an electronic controller, the speed of the generator
can be allowed to vary with the speed of the wind.

 The cost and performance of such a system is generally more attractive than the
alternative systems using a synchronous generator.

3.5.11 WTG breaking mechanism

The power in the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed. Considerable
forces must therefore be controlled during high winds in order to attain safe
operation. There are usually at least 2 independent braking systems, each capable of
bringing the wind turbine to a safe condition in cases of high winds, loss of
connection to the network or other emergencies. They are known as aerodynamic
barking system and mechanical braking system.

Rotor brake system consists of Aerodynamic brake and Mechanical brake working
under different braking programs which ensures safe running of the wind turbine in all
working and environmental conditions. Pitching is used for aerodynamic braking. On
the gearbox high-speed shaft, disc brake calipers with hydraulic drive system
ensures positive type mechanical Braking of the rotor. Manual / Electrical activated
hydraulically driven ENERPAC Hub lock.

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3.5.11.1 Hydraulic aggregate specification

 Description  50 Hz  60 Hz
 Voltage (phase to phase)  3 × 690 V  3 × 600 V
 Maximum operation pressure  8 MPa (80 bar)
 Oil capacity  0.0045 m³ (4.5 litres)

Table 3.7 Hydraulic Aggregate Specification

3.5.11.2 Rotor Brake

 Source: SVENDBORG, GERMANY

 Qty/Set: 1
 Type: Positive
 Operating Pressure: 130 Bar
 Braking Time: 60 – 180 secs
 Function: To Stop WTG
 Weight: 160 kgs
o Figure 3.22 Rotor Brake

3.5.12 Control system

The major role of the control system in a wind turbine is to sense the wind speed,
direction; rotor speed and generator load and accordingly adjust the generator's
physical and electrical operating parameters for optimal performance.

Figure 3.23 Control System

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The wind turbine is controlled by several computers that keep an eye on many
different things. Together these computers are called the wind turbine control system
which can be seen from figure 3.23. The main computer is called the controller.
Every time a change has to be made on the adjustments of the turbine, it is the
controller that takes care of it. The controller always keeps an eye on whether or not
everything in the wind turbine works as it should. The major role of the control system
in a wind turbine is to sense the wind speed, direction; rotor speed and generator
load and accordingly adjust the generator's physical and electrical operating
parameters for optimal performance. If the wind direction shifts, the control system
will command the yaw motor to slew the turbine into the wind. As wind speed
changes, the control system will adjust the rotor speed and blade pitch to maximize
power capture. If the wind gusts threaten to over-power the system, the control
system will send a signal to stop the turbine and prevent damage to the rotor and
generator. Finally, in addition to making automatic, local changes to the WTG's
operating conditions, the control system also provides information to the array
operator at a large wind farm for array-wide operational adjustments.

Every wind turbine has advanced controller with modular system, which monitors and
controls the WTG in fully automatic mode. Controller carries out following functions:

 High speed Data communication

 Active multi-level Security
 Sophisticated Operating Software
 Advanced Data collection, remote monitoring and control option
 UPS Backup
 Real time operation indication

The WTG controller is housed in a Control Panel cabinet placed in the hub, nacelle
and in a bottom panel. Master Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is placed in the
bottom panel which is connected with other Nacelle panel, SFS Panel and Hub panel
by World‘s best communication protocol, CANBUS, which helps achieving fast
control. Fail safe soft starter with recent technology in thyristor control system.

Control system has high flexibility, agility as well as better and fast control over
performance. It typically has Pentium III – 400 MHz as main controller which caters to
faster processing speed with superior capabilities. 32bit processor Central
Processing Unit (CPU) having CFC (compact flash card) Memory cards. CFCs can
be used of different storage sizes to suit the various data storage requirements. All

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analog values are logged and stored for further analysis. The fast log gives higher
resolution – sampling at every 40ms.

3.5.13 Anemometer

The anemometer measures the wind speed and notifies the wind turbine controller
when it is so windy that it would be profitable to use power to make wind turbine turn
(yaw) into the wind and start running. It is important to know how much wind there is.
If the wind is too strong the wind turbine can break. This is why the wind turbine is
brought to a stop when the wind exceeds 25 meters per second. When the wind
drops, the anemometer tells the controller that it is OK to start the turbine again.
Actual picture of anemometer can be seen from figure 3.24 below.

H-02

Figure 3.24 Wind Vane and Anemometer

3.5.14 Wind vane

A wind vane always positions itself according to the wind direction. There is a small
sensor at the foot of the wind vane that notifies the wind turbine controller of the wind
direction. The controller tells the yaw motor to yaw (turn) the nacelle so that the rotor
faces the wind.

3.5.15 Electrical System

The electrical system of a wind turbine comprises of all electrical equipment needed
for power evacuation from the individual wind turbine to the grid. The electrical
system also ensures protection against malfunctioning of both the WTG and the
external electrical system which may lead to unsafe conditions.

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Electrical power generated by wind turbines is connected to the electrical distribution
grid via transformers and substations. A step up transformer is used to step up the
power generated at 690 V to the requisite grid voltage. When the generator is under
the motoring mode the same transformer acts as a step down transformer. A
capacitor bank is also used for reactive power compensation. Following are the major
components of the electrical system:

 Protective devices
 Disconnect devices
 Earth system
 Lightning protection
 Electrical cables
 Capacitor bank
 Over voltage protection
 Harmonics and Power conditioning equipment

3.6 Performance metric of Wind Turbine generators

Power Curve: Performance metric of Wind Turbine generators

The power curve can be divided in to four sections, which can be seen in figure 3.25,
as follows:

1. No power generation due to the low energy content of the wind.

2. Less than rated power generation. In this region, optimal aerodynamic
efficiency and energy capture is aimed at. The wind speed at the boundary of
region 2 and 3 is called the rated wind speed and all variables with the
subscript rated refer to design values at this wind speed.
3. Generation of rated power, because the energy content of the wind is
enough. In this region, the aerodynamic efficiency must be reduced, because
otherwise the electrical system would become overloaded.
4. No power generation. Because of high wind speeds the turbine is closed
down to prevent damage.

In region 3 (and 4) the shaft power should be less than the available power from wind
so as to prevent overloading of components. There are two main methods for limiting
the aerodynamic efficiency in high wind speeds.

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 I I

II II

Figure 3.25 Typical Power curve of wind Turbine generator

With the first method one takes advantage of the aerodynamic stall effect. When the
angle, at which the wind hits the blade ('angle of attack'), is gradually increased, then
at a certain angle the airflow will no longer flow along the blade, but will become
loose from the blade at the back side. Large eddy's will be formed that result in a
drastic reduction of Cp.

If a turbine is operated at constant speed and the wind speed increases, then
automatically the angle of attack increases. At a certain wind speed the angle of
attack will reach the value where stall occurs. Here it is assumed that the pitch angle
is not changed. With so-called stall controlled turbines the blade is designed such
that the stall effect just starts at the rated wind speed. Due to the stall effect, the
power is more or less constant above rated wind speed, as indicated by the dotted
curve in Fig. No active control systems are used to achieve this, which also implies
that the blade does not need to be pitch-able.

With variable speed wind turbines the angle of attack is independent of the wind
speed so that the stall effect does not occur. To reduce the power above the rated
wind speed the blades are pitched towards the vane position by hydraulic or electric
actuators resulting in a reduction of Cp.

Above the rated wind speed the variable speed turbines are normally operated at
constant speed, where power (so torque) is controlled by the pitch angle. These
results in a flat power curve above the rated wind speed From above it will be
obvious that stall control is mainly used with constant speed turbines and pitch
control with variable speed wind turbines. The energy yield E of a wind turbine
depends on the area of the power curve.

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3.7 Wind Power Projects Economics

Wind power project economics is a very complex subject as it has all the nuances of
the project financing. This means involvement of huge capital expenditure as well
considerable operating expenditure over its life cycle. Matter becomes for more
complex because of global sourcing of components and services that involve dealing
in different currencies. Import duties and tax structures further add to the intricate
nature of costing. Because wind power projects have gestation period involved
commodity prices often swing making project economics look quite different from the
time project was conceived.

