Politics must be understood in a more realistic on economics and management at the University
fashion of Florence. Study of power and elitists groups who 1889- after the death of his parents, Pareto controlled the decision-making process in the changed his lifestyle, quitting his job and society marrying a Russian, Alessandrina Bakunina. Manner in which power is obtained and maintained 1893- he succeeded Léon Walras to the chair of Interaction between the ruling group and the Political Economy at the University of masses Lausanne in Switzerland where he remained for Elitism the rest of his life. belief that individuals who form an elite (a select 1906- he made the famous observation that group of people with an intrinsic quality, twenty percent of the population owned eighty high intellect, wealth, special skills, or percent of the property in Italy, later generalised experience) are more likely to be constructive to by Joseph M. Juran into the Pareto principle (also society as a whole, and therefore deserve termed the 80–20 rule). influence or authority greater than that of 1916- Believing that there were problems that others. economics could not solve, Trattato di sociologia describe a situation in which power is generale (Mind and Society), concentrated in the hands of a limited number of Died: August 19, 1923, Céligny, Switzerland people sociological or political science analysis of elite WORK: The Mind and Society influence in society. Presents the first sociological cycle theory, centered on the concept of an elite social class VILFREDO PARETO Wilfried Fritz Pareto Sections na ng “The Mind and Society” na Born: 15 July 1848, Paris, France binigyang focus sa book Italian engineer, sociologist, economist, political o 2027-every branch of human activity scientist, and philosopher each individual is given an index which His father, Raffaele Pareto (1812–1882), was an stands as a sign of his capacity Italian civil engineer and Ligurian marquis who o 2028- In the index of thieves if one says had left Italy much like Giuseppe Mazzini and "So-and-so does not steal, not because other Italian nationalists. he couldn't, but because he is a His mother, Marie Metenier, was a French gentleman," we reply: "Very well, we woman. Enthusiastic about the 1848 German admire him for his self-control, but his revolution, his parents named him Fritz Wilfried, grade as a thief is zero." which became Vilfredo Federico upon his family's o 2031-make a class of the people highest move back to Italy in 1858. in their branch of activity and call them Childhood- Pareto lived in a middle-class “elites” environment, receiving a high standard of o 2031-divide it into two: Governing Elite education, attending the newly created Istituto (w/ considerable part in the government) Tecnico Leardi. and non-governing elite 1869- earned a doctor's degree in engineering o 2033- class champions: ex. Chess player from what is now the Polytechnic University of do not open political influence for him Turin (then the Technical School for Engineers). o 2034- Set two strata for the Years after graduation- he worked as a civil population:non-elite and elite(governing engineer and not) o 2035- labels: ministers,lawyer, senators deputies etc. o 2041- intermix of population happen. o "residues" o 2043- pay attention on: 1.) proportions between total no. of group to members - they are basic human motives who do not possess the qualities requisite; 2.) velocity of circulation -the two main residues are: the o 2044- demand and supply for social instinct of combinations elements (creativity/inventiveness) and o 2053- Aristocracies do not last- History is group persistence a graveyard of aristocracies. (conservative/security needs) o 2054-Decay not in numbers only but in o "derivatives" quality. ideologies such as Christianity, o 2055- governing class crashes to ruin and democracy, and socialism often sweeps the whole nation. changing elements in human o 2056- governing elite is always in slow beliefs and continuous transformation Following the Machiavellian formula, Pareto o 2057- Revolutions came through states that the elites are able to manipulate and accumulations: higher strata- no longer control the masses by resorting to two methods: possessed residues; lower strata- which corresponds to Machiavelli’s famous anti- possessed residues suitable thesis between the ‘Lions” and the “Foxes”. The concept of ‘Circulation of elite’ can be o “Foxes” explained in at least two ways elites abundantly endowed with o the process in which one elite replaces residues of the first class the other (Residues of combinations) o the movement of people from non-elite which includes the propensities groups to elite groups and vice-versa. in social groups to adopt flexibly SOCIETY IS HETEROGENOUS- Pareto believed to environmental or situational that individuals are born with different abilities exigencies. and acquire different skills and aptitudes. capable of innovation and In every society there are classes, therefore each experiment, prefer