Major difference between financing typical large scale infrastructure capital expense
heavy project and wind project is that given unpredictable nature of wind output from
the wind farm which is the revenue side is not fixed and accurately predictable. Wind
engineering science advances have taken great strides over years which make
generation forecast or prognosis fairly accurate, however fact remains that controlled
predictable nature of power generation using fossil fuels is very different from
unpredictable accurate generation owing to wind condition uncertainties.

Pricing of wind power projects is s specialist job as it involves number of complex

variables such as

1. Entire overview of project site & conditions and costs associated with it
2. Pricing of wind turbines - manufacture, supply, erection and service
3. Competitive positioning - benchmarking price with rival product &
performance
4. Approvals – these comprise of statutory and local agency.

Highly specialized and sophisticated financial modeling costing and pricing tools that
encompass entre value chain and capture all cost variables, are available. Once
variable elements such as wind conditions, PPA, interest rate etc. as per project
conditions and competition, are fed they roll out results to determine project feasibility
and viability in terms of IRR, NPV, cash flow etc. Wind power project pricing overview
template instruction is attached as per annexure – III that gives a detailed idea about
the sophisticated costing / pricing tool that is used for making quotations and offer
proposals.

Typically financing of wind project involves combination of debt and equity in a

classical 70:30 composition though this may vary from case to case. Just like any

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project financial viability is computed wind projects also have similar criteria few
major ones are explained below:

3.7.1 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

The discount rate often used in capital budgeting that makes the net present value of
all cash flows from a wind power project equal to zero. Generally speaking, the
higher a project's internal rate of return, the more desirable it is to undertake the
project. As such, IRR can be used to rank several prospective wind power projects
under considering. Assuming all other factors are equal among the various wind
power projects, the project with the highest IRR would probably be considered the
best and undertaken first. You can think of IRR as the rate of growth a project is
expected to generate. In real life actual rate of return that a given project ends up
generating will often differ from its estimated IRR rate, a project with a substantially
higher IRR value than other available options would still provide a much better
chance of strong growth.

IRRs can also be compared against prevailing rates of return in the securities market.
If a firm can't find any wind projects with IRRs greater than the returns that can be
generated in the financial markets, it may simply choose to invest its retained
earnings into the market.

Typically in the developed economies IRR in the ball park of 8-10% are considered to
be attractive for investment and at the same time in the developing economies
upwards of 15% are considered worthwhile.

3.7.2 Net Present Value (NPV)

For a given wind power project, NPV is the difference between the present value of
cash inflows from and the present value of cash outflows. NPV is used in capital
budgeting to analyze the profitability of a wind power project.
NPV analysis is sensitive to the reliability of future cash inflows that a wind power
project will yield. NPV compares the value of a dollar today to the value of that same
dollar in the future, taking inflation and returns into account. If the NPV of a
prospective wind power project is positive, it should be accepted. However, if NPV is
negative, the wind power project should probably be rejected because cash flows will
also be negative.

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There excel sheet customized to calculate either IRR or NPV for wind power projects
that consider every single cost element including dynamic variables.

Following are some key levers that influence IRR or NPV calculations:

3.7.3 Wind Speed

Clearly wind farms sites having better wind speed help generate more electricity and
output from the wind-farms over a defined period, which directly reflects in to higher
revenues. This is possibly most critical ingredient of making wind power projects
financially viable.

3.7.4 Hub height

It is well known fact that winds getter better at we go higher is the sky. In the pursuit
of getting better wind speeds wind turbine have also become taller as their towers
structure is getting stretched to limit. There comes a Knee point where incremental
cost of going taller in terms of material, transportation etc. is more than incremental
generation that one would expect to get due to better wind speeds.

3.7.5 Power Purchase Agreement (PPA)

This reflects per unit prices of electricity that Utility is willing to pay for the energy
generated from the wind farm. Obviously higher the PPA the better is overall revenue
from the wind power project that directly influences project profitability

3.7.6 Power Curve (PC)

This as we have seen is w wind turbine performance curve showing how much
electricity wind turbine generator will generate at a given wind speed. Different
turbine manufacturers deploy different technology as a result, some have power
curve better than others, resulting in higher power generation at the same wind site.
This is purely a technology play involving better aerodynamic design of blades, lower
mechanical & electrical losses in system, efficient control system algorithms etc.

3.7.7 Debt interest rate

Ability to borrow fund is different for different players. Often it‘s the merit of project in
terms of better PPA, wind speed; power off-takers credit rating etc. that supersedes
individual credibility of turbine suppliers or equity investors. Lower the cost of
borrowing the better it is for making project economics making grades.

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3.7.8 Wind turbine generator Capital cost

This is the highest component of overall cost mix. Landed cost of the wind turbine
takes into account everything that goes in to sourcing, conversion, packaging,
transportation and logistics. Developed economies have overall higher cost structure
but lower cost conversion countries have to factor in cost of shipments and time
value of money and associated risks. Lower turbine costs directly make project
economics more attractive.

3.7.9 Balance of plant cost

This is second most significant cost component in wind power project cost structure.
Wind farm land is often leased; several other components such as transformers,
cable, switchgears panels etc. have to be procured. In addition to component costs,
site mobilization, port storage, road and infrastructure creation at site also costs
considerable amount. Certification, testing hiring specialized transportation
equipment such as trucks and cranes involve huge funds. Obviously lower the
balance of plant (BoP) costs well it is for overall project economics.

3.7.10 Soft costs of wind power projects

Wind power project feasibility study, contracting, financing often requires expert
services of consultant be it a legal, technical or insurance consultant for that matter.
This cost at the first look may appear not so significant but they are significant
enough to make a difference between viable and unviable project.

3.7.11 OMS costs

More often than now wind farm investors look at total cost of ownership that includes
costs likely to incurred during lifecycle of the project. This includes critical spares,
inventory carrying costs, manpower costs, infrastructure, insurances, contingencies,
extended guarantees & warrantees etc. It is clear that lower the lifecycle OMS costs
the lower is the cost of ownership and better it is for project viability.

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3.7.12 Availability

The availability factor of a wind farm is amount of time that it is able to

produce electricity irrespective of wind conditions or grid conditions. It is a clear
indication of healthiness of wind turbine generators. Maintenance schedules are also
factored in the availability calculations. The better turbine availability the more
electricity it would be able to generate as down time is minimized. It obviously
facilitates wind power economics.

3.7.13 Government incentives

Wind power worldwide survives and thrives on the basis of various policy regulator
mechanisms, federal and state level govt. institutionalize. This is in the form of tax
savings, tax holidays, soft loans, green certificate trade, and carbon credits to name
a few. These are essential for keeping wind industry live and kicking and make a big
difference between viable and unviable project.

3.7.14 An Illustration

Typical cost about Rs. 50000 per kilowatt for wind farms (or a Million US Dollars a
MW at exchange rate of 50 INR=1USD) that use multiple-unit arrays of large
machines. In good wind areas, the costs of generating electricity range between Rs.
2.5-3.50 rupees per kilowatt hour (US $ 0.035). That cost is somewhat higher than
the costs associated with an electrical facility, but wind energy costs are decreasing
every year, whereas most conventional generation costs continue to increase.

Suppose a corporate wants to invest in a wind farm, if he buys our 1.25 MW turbine,
it will cost around Rs 6.75 crore and he will get an annual generation of around 28
lakh units. At Rs 3.50 a unit, that would fetch about Rs 1.35 crore a year, assuming it
is Maharashtra and you are selling to the grid. But if you want to use all the power
yourself, it would be worth a lot more. Even at Rs 3.00 it makes a lot of sense,
because you will get your money back in six and a half years.

3.8 Wind Power Projects Value Chain

Wind power project value chain is complex that what it would appear and there are
number of reasons why. First and foremost this industry unlike century old
conventional power projects or infrastructure projects industry is just couple of
decades old. As a result best business practices and standard operating procedures
for entire project value chain are still evolving. Next, wind industry is yet to reach

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level of standardization for key components which continue to be specialized item
unique to each original equipment manufacturer. As a result technology and
operational know-how for erection, testing and commissioning varies to certain
extent. Finally supply chain of wind industry is spread globally as a result of
availability of expertise and skills which are localized, mainly in Europe and lately in
Indian & China which complicates entire supply chain management. Following is an
overview of wind power project value chain

•Wind resource assessment

Infrastrcuture Develoment •Land acquisition
•Evacuation facilities / substations

Technology development •WTG and Component manufacturing

Project Construction & •Installation and erection

Execution •Commissioning

Operation, Mainternance & •Lifetime Service

Service •Spares, G & W Management

Figure 3.26 Typical winds Power project value chain

3.8.1 Infrastructure development

Following are major activities in infrastructure development of wind power projects.

3.8.1.1 Wind resource assessment

Wind speed is a key variable in making a site economically viable for wind
development. Illustration of locating WTG can be seen from graphic in figure 3.27.

Figure 3.27 Illustration of Micro-siting of wind Turbine Generator

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Wind power is a cubic function of wind speed, and this means that a doubling of wind
speed can lead to an eight-fold increase in wind power. Although most regions in the
world are exposed to wind, current economics support wind power development in
only more windy regions of the world. Wind industry professional use three basic
steps to identify and characterize the wind resource: prospecting, validation, and
micro-siting. The process of locating sites for wind energy development has many
similarities to exploration for other resources such as minerals and petroleum.
Prospecting includes identifying potentially windy sites within a fairly large region
such as a state, county, or utility service area and investigating the development
potential and general suitability of these sites for wind energy projects. Wind
prospectors are generally trained meteorologists who rely on multiple sources of
information such as terrain maps, wind atlases, local wind speed data, and other
climatological information to identify good wind sites. Wind professionals also
conduct site visits to assess local conditions such as vegetation height and growth
patterns (an indicator of high winds), location of residential buildings, quantity and
existing uses of land, proximity to transmission lines, identification of potentially
sensitive environmental areas, and other factors.

However with growing activity levels, costs for wind power generation are falling
while the value of energy production continues to rise. This means that wind power
development is becoming viable for a growing range of wind resources properties.

Validation of the wind resource involves a more detailed level of investigation and
analysis. Validation is the process of installing monitoring stations to verify the
magnitude and characteristics of the wind resource at a promising site. Site-specific
wind speed data are critical because a small change in the annual average wind
speed at a site can have a significant impact in determining whether or not a project
is economically viable.

3.8.1.2 Land acquisition

Upon identifying parcels of land with apparent development potential, developers

generally approach the landowners to obtain permission to install monitoring stations
and negotiate land lease options. The installation of monitoring stations often
represents the first point of interaction between a developer and a local authority,
assuming that approval is required to erect the met tower. If the meteorological tower
is located in an area that contains a height restriction on buildings or towers, the
developer may be required to obtain a special use permit or an area variance.

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If the wind data confirm the viability of a project at a site, developers pursue land
rights for the entire project and begin micro-siting. Micro-siting is the process of
collecting additional wind data for the purposes of identifying potential turbine
locations and optimizing the project layout. Wind can be highly variable, being
influenced by terrain features, vegetation, and local atmospheric conditions.
Experience has shown that limiting the number of met towers can result in erroneous
energy production estimates. Therefore, once developers have determined that a
specific area has the right mix of wind (based on initial met tower data), land, local
support, and energy market; it is common to deploy additional met towers. The
number of additional towers is dependent on land characteristics, turbine size,
potential turbine layouts, etc., but can vary from approximately one met tower for
every 10 turbines to every 30 turbines.

Key criteria for assessing the viability of a site for wind power development include
the following:

1. Quality of the wind resource (wind speed, variability of wind speed, wind
direction)

2. Power prices in the area of development

3. Access to an existing power grid

4. Roads and infrastructure

5. Amount of land available for development

Any wind turbine that is installed in a very windy area generates less expensive
electricity than the same unit installed in a less windy area. So it's important to
assess the wind at the potential site.

Developers often use innovative deals to protect interest of land owners. There are
deals where a part of revenue stream from the project is diverted to land owners in
addition to partial early investment. There are also cases, typically in a small scale
wind farm where whole ownership of the wind farm transfers to land owners once
equity investors have exhausted taxation benefits and their IRR/NPV targets are
achieved.

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3.8.1.3 Evacuation facilities and sub-station

Windy sites are generally found in areas that are generally remote. These are either
at mountain top, mid-land or coastal. More often than not it has been observed that
wind sites do not have any load centers anywhere near in proximity. As a result there
is no power transmission network to evacuate power generated from wind farms.
Also stringent statutory approval and environmental impact assessment norms result
in wind farms away from human habitat, forests, historical sites, defense and
strategic location.

Also there are other situations where existing transmission system and sub-station is
already congested and there is little possibility to evacuate additional electricity
generated from wind farms in the same network. As a result transmission up
gradation and/or uprating becomes necessary.

This calls for planning evacuation facilities and infrastructure such as sub-station
without which wind farm project‘s techno-commercial viability is in serious question.

Creating new evacuation facilities and associated infrastructure such as switchgear

adds substantially to overall project costs structure.

Developers deploy electrical system experts to carry out thorough study of existing
transmission infrastructure if it exists or even one that is closest. This is a huge task
as demand patterns will have to be taken in to consideration. Right of way issues to
set up transmission tower and substation often prove to be challenge as land
ownership is fragmented.

Once the plan for power evacuation is ready it has to pass through statutory and
regulatory authority which is time consuming process as community hearing and
approval is mandatory. More over developer approach power transmission
companies who are experts to explore their interest which takes some burden off the
wind power project. In many cases Govt. works in close partnership with private
players and sub-station is constructed on Build Own Operate and transfer (BOOT)
model where ownership finally rests with Govt. companies, where transmission
sector is regulated.

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3.8.2. Technology development

Wind turbine technology as we know harnesses number of engineering functions

throughout its value chain. Following is most important milestone activity in
technology development.

3.8.2.1 WTG and Component manufacturing

It is a common practice in Wind turbine generator industry to make wind turbine

generators to order. Wind turbine Generators are not stocked so that they could be
sold off the shelf. There are several reasons for it, cost consideration being major
besides the fact that different markets have different statutory compliance norms and
grid codes for which turbines have to be customized.

Not that fundamental design of wind turbines undergoes major changes, but there
are several settings, parameters and in some cases components have to be changed
to meet site conditions and local requirements.

For instance few markets operate in 50 Hz frequency where as there are other
markets where 60 Hz frequency prevails, electrical components have to be different.

There are markets where extreme operating temperature wind turbine generators is
50 Deg.C in India and GCC markets where as there are markets in North America
and Europe where it drops to negative 30 Dec C. Several components such as oil,
steel and sensors have to be different

Statutory limits of height of wind turbines are different in different markets due to
aviation issues, so tower design will have to be different.

Noise requirements and grid compliance norms vary from market to market and as a
result turbine configuration will need a tweak to meet market requirements.

Although actual assembly of wind turbine generator take a day or two, once all
components are available on shop floor. However there are several components that
have lead time that runs in months as they are made in different part of the world and
shipment time only adds to gestation period.

Once the contract is received engineering department conduct a thorough review of

the site conditions and local compliance requirements. Following which they make

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necessary modifications bill of material and then all other functions such as planning,
sourcing, procurement, quality, production, logistics etc. swing in action.

Usually customer retain 3rd party independent inspector for factory acceptance and
site acceptance tests. They randomly inspect turbine assembly process,
documentation, quality checks and also health, safety and environmental compliance
practices. They are empowered to pass or even hold the dispatches which have
huge bearing on the project completion. In the entire project value chain
manufacturing consumes maximum time.

3.8.3 Project Construction and Commissioning

Wind turbine generator erection and installation is a highly skilled job involving not
only subject matter experts but also agencies that are specialized in certain activities
for instance crane handling.

Erection starts initially with site mobilization as per the micro-siting plan where turbine
locations, roads, access, sub-stations etc. are identified. More often than not the
locations are remote and do not have clear access. Even if there is access to site
there is no flat even ground required for rotor assembly or for that matter parking
cranes. Civil engineers ensure that access road are constructed that can bring in
very heavy wind turbine components keeping in mind that the load bearing capacity.

3.8.3.1 Erection and Installation

3.8.3.1.1 Foundations

The foundation transmits the wind turbine‘s dead load and wind load into the ground.
The design of wind-turbine foundations is largely driven by the tower base
overturning moment under extreme wind conditions.