materialistic society is heterogeneous. Such a heterogeneity to idealistic goals, but lack takes place on account of mental, moral, physical fidelity to principles and use and cultural reasons but helps in maintaining strategies that vary from social balance and organization. emotional appeal to The most capable in any grouping are the elite. unadulterated fraud. The term elite denote simply, “a class of the o “Lions” people who have the highest indices in their conservative elites in whom the branch of activity.” Examples are the successful second class of residues businessmen, artists, successful writers, (Persistence of aggregates) professors etc. predominates. They have faith Pareto further divided the elite class into two and ideology; they display group categories: loyalty and class solidarity; they o A governing elite- with considerable part gain and retain power by the use in gov. of force. o A non-governing elite-rest of individuals According to Pareto the work and the role of the According to him, every society has elite groups elites are influenced by two types of factors of different kinds. These elites, being the best or which are always operative in every society. One excellent members of their classes are always in type which is constant is called residues, the a minority. But they are vital because it is they other type is derivations. who determine the development or progress of Deputies of Italy. Taught occasionally every society. at Palermo and Rome
1896- Published: The Ruling class and became
According to Pareto, there can be also a chair of constitutional law at the University of circulation of elites in the sense of being a Turin. He hold this position until 1924, when he process by which individuals circulate between settled permanently in Rome to occupy the chair the elite and the non-elite. This process of of public law at the University of Rome. replacement takes place in two ways o gradual process of infiltration 1909- elected to the Chamber of Deputies of o violent revolution. Italy, in which he served until 1919. Pareto explains all this in terms of changes in the 1919-Mosca was nominated life senator of psychological characteristics of the members of the Kingdom of Italy. He served actively in this the elite on the one hand, and those of the lower capacity until 1926. strata, on the other. Thus when the elite no Died: 8 November 1941 (aged 83) longer possesses the residues necessary for Rome, Italy keeping it in power and at the same time at the lower strata of society, the necessary residues WORK: The Ruling Class are sufficiently manifest then the declining elite Asserted that contrary to theories of majority recruits new elements from the lower strata of rules: societies are necessarily governed by society and thereby restores its vitality. Or it may minorities: by military, priestly, or hereditary so happen that an elite decaying in the necessary oligarchies or by aristocracies of wealth or of residues is violently overthrown by the lower merit. classes strong in the requisite residues necessary Mosca says that in any type of society at any for keeping them in power. point of history, there are two class of people Pareto: History is the graveyard of Aristocracy o a class that rule o history is accentuated with the elite class o a class that is ruled. since generation, who emerge, Class that rule, contains a few number of people dominate, fall into decadency and is and possess all political power and privileges replaced by non-decadent elites in whereas the latter consist of large number of society. Pareto has given a number of people and is subjected to rule of former and reasons for mortality of aristocracy provides essential instrumental for political which are un-graved in history for organization (Mosca 1939, p.50). generation and generation. For Mosca, two political facts must be considered 1. Aristocrats (mainly King and Emperor) were in order to analyze the relationship between engaged in historical wars which lead to ruling class and ruled class. degeneration of aristocracy. o That there is always one person who is 2. The inheritors of aristocracy are not the leader of political organization necessarily possessed with some inherent traits among the ruling class. This individual is of that of their forefathers. They fall into not necessarily the person who holds the decadence after few hours of glory. highest political position according to law. Even he is not necessarily known by GAETANO MOSCA everyone. This person, for example can Born: 1 April 1858, Palermo, Italy be prime minister of king or president or Italian jurist and political theorist the person makes the president to be 1881- Mosca earned a degree in law from elected. Under certain conditions, this the University of Palermo. supreme power can be in hand of more than one person. 