A variety of slab, multi-pile and mono-pile solutions have been adopted for tubular
towers and these are discussed in turn below.

 Gravity foundations are often used and placed on the sea floor. These, huge
concrete weights for example, are so heavy and stable that they do not need any
more fixation to the sea bed.

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 Tripod: Here the wind generator is put on a tripod. The piles below the tower are
connected with a steel frame that distributes the tower‘s forces over three steel
piles, each of which are fixed approx. 10 - 20 metres deep in the sea bed.

 Bucket foundation: This consists of a steel cylinder open towards the bottom
which gave it its name. First of all the cylinder is placed on the sea bed and then
pumped out. The negative pressure generated inside the foundation presses the
foundation into the ground. The material at the bottom of the inside of the cylinder
supports the foundation and fixes it to the sea bed.

 Slab foundations: Slab foundations are chosen when competent material exists
within a few meters of the surface. The overturning moment is resisted by an
eccentric reaction to the weight of the turbine, tower, foundation and overburden
(allowing for buoyancy, if the water table can rise above the base of the slab).
The eccentricity of the reaction, and hence the magnitude of the restoring
moment, is limited by the load carrying capacity of the sub-strata, which
determines the width of the area at the edge of the slab required to carry the
gravity loads.
 Multi-pile foundations: In weaker ground, a piled foundation often makes more
efficient use of materials than a slab. Foundation consisting of a pile cap resting
on eight cylindrical piles arranged in a circle. Overturning is resisted by both pile
vertical and lateral loads, the latter being generated by moments applied to the
head of each pile. Consequently the reinforcement must be arranged to provide
full moment continuity between the piles and the pile cap. Holes for the piles can
be auger drilled and the piles cast in situ after the positioning of the reinforcement
cage.
 Concrete mono-pile foundations: A concrete mono-pile foundation consists of
a single large diameter concrete cylinder, which resists overturning by mobilizing
soil lateral loads alone. Here a single mast, a steel pile with a diameter of approx.
4 meters, is sunk into the sea bed. Depending on the bed, the mono-pile is driven
approx. 10 – 20 meters deep into the sea floor. This type of foundation is an
attractive option when the water table is low and the soil properties enable a deep
hole to be excavated from above without the sides caving in. However, while
simple, the concept is relatively expensive in terms of materials.
 Foundations for steel lattice towers: The legs of steel lattice towers are
relatively widely spaced, and lend themselves to separate foundations. Bored
cast in situ piles are commonly used (see Figure 7.46). The mechanism for

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 resisting overturning is simply uplift and down thrust on the piles, but the piles
must also be designed for the bending moments induced by the horizontal shear
load. Pile uplift is resisted by friction on the surface of the piles, which depends
on both the soil/pile friction angle and the lateral soil pressure.

Figure 3.28 Site picture of laying wind Turbine generator foundation

The angle sections forming the base of the tower legs are cast in place when the
concrete for the piles is poured. A framework is assembled in advance, incorporating
the leg base sections, so that the legs can be set at the correct spacing and
inclination before concreting.

3.8.3.1.2 Logistics & transportation

Transportation System: The transportation of wind turbines to the site is one the
activity where mechanical technology plays an important role. Smaller turbines can
often be packed in containers for easy transport over roads. Larger turbines must be
transported in sub-sections and assembled at site. In remote locations difficult
access may limit the feasible turbine size or design or may require expensive
transportation much such as helicopters. For the transportation of WTG components,
several tools are required. These are given in the following:-

Figure 3.29 Illustration of Low Bedded Specialized Truck for Logistics

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For WTG components, special heavy load vehicles are required able to bear the
loads to be transported and matching the exceptional dimensions of the particular
Tractor with low-bed trailer component. For these purposes, tractors with low-bed
trailers are used.

To secure the load during transportation, use lashing straps according to DIN EN
12195-2.

Figure 3.30 Picture of Straps used for WTG Logistics

During transportation, the load has to be secured with lashing chains according to EN
12197-3 at the provided anchorage points on load and vehicle.

Figure 3.31 Picture of Lashing Chain to Secure for WTG Logistics

Lashing chain: For lifting the WTG components, cranes are required. To assure the
cranes meet the requirements for the dimensions and weights of the components to
be lifted, keep in mind that for ship loading in harbor‘s movable cranes with a wide
radius are required.

Figure 3.32 Crane Lifting WTG Components Nylon Using Webbing Slings

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For lifting the components, nylon webbing slings are required. Due to the softness of
the nylon web, the sling will not deface or scratch the surface and its flexibility
assures a secure grip.

Figure 3.33 Picture of Webbing Sling

To connect the slings and ropes to the crane hook, use forged steel shackles
according to EN 13889:2003 able to bear the specified loads.

Figure 3.34 Sketch of Forged Steel Shackle

To avoid damages and penetration of humidity during transportation, the WTG

components are protected with a tarpaulin. It is ensure that tarpaulins are tight.

Figure 3.35 Picture of Nacelle Wrapped in Tarpaulin

When using a low-bed trailer, it has to be equipped with two saddles, one at the front
end, and one at the back end of the trailer. The saddles assure a secure transport.
Therefore, the tower section has to be positioned properly on the saddles with even
contact. The average saddle weight for a tower section to be loaded is approx. 1.5 t.

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 Figure 3.36 Picture of Saddle that Secure WTG to Trailer

When not using saddles, transport brackets are required. These are attached to the
tower flanges as support for the sections to rest on.

Figure 3.37 Picture of Saddle that Secure WTG to Trailer

3.8.3.1.3 Installation

Panel and Tower section Installation: In this process, the Bottom panel of WTG
mounted over the Foundation as specified position designed by foundation designer.
After that tower sections, erect and installed by using specified hardware. During
installation flange-to-flange gap should be lie within the limit.

Figure 3.38 Picture of Tower Erection

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Nacelle Installation: This process, involve various tasks like Anemometer and
resistor box fixing etc. While lifting the nacelle be sure that jigs are properly fitted to
specified position.

Figure 3.39 Picture of Nacelle Erection

Hub Assembly & Installation: In this process, blade are assembled in hub and
torqued with specified values. After complete assembly of blade the Rotor is lifted by
using Web belt or Jigs. During rotor installation the alignment is most important thing.

Figure 3.40 Picture of Rotor Erection

3.8.3.2 Commissioning

Prior to Wind turbine commissioning there are several aspects that need to be looked
in to which are briefly explained below. It may be noted that wind turbine
commissioning procedure is unique to the OEM and below procedure contains most
typical milestones that any wind turbine commissioning engineer would observe.

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3.8.3.2.1 Initial Mechanical Inspection

Before commissioning can take place the wind turbine must have been installed in
compliance with the OEM provided Wind Turbine Installation Procedure, and a fully
signed off checklist must be obtained to confirm that the installation has been
completed. This must be returned to Iskra wind turbines along with this completed
procedure. The wind turbine will have its brake switched on.

3.8.3.2.2. Initial Electrical Inspection

- Mains power must be available at the electrical panel to power the inverters and the
electrical connection should have been completed and signed off by a suitably
qualified electrician and permission must have been granted by the DNO (if required)
to make the connection to the grid.

The electrical connections at the tower base must be complete, as must the
connections between the turbine and the electrical panel.

Once these checks have been completed the Isolator switch between the turbine and
the rectifier enclosure should be switched to ‗ON‘ to allow the voltage output from the
turbine to be monitored using the meter. The mains isolator should remain in the
‗OFF‘ position during the initial tests so that the inverters will not extract power from
the turbine

3.8.3.2.3 Braking Operation

Just to as to ensure that mechanical as well as electrical braking system is operating

as planned braking operation is performed which is important part of overall
commissioning process. There must be sufficient wind to start the machine from rest
and to allow it to reach around 200 rpm in order to check the operation of the
automatic brake.
Using the brake control switch brake is released by holding the toggle switch to the
sprung position labeled ‗HOLD FOR STOP/START‘ for around 5 seconds or until a
whistling sound is heard from the brake enclosure. This indicates that the brake has
been released and assuming there is sufficient wind the wind turbine should start to
rotate.
Once the machine reaches about 30 rpm brake is applied by holding the toggle

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switch at the ‗HOLD FOR STOP / START‘ position and check that the machine
comes to a halt.

Wind turbine generator is allowed to gather speed. Brake control switch is positioned
at the central position labeled ‗Stop Request‘ and allow the turbine to gain speed.
Wind turbine rotor is closely observed as it speeds up. Any significant mass-out-of-
balance will become apparent as the rotor passes through the resonant frequency of
the tower (about 100rpm). Any problems should be noted and investigated. Once the
turbine reaches approximately 190 rpm the brake should automatically apply and
bring the turbine rapidly to a halt.

3.8.3.2.4 No load Speed Check

Prior to connecting wind turbine to an external electric load or a grid, any lead speed
checks are carried out. There should be sufficient wind that with no electrical load the
turbine will automatically regulate its speed using the passive pitch system. It is
usually evident by a change in the aerodynamic noise that the rotor produces during
periods of stronger wind and by the manner in which the turbine will speed up and
then reach a ‗ceiling‘ beyond which it will not continue to gain speed. Check for
evidence that the machine is controlling its own speed.

3.8.3.2.5 Inverter Set-up Process

This is very critical aspect of wind turbine commissioning. Extreme caution must be
taken at all times when dealing with the electrical equipment and inverters. High
voltages are present even for long periods after the turbine and/or the mains supply
are disconnected from the panel. Particular care should be taken when working with
the inverter or rectifier housing covers removed, for instance whilst configuring the
operating parameters of the inverters or fitting power line modems, service cables or
similar.

Comprehensive product information, installation and configuration instructions are

provided in the commissioning manual, Installation Guide and Operating Instructions
supplied with the inverter, which should be thoroughly studied and complied with
during the installation process.

In order to configure the inverter there must be sufficient wind to allow the turbine to
power up the inverter and keep it operating throughout the configuration process.
This is indicated when the green indicator LED is lit constantly. There is an obligatory

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‗initialisation phase‘ indicated by the green LED flashing once per second, during
which the voltage from the turbine is sufficient to power up the inverter, but is
prevented from doing so in order to comply with the grid connection regulations.

So long as the three LED‘s are steadily green, the inverters can now be configured
with the turbine operating parameters using usually patented software used by
OEMs.

3.8.3.2.6 Final Checks

It is important to do final checks as below prior to completing commissioning

procedure.

Before leaving site quickly check the tower base to ensure that the tower base bolts
are secure and fitted with appropriate locking nuts or washers & that the lightning
protection system is intact and in good condition.

Check that the power cable is properly aligned and not likely to fret or rub on tower
the tower or base.

On free-standing towers shut and secure the door at the tower base, and check that
the tower hinge pin locking device (a hex socket head washer on the pin end) is tight.
On guyed towers check that the guy wires are properly tensioned and that the
turnbuckle lock nuts are secure and that all shackles are wired to prevent loosening.
Listen to the turbine to check for unusual aerodynamic or mechanical noise and if
conditions permit, that the turbine is effectively regulating its own speed through the
pitch mechanism.

Finally attach the turbine serial number label to a vertical surface on the tower base.

 Typical project execution road-map: Following is a classical 15 months road-

map of entire wind turbine generation project execution cycle. Time frame or
milestone may vary to some extent depending on market requirements and site
conditions. Also business model will have a role to play in terms of scope of
various parties‘ involved and necessary coordination. Depending on skills and
availability of manpower, approval cycle project completion may slightly vary. It
has also been observed that demand supply situation also has a strong bearing
on the project completion time frame as there are only handful of vendors ,
subcontractors, specialized equipment that keep servicing various project sites.

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 Figure 3.41 Typical Onshore Wind Turbine Development Timeline

3.8.4 Operation Maintenance and Service (OMS)

The OEM or the OMS contractor appointed has obligation to perform all the works,
services, supplies and other activities necessary to operate, service, repair and
maintain the Wind Farm to ensure its safe, lawful, reliable, efficient operation
according to the contractual technical specifications.

3.8.4.1 OMS Scope of Services

Typical scope of Services is as includes:

1. than 8 working hours after the receipt of any alert message (24h/day, 365
day/year);

2. the Contractor shall guarantee the arrival on Site, on request, of technician/s

(with necessary tools, machinery and instrumentation) for Electrical System
within 4 working hours from written request (by fax or e-mail) (24h/day, 365
day/year);

3. the Contractor shall guarantee the arrival on Site, on request, of technician/s

(with necessary tools, machinery and instrumentation) for Technical Facilities
(civils) within 2 working days from written request (by fax or e-mail), 365
day/year;

4. in the receipt of messages indicating faults or malfunctioning, the Contractor

shall immediately activate the procedures laid down for dealing with any issue;

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5. remedial action shall be taken as soon as possible, resorting, without any
limitation, to weekend work and work during public holidays, the only restriction
being observance of the dictates of Applicable Laws regarding safety in the
workplace;

6. the Contractor shall guarantee to give a written answer to each written question
of the Owner within 8 working hours;

7. the Contractor shall ensure that the fire extinguishers, lifting tackles and health
and safety equipment as well as any elevators are inspected within the statutory
time limits by qualified persons;

8. the Contractor shall procure unlimited intervention of specialists directly from

electric equipment vendors (for instance: HV switchgear, Transformer, etc.), as
advisable for Scheduled and Unscheduled Maintenance (labour, travel, living and
lodging costs included); the onsite response time shall be no longer than 72
hours);

9. the Contractor shall provide the Owner with all reasonable assistance in:

a. the handling of insurance claims arising in respect of the Wind Farm (excl.
WTG‘s);

b. the resolution of any disputes arising between the Owner and any third parties in
relation to, or arising out of, the operation and maintenance of the Wind Farm
(excl. WTG‘s);

c. the defense of any actions brought against the Owner by any competent
authority arising out of the operation or the maintenance of the Wind Farm;

d. Processing insurance claims.

3.8.4.2 Scheduled and Unscheduled Maintenance

The Contractor shall be responsible, without any limitations, for proceeding to rectify
any malfunctioning of any part of the Wind Farm (excl. WTG‘s) by resetting,
recalibrating, or beginning any repair work or replacement of components and other
items found to be defective, damaged, or to have deteriorated through wear and tear.

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3.8.4.3 Scheduled Maintenance

The Contractor shall inspect, service and maintain any part of the Wind Farm (excl.
WTG‘s) regularly as required by and in accordance with the performance standard
set out in the O&M Contract. The Contractor shall inspect any part of the Wind Farm
(excl. WTG‘s) at regular maintenance intervals in order to identify any deviation of the
actual state from the desired state and, if the case required, to propose or initiate
necessary measures to be taken to restore any part of the Wind Farm to its desired
state.

3.8.4.4 Unscheduled Maintenance

As a rule, all Unscheduled Maintenance shall be notified to the Owner before its
performance. If the urgency of such action makes advance notification impossible, the
Contractor shall inform the Owner immediately, as soon as the maintenance work has
begun, If the necessary equipment and components are among the Spare Parts to
be held by the Contractor in the Spare Parts Inventory, the Contractor shall perform
as soon as practicable the Unscheduled Maintenance activities necessary to
restore the proper operation of the Wind Farm and in any case within 12 working
hours after the detection of the events. Otherwise, if the necessary equipment and
components are not among the Spare Parts to be held by the Contractor in the
Spare Parts Inventory the Contractor shall:

 Order, at its own expenses, the necessary equipment and components within
twenty- four (24) hours after the detection of the events, and

 Perform the Unscheduled Maintenance activities necessary to restore the

proper operation of the Wind Farm within twenty-four (24) hours after receipt
of that equipment and those components.

3.8.4.5 Expenses relating to staff, vehicles and accessories

In performing the Service, the Contractor shall take steps to sustain the expenses
relating to vehicles, staff (including travelling expenses, board and lodging) and
accessory expenditure on such items as transport, equipment (including, without
limitation, shipment of goods, postal, and storage expenses), used in the
performance of contractual obligations.

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3.8.4.6 Subcontractors

The Contractor may entrust the performance of services and activities included in the
Service Contract to one or more qualified Sub-Contractors.