1887- he moved to Rome and took a position as o That regardless of the type of the editor of proceedings of the Chamber of political organization, pressures of masses to ruling class and its policies. or at least upon the beliefs and sentiments of the Therefore, ruling class, or the head of the particular portion of that group which hold state, must be sensitive about thought political preeminence "(Mosca 1939, p.71,72). and feelings of the masses to get their In fact ruling class like Pareto's elite strata consist support, otherwise he cannot rule. For of two strata: (a) the highest stratum; and (b) this reason, at least a large group from second stratum. The HIGHEST STRATUM IS THE the masses is created to support the CORE OF THE RULING CLASS BUT IT COULD NOT ruling class and the system (Mosca 1939, SUFFICIENTLY LEAD AND DIRECT THE SOCIETY pp.50-53). UNLESS THE SECOND STRATUM HELPS. Second LOGIC OF RULING CLASS: the ability to be stratum is the larger than the higher stratum in organized easily and effectively. Minority is number and has all the capacities of leadership in always organized; therefore, it has ability to the country. Even autocratic systems do have it. overcome the majority. Not only political but also any type of social organization needs the second stratum in order FORMATION OF THE RULING CLASSES HAS A to be possible (Mosca 1939, p.404,430). CLOSE RELATION WITH THE LEVEL OF The MEMBERS OF THE RULING CLASS SHOULD BE CIVILIZATION AND THE TYPE OF SOCIETY. Ruling RECRUITED ALMOST ENTIRELY FROM THE class under every condition try to DOMINANT, MAJORITY GROUP IN THE SOCIETY. reproduce itself particularly by domination on If the society has a number of minorities and if political forces like power, wealth and the ruling this rule is not followed due to weaknesses of class tends to be come hereditary. In fact, dominant group, descents of ruling class members have a high life political system can meet serious political crisis. chances to have the traits necessary to be a The same thing occurs when there are ruling class member (Mosca 1939, pp. 60-61). In considerable differences between in the culture, general, prior to democracy, membership of and in customs of the ruling class and subject ruling class was not only de facto but also de classes (Mosca 1939, p.105,106-7). jure. In democracy, de jure transfer of political WEAKNESSES OF DOMINANT GROUP IN SOCIETY possession to descendants of ruling class AND ISOLATION OF LOWER CLASSES FROM THE members impossible and not legitimized but it is RULING CLASSES CAN LEAD TO POLITICAL now de facto. UPHEAVAL IN THE COUNTRY and as a result of Historically, RULING CLASS TRY TO JUSTIFY ITS this upheaval subject classes' representatives can EXISTENCE AND POLICIES BY USING SOME have places in the ruling class. Because when UNIVERSAL MORAL PRINCIPLES, SUPERIORITY isolation takes place, another ruling class ETC., lately, scientific theory and knowledge like emerges among the subject classes that often Social Darwinism, division of labor is also hostile to the old ruling class (Mosca 1939, pp. employed for the same purposes. Mosca 107¬ 8).Furthermore, due to reciprocal isolation particularly rejects these two theses to use of classes, the character of upper classes change, in political purposes. To Mosca, at a certain level they become weak in bold and aggressiveness of civilization, ruling classes do not justify their and richer in "soft" remissive individuals. On the power exclusively by de facto possession of it, same track, when there is fragmentation in the but try to find a moral and legal basis for it. This society, new groups form and each one of them legal and moral basis or principles on which the makes up of its own leaders and followers. power of the political class rests is called Besides these revolutions are another source of "political formula" by Mosca. The formula has a replacement of ruling class (Mosca 1939, unique structure in all societies. "The political p.163,199). formula must be based on the special beliefs and When Mosca compares the political systems, he the strongest sentiments of the current social says that communist and socialist societies would group beyond any doubt managed by officials and he sees these Regimes as Utopia. On democracy, he says, although gradual increase of universal published in 1911; its title in English is suffrage, actual power has remained partly in Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the wealthiest and the middle classes. At the same Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern time, for Mosca, middle class is necessary for Democracy. In it, he presented his "Iron law democracy, and when middle class declines, of oligarchy" politic regimes in democratic countries turns to a plutocratic dictatorship, or bureaucratic 1912-He attended the First International dictatorship. (Mosca 1939, p.391). Eugenics Congress, where he delivered a Ruling class has a responsive character to social papaer entitled "Eugenics in Party change in the society and there is a close relation Organization". between level of civilization and character of ruling classes. According to these two Michels was considered a brilliant pupil of complementary