3.8.4.7 Documentation

The contractor shall take steps to prepare and keep up to date throughout the
duration of the service contract, adequate reports of management activities, checks
and maintenance. All the records shall be available within a reasonable space of
time, for examination by the owner or its representative. The reports shall record and
explain all unscheduled maintenance done, including the duration of all outages of
equipment. In addition, the reports shall record the monthly availability of the Wind
Farm (excl. WTG‘s).

Periodic meetings between the contractor and the owner shall concern any operating
and maintenance deals and any other technical or administrative matter relating to
management of the service contract for which the owner intends to require
explanations from the contractor. The owner's consultants may attend the meetings.

3.9 Wind Myths and Facts

Although acceptance of wind power worldwide is growing by the day, myths and
misconceptions about wind power continue to exist and have not been completely
eradicated. Wind industry association and green energy pressure groups
aggressively lobby to increase awareness about wind power and eliminate these
myths by addressing those using facts and scientific basis. Such endeavours help
reduce community hearing and approval process, one of the largest time consumer
in entire project cycle, besides aligning with community expectations.

Researcher has probed deeper in bringing to light most commonly observed myths
and on the basis of facts & scientific data tried to demystify these.

You may hear a myth or two about wind power, and these are based on
misunderstandings and old technology. Here are the facts on the most common
myths.

3.9.1 Myth: Wind farms are noisy.

Fact: Virtually everything with moving parts makes noise, and wind turbines are no
exception. Some older turbines had problems with mechanical noise from the nacelle

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and were far noisier than modern machines, and in some places have given wind
energy a bad reputation for noise. Nowadays most wind turbine noise comes
primarily from the movement of the blades in the air. High winds tend to mask this
sound, so it is more noticeable at lower wind speeds. Modern wind turbines have
rotor blades aerodynamically designed specifically to reduce noise. Wind Turbines
can be supplied at certified and tested sound power levels which allow accurate
prediction of noise levels at given distances from the wind turbine. There are strict
guidelines on wind turbines and noise emissions to ensure the protection of
residential amenity. Distance is the single biggest factor in determining the impact of
a wind farm on nearby homes. There is unlikely to be any significant effects at
distances over 400 m, although due to unusual topographical features, homes can
sometimes be affected at greater distances. The level of audible noise from a wind
turbine, built to modern specifications, at a distance of 200 m, is lower than the
background noise level of a small town in the countryside and of course is not a
nuisance. Noise can be accurately predicted in advance. At a distance of 300 m, a
modern wind turbine is no noisier than a kitchen refrigerator or a moderately quiet
room.

Figure3.42 Noise Level from Various Sources

3.9.2 Myth: Wind farms kill birds

Fact: Studies in Germany, Denmark, the US and the UK have shown that wind
turbines do not pose any substantial threat to birds, bats, or insects. At a near shore
Danish wind farm, which borders a sensitive, protected site for Eider Ducks, it was
found that approximately 1% of bird deaths were due to collision with wind turbines.
This was a three year study, followed by a further two year monitoring study, which
confirmed its findings. Specifically, it was calculated that out of the total number of
birds killed in a year, only 20 deaths were due to wind turbines (for an installed

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capacity of 1000MW), while 1500 deaths were caused by hunters and 2000 caused
by collisions with vehicles and electricity transmission lines (they are almost
―invisible‖ for birds). A real concern for birds is noted in the 2004 study in Nature that
estimated that up to a quarter of all bird species could become extinct by 2054 due to
global climate change, for which wind energy is one of the solutions.

In Europe, a 2003 study in the Spanish province of Navarra – where 692 turbines
were then operating in 18 wind farms – found that the annual mortality rate of
medium and large birds was 0.13 per turbine.

US statistics show 1 billion birds are killed by colliding with buildings each year and
up to 80 million by vehicles. By comparison, it‘s estimated that commercial wind
turbines in the US cause the direct deaths of only 0.01 – 0.02% of all of the birds
killed annually by collisions with man-made structures and activities.

Figure 3.43 Bird Killing Statistics

Today, the wind energy industry has put procedures in place to enhance our
understanding of birds and how they interrelate with wind turbines. The modern wind
farm undergoes a series of environmental assessments before being approved. In
this process, the proposed site will be monitored and bird populations evaluated.
What kinds of birds are on site? What are their habits, flight patterns? Do they nest in
the area or simply fly through? Questions like these are answered in an effort to
better understand on-site bird populations and to mitigate their potential interactions

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with wind turbines. Once built, further monitoring takes place to better understand the
on-going relationship between birds and the wind farm.

3.9.3 Myth: Wind farms affects flora & fauna.

Fact: Wind turbines and their associated infrastructure, e.g., site tracks, typically use
between 2% and 3% of the land area covered by a wind farm. It is very unlikely that
operational wind farms will have any significant impact on flora and fauna. However,
this should be thoroughly assessed by a qualified ecologist beforehand, with
particular attention being paid to the construction phase and to birdlife. The access
tracks to the site are likely to have a far greater impact on the ecology than the wind
turbines.

3.9.4 Myth: Wind farms create electromagnetic interference problems.

Fact: Wind farms may have a minor impact on electro-magnetic radiation, but in a
different way to that which is generally perceived. Wind turbines emit a negligible
amount of electro-magnetic radiation. The turbine is a generator, which generates
electricity at low voltage, just as a diesel generator does. It emits no more electro-
magnetic radiation than a diesel generator; in fact, very considerably less, because
the metal housing acts as a protective shield; also the generator is usually quite a
distance overhead. These rare effects would be generally limited to an area a couple
of hundred yards wide by one to two kilometers long. More importantly, they can
generally be easily predicted and avoided by careful siting, or easily and cheaply
remedied. They should be assessed prior to construction.

It is a fact that the transmission from radio or television broadcast frequencies

(mainly FM broadcast frequencies) is influenced by obstacles between the
transmitter and the receiver. The main problem created by wind turbines is caused
by the moving blades which can result in signal variations due to deflection. This
effect was more of a problem with first generation wind turbines which had metal
blades. The blades of modern wind turbines are made exclusively of synthetic
materials which have a minimal impact on the transmission of electromagnetic
radiation.

3.9.5 Myth: Wind turbines affect farming and livestock.

Fact: There is no indication that wind farms have a negative impact on farming or
livestock. Given that almost 99% of the land on which a wind farm is built is available

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for other uses, it is clear that farming can continue after the wind farm has been built.
The usual sites for wind farms are in mountainous areas with low vegetation due
exactly to the high wind speeds which favor wind energy development. In these
areas, the land is used mainly as pasture for sheep and goats, which can continue
unhindered after the wind farm has been built. In fact, in some wind farms, it has
been observed that wind turbines attract sheep and goats in hot weather because
they enjoy the shade provided by the towers!

3.9.6 Myth: Wind farms won't help climate change.

Fact: Wind power is a clean, renewable source of energy which produces no

greenhouse gas emissions or waste products. Power stations are the largest
contributor to carbon emissions. We need to switch to forms of energy that do not
produce CO2. Just one modern wind turbine will save over 4,000 tonnes of CO2
emissions annually.

3.9.7 Myth: Wind farms are dangerous to humans.

Fact: Wind energy is a benign technology with no associated emissions, harmful

pollutants or waste products. In over 25 years and with more than 68,000 turbines
installed around the world, no member of the public has ever been harmed by wind
turbines. In response to recent unscientific accusations that wind turbines emit
infrasound and cause associated health problems, Dr Geoff Leventhall, Consultant in
Noise Vibration and Acoustics and author of the Defra Report on Low Frequency
Noise and its Effects 16, says: "I can state quite categorically that there is no
significant infrasound from current designs of wind turbines. To say that there is an
infrasound problem is one of the hares which objectors to wind farms like to run.
There will not be any effects from infrasound from the turbines."

3.9.8 Myth: Building a wind farm takes more energy than it ever makes.

Fact: A wind turbine produces enough clean electricity in six months to offset all of
the greenhouse gas emissions emitted in its manufacture – and it will produce clean
electricity for another 20-25 years. This compares favourably with coal or nuclear
power stations, which take about six months. A modern wind turbine is designed to
operate for more than 20 years and at the end of its working life, the area can be
restored at low financial and environmental costs.

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3.9.9 Myth: Wind farms are inefficient; they are only operational 30% of the time.

Fact: A modern wind turbine produces electricity 70-85% of the time, but it generates
different outputs dependent on wind speed. Over the course of a year, it will generate
about 30% of the theoretical maximum output. This is known as its load factor. The
load factor of conventional power stations is on average 50%. A modern wind turbine
will generate enough to meet the electricity demands of more than a thousand homes
over the course of a year.

3.9.10 Myth: Wind energy needs back-up to work.

Fact: All forms of power generation require back up and no energy technology can
be relied upon 100%. Variations in the output from wind farms are barely noticeable
over and above the normal fluctuation in supply and demand, seen when the nation's
workforce goes home, or if lightning brings down a high-voltage transmission line.
Therefore, at present there is no need for additional back-up because of wind energy.

3.9.11 Myth: Wind power is expensive.

Fact: The cost of generating electricity from wind has fallen dramatically over the
past few years. Between 1990 and 2002, world wind energy capacity doubled every
three years and with every doubling prices fell by 15%. Wind energy is competitive
with new coal and new nuclear capacity, even before any environmental costs of
fossil fuel and nuclear generation are taken into account. As gas prices increase and
wind power costs fall - both of which are very likely - wind becomes even more
competitive, so much so that sometime after 2010 wind should challenge gas as the
lowest cost power source. Furthermore, the wind is a free and widely available fuel
source, therefore once the wind farm is in place, there is no fuel or waste related
costs.

3.9.12 Myth: We should invest in other renewable energy technologies and energy
efficiency instead of wind power.

Fact: Wind energy's role in combating climate change is not a matter of either-or. We
will need a mix of new and existing renewable energy technologies and energy
efficiency measures, and as quickly as possible. Wind energy is the most cost
effective renewable energy source available to generate clean electricity and help
combat climate change right now. Furthermore, developing a strong wind industry will
facilitate other renewable technologies which have not reached commercialisation

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yet, accumulating valuable experience in dealing with issues such as grid connection,
supply chain and finance.

3.9.13 Myth: Wind farms should all be put out at sea.

Fact: At present, onshore wind is more economical than development offshore.

However, more offshore wind farms are now under construction in other countries,
offshore wind farms take longer to develop, as the sea is a more hostile environment.
To expect offshore to be the only form of wind generation allowed would therefore be
to condemn us to missing our renewable energy targets and commitment to tackle
climate change.

3.9.14 Myth: Wind farms are ugly and unpopular.

Fact: Beauty is in the eye of the beholder, and whether you think a wind turbine is
attractive or not will always be your personal opinion. However, studies regularly
show that most people find turbines an interesting feature of the landscape. On
average 80% of the public support wind energy, less than 10% are against it, the
remainder are undecided. Surveys conducted near existing wind farms have
consistently found that most people are in favour of wind energy.

3.10 Wind power In India

It is important to put in context wind industry in India where Indian company is very
active only then can follow appreciation of divergence of wind industry in USA. Here
researcher is trying to bring to light business environment, competition, and policy
measures in which Indian company is presently operating. This would help putting in
perspective sea change that it would need to undergo in its endeavors to be able to
successfully enter and grow in US wind industry.

The research endeavors to dive deep in to the wind industry in USA for formulation
of market entry and growth strategies for Indian new entrant company.

In the early 1980‘s, the Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES)

came into existence with the aim to reduce the dependence of primary energy
sources like coal, oil etc. in view of the Country‘s energy security. The DNES became
Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in the year 1992 and now from
2006, the Ministry was renamed as Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE).

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The growth of Renewable Energy in India is enormous and Wind Energy proves to
be the most effective solution to the problem of depleting fossil fuels, importing of
coal, greenhouse gas emission, environmental pollution etc. Wind energy as a
renewable, non-polluting and affordable source directly avoids dependency of fuel
and transport, can lead to green and clean electricity.

The country's energy mix now boasts a share of 14-15% of renewable energy in
terms of installed capacity, contributing about 5% to the electricity generation mix.
Wind power accounts for 70% of this renewable installed capacity.

3.10.1 Wind Power Potential in India

C-WET, one of pioneering Wind Research organization in the country is leading in all
wind resource studies and has launched its Wind Resource map. The Wind Potential
in India was first estimated by Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET) at 50m
hub-height i.e. 49 GW but according to the new survey at 80m hub height, the
potential grows as much as 102 GW. This figure was adopted by the government as
the official estimate. However, Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory (LBNL) has
stated the potential is over 300 to 400 GW.

The states with highest wind power concentration are Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

The potential is far from exhausted. The Centre for Wind Energy Technology has re-
assessed that with the current level of technology, the 'on-shore' potential for
utilization of wind energy for electricity generation is of the order of 102000 MW at 80
meters hub-height, up from the earlier estimate of 49,000 MW.

The unexploited resource availability has the potential to sustain the growth of wind
energy sector in India in the years to come. The potential is far from exhausted. It is
estimated that with the current level of technology, the ‗on-shore‘ potential for
utilization of wind energy for electricity generation is of the order of 65,000 MW. India
also is blessed with 7517km of coastline and its territorial waters extend up to 12
nautical miles into the sea. The unexploited resource availability has the potential to
sustain the growth of wind energy sector in India in the years to come. Potential
areas can be identified on Indian map using Wind Power Density map.

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 Figure 3.44 Wind Map of India

3.10.2 Policy mechanism in Indian Wind Industry

CERC Tariff orders for procurement of power from Wind Energy Generators:

Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) in its order dated 16/09/2009

introduced its regulations and tariff orders for procuring wind power into the grid; for
control period from 16/09/2009 to 31/03/2012. The tariff structure consisting of fixed
cost components: Return on Equity, Interest on loan Capital, Depreciation, Interest
on Working Capital and Operation & Maintenance Expenses

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3.10.2.1 Accelerated Depreciation

The main incentive for wind power projects in the past was accelerated depreciation.
This tax benefit allows projects to deduct up to 80% of value of wind power
equipment during first year of project operation. Investors are given tax benefits up to
10 years. Wind Power producers receiving accelerated depreciation benefits must
register with and provide generation data to Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency (IREDA) and are not eligible to receive more recent Generation Based
incentives.

3.10.2.2. Indirect Tax Benefits

This includes concessions on excise duty and reduction in customs duty for wind
power equipment. Wind powered electricity generators and water pumping wind
mills, aero-generators and battery chargers are except from excise duties. Indirect
tax benefits for manufacturers of specific energy parts vary from 5-25% depending
upon the component.

3.10.2.3 Central-level Generation-based Incentives

Offered by the central government since June 2008 and administered by IREDA, the
Generation Based Incentive (GBI) for wind is available for independent power
producers with a minimum installed capacity of 5 MW for projects commissioned on
or before 31/03/2012. As of December 2009, the GBI is set at INR 0.50/kWh (USD
0.01/kWh) of grid- connected electricity for a minimum of 4 years and a maximum of
10 years, up to a maximum of INR 6.2 million (USD 140,000) per MW. Wind power
producers receiving a GBI must register with and provide generation data to IREDA.
The GBI is offered in addition to State Electricity regulatory Commission (SERC)
state preferential renewable energy tariffs. However, IPPs using GBIs cannot also
take advantage of accelerated depreciation benefits. The GBI program will be
reviewed at the end of the Eleventh Plan and revised as deemed appropriate. As of
December 2011, 58 projects had been registered under this scheme with over 288.8
MW commissioned.

3.10.2.4 Renewable Purchase Obligations

Several states have implemented renewable purchase Obligation (RPO) s with a

requirement that renewable energy supplies between 1% and 15% of total electricity.
The impact of the RPOs on wind development may depend on the penalties and

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enforcement of the targets as well as an effective REC market to promote
development of areas of the country with the most abundant wind resources. More
details are available under state initiatives and policies towards Wind Power
development.

3.10.2.5 State Governments' Policies

Several states have come up with Renewable energy policy. Such Policies favour
development of state in wind energy power production- opening up new strides
in Wind Energy Business Opportunities and new career options. The states have not
framed out separate Wind Energy Policy but the RPO Obligations and other
criterions for Wind Power Production have been emphasized in several State
Renewable Energy Policies.

3.10.3 Indian Wind Industry Status

As the second largest wind power market in Asia, India experienced another
dramatic spurt of growth in 2011, installing 3,300 MW of wind power, making it the
world‘s third largest market by annual installation and the fifth largest in terms of
cumulative capacity. This followed the achievement of 1,000 MW in 2005 and 2,000
MW in 2010 respectively. The main reasons behind this market growth have been a
supportive regulatory framework that includes a feed in tariff mechanism at a state
level, an accelerated depreciation scheme and the recent implementation of the
Generation Based Incentive and Renewable Energy Certificate schemes.

India produced another record in 2011, making it the world‘s third largest wind power
market for newly installed capacity for the second year in a row. The mid-term
appraisal in the country‘s 11th five year economic plan aims to add 11.8 GW of
renewable energy generating capacity during the plan period (2007-2012), of which 9
GW would come from wind. According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE), India had already connected 8.8 GW of new wind power capacity three
months before the end of the program and is likely to exceed this target.

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 Figure 3.45 Installed Capacities in India 1995-2011

Indian wind power market has a lot in common with its neighbor China. Growth is
primarily driven by favorable government policies and strong economic growth
escalating the demand got new power generation. The wind industry was born in
India nearly two decades ago but is steadily moving away from small, captive units
set up by small scale enterprises to large scale wind farms financed by IPPs.

Historically, wind energy investment was driven by the Accelerated Depreciation (AD)
scheme which enabled large profit-making companies and captive users to provide
for asset depreciation of up to 80% of the project cost. This situation, however, has
changed recently. In order to increase the investor base for wind energy projects, the
MNRE announced at the end of 2009 a scheme for a Generation Based Incentive
(GBI) of INR 0.5 per kWh ($0.01/kWh) of electricity fed into the grid from wind power
projects, subject to a maximum of INR 6.2 million per MW of installed capacity. The
policy applies to a maximum capacity of 4,000 MW installed and commissioned
before 31st March 2012, the end of the 11th Plan period. This scheme has run in
parallel with accelerated depreciation but on a mutually exclusive basis.

The MNRE continues to promote renewables development through a 10 year tax

holiday on income generated from wind power projects as well as loans for installing
turbines from the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency and other financial
institutions, while technical support, including wind resource assessment, is provided
by the Centre for Wind Energy Technology in Chennai. In addition, the ―mandatory
market share‖ policy under the Electricity Act 2003 requires licensed operators of the

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distribution grid in all states to buy at least 10% of their electricity generated from
wind each year and has given investors more confidence to invest in the market.

In terms of feed-in tariffs, among the 25 State Electricity Regulatory Commissions, 17

have specified state-wide Renewable Purchase Obligations and 18 have issued FITs
for wind. At the end of 2011, the state of Maharashtra decided to put in place India‘s
first FIT scheme based on the wind power density, starting in the January 2012. In
essence, the policy will encourage projects in areas with a low wind power density by
paying higher tariffs than in high wind power density areas.

To further encourage investment in renewable energy projects, and address the

mismatch between the availability of renewable energy sources and the requirement
on power suppliers to meet their renewable purchase obligations, the Central
Electricity Regulatory Commission also launched the Renewable Energy Certificate
mechanism in 2010. The value of a certificate is equivalent to 1 MW of electricity fed
into the grid from a renewable source. This system has run successfully in its first
year, bringing an additional option for developers and making wind project finance
easier.

In short, the market prospects on the demand side in India are bright. The MNRE
forecasts that renewable capacity will reach 73 GW by 2022, of which 38.5 GW will
come from wind. This would correspond to an estimated renewable share in
electricity generation of 7.3% in 2022, compared to 4% in 2010. In fact, the National
Action Plan on Climate Change released in June 2008 suggests more ambitious
targets, with a renewable share of 10% by 2015 and 15% by 2020. To meet such a
target, wind would need to play a major role, mainly because other renewables, such
as small hydro, biomass and cogeneration, are not at the same level of development.

Despite a well-designed policy framework and a very strong local manufacturing

supply chain, India still faces the challenges of inadequate grid infrastructure and a
shortage of land. In this year‘s forecast, the demand for wind capacity in India is
expected to grow to a level of 3,500 MW per year in 2012 and 5,500 MW in 2016,
which will increase India‘s cumulative capacity to 39,266 MW at the end of the
forecast period.

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3.10.4 Feed in tariff in Indian wind industry

Wind energy producers can either sell their power output at a preferential tariff fixed
by the government or sell the electricity and its environmental benefits separately, for
which they will receive green certificates.

In 2009, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy announced a scheme for a
Generation Based Incentive of INR 0.5/kWh ($ 0.01/kWh) of electricity fed into the
grid from wind power projects, subject to a maximum of INR 6.2 million per MW of
installed capacity. This is in addition to any tariff fixed by India‘s State Electricity
Regulatory Commissions. This policy applies to a maximum capacity of 4,000 MW
installed and commissioned before 31 March 2012.

To further encourage investment in renewable energy projects, and address the

mismatch between the availability of renewable energy sources and the requirement
on power suppliers to meet their renewable purchase obligations, the Central
Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) also launched the Renewable Energy
Certificate (REC) mechanism in 2010. The value of a certificate is equivalent to 1
MW of electricity fed into the grid from a renewable source. Renewable generators
are eligible to apply for Registration to receive and deal in certificates if they fulfill the
following conditions:

a) They have obtained accreditation from the relevant State Agency

b) They do not have any Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) for the capacity related
to such generation to sell electricity at a preferential tariff determined by the
Appropriate Commission (existing projects with long-term PPAs in place will be able
to participate after they expire), and

c) The electricity generated is sold either

 to the distribution licensee of the area in which the eligible entity is located, at a
price not exceeding the pooled cost of power purchase of such distribution
licensee, or
 To any other licensee or to an open access consumer at a mutually agreed price,
or through the power exchange at a market determined price.

Out of India‘s 25 State Electricity Regulatory Commissions 17 have specified state-

wide Renewable Purchase Obligations and 18 have issued FITs for wind power. At

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the end of 2011 it was agreed that the state of Maharashtra would introduce India‘s
first FIT scheme for wind power, commencing on the 1 January 2012. A key driver for
wind power development in India has been the option to claim accelerated
depreciation for up to 80% of the project cost in the first year of operation as well as
the income tax on all earnings in the project for each year over the next 10 years.
The Director of Policy at India‘s Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has
indicated that this accelerated depreciation will end in April 2012. However, there is
also a chance that a new replacement policy framework may be introduced.

3.10.5 Wind Turbine Manufacturers in India

In the wind energy sector, turbine manufacturers represent the predominant OEM
segment. OEMs usually manufacture some of the critical components such as the
nacelle in-house, and blades and towers are produced either by the OEM or
fabricated to the OEM‘s specifications by a supplier. While opportunities do exist for
new OEMs in India with the projected continuous growth in the wind industry, it
should be noted that this is an area that faces intense competition from large global
companies, and entering the OEM domain will require significant capital and
marketing investments.

On the supply side, with 18 turbine vendors active in the market, India has
established itself as one of Asia‘s main turbine manufacturing bases. With the recent
establishment of leading global turbine vendors such as Gamesa, Vestas, GE and
Siemens in the market, total turbine production capacity in India have reached more
than 10 GW. To further develop indigenous manufacturing capacity and build a
healthy local industry, the MNRE announced in September 2011 a new policy that
manufacturers who have installed more than 15 MW of a specific turbine in India will
be required to establish a manufacturing base in the country. The policy also sets
stricter requirements for wind turbines, including an online remote monitoring system.

India also hosts one of the world‘s largest turbines manufacturing bases, with
domestic turbine manufacturer Suzlon Energy the market leader, with a 37% share of
supply, followed by Enercon-India, Gamesa and Vestas. At the end of 2011, Tamil
Nadu was the largest wind power state in India, followed by Gujarat and
Maharashtra.

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 Figure 3.46 Manufacturers Market Shares in India 2011

To encourage indigenous manufacturing of wind turbines and to facilitate transfer of

new technology, MNRE is expected to introduce local content requirements for wind
turbines.

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