propositions, it can be said that Max Weber, who began publishing his ruling class is subject of social change rather than writings in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft actor of it. For example, change in division of und Sozialpolitik in 1906 and appointed him labor from lower to higher and change in political as co-editor in 1913, but they disagreed over force from military to wealth have changed the Michels' opposition to World War I. type of state from federal to bureaucratic state (Mosca 1939, p. 81, 83 ). There it seems that 1928-He then became professor of Mosca admits a linear social change in history, as economics at the University of Basel, opposite to Pareto. Switzerland, a post he held until 1928. As seen, Mosca's theory is basically based on organized minorities' superiority over 1924- he joined the Fascist Party, led by unorganized majority. This organized minority Benito Mussolini, former director of the consists of ruling class, but for Mosca it is not Italian Socialist Party's newspaper "Avanti!". necessarily mean that always interest of ruling class and subject classes are different. To him ,in 1928-he became professor of economics and contrast they coincide many times. He saw the the history of doctrines at the University of future of socialist system by saying that it will be Perugia and occasionally lectured in Rome governed by officials. Died: May 3, 1936, Rome, Italy
ROBERT MICHELS WORK: POLITICAL PARTIES
Born: 9 January 1876, Cologne, Germany Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the born to a wealthy German family Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy sociologist This work analyses the power structures of 1897-1898- studied in England, Paris (at the organizations such as political parties and trade Sorbonne), and at universities in Munich, unions. Michels's main argument is that all Leipzig, Halle, and Turin. organizations, even those in theory most became a Socialist while teaching at the egalitarian and most committed to democracy – University of Marburg and became active in like socialist political parties – are in fact the Social Democratic Party of Germany for oligarchical, and dominated by a small group of whom he was an unsuccessful candidate in leadership. the 1903 German federal election. In Italy, he Set forth his ideas on the inevitable development associated with Italian revolutionary of oligarchies, even in organizations committed syndicalism, Italian Socialist Party (PSI) to democratic ideals, because of such 1907- left both Social Democratic :Party of organizational needs as rapid decision-making Germany and Italian Socialist Party. and full-time activity. He achieved international recognition for his Iron law of oligarchy historical and sociological study, which was o It asserts that rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable as an "iron law" Michels stated that the official goal of within any democratic organization as representative democracy of eliminating elite part of the "tactical and technical rule was impossible, that representative necessities" of organization. democracy is a façade legitimizing the rule of a particular elite, and that elite rule, which he Michels's theory states that all complex refers to as oligarchy, is inevitable. Later Michels organizations, regardless of how democratic they migrated to Italy and joined Benito Mussolini's are eventually develop into oligarchies. Michels Fascist Party, as he believed this was the next observed that no sufficiently large and complex legitimate step of modern societies. The thesis organization can function purely as a direct became popular once more in post-war America democracy, power within an organization will with the publication of Union Democracy: The always get delegated to individuals within that Internal Politics of the International group, elected or otherwise. Typographical Union (1956) and during the red scare brought about by McCarthyism. Using anecdotes from political parties and trade unions struggling to operate democratically to build his argument in 1911, Michels addressed the application of this law to representative democracy, and stated: "WHO SAYS ORGANIZATION, SAYS OLIGARCHY." He went on to state that "Historical evolution mocks all the prophylactic measures that have been adopted for the prevention of oligarchy."
According to Michels ALL ORGANIZATIONS
EVENTUALLY COME TO BE RUN BY A "LEADERSHIP CLASS", who often function as paid administrators, executives, spokespersons or political strategists for the organization. Far from being "servants of the masses", Michels argues this "leadership class," rather than the organization's membership, will inevitably grow to dominate the organization's power structures. By controlling who has access to information, those in power can centralize their power successfully, often with little accountability, due to the apathy, indifference and non-participation most rank and file members have in relation to their organization's decision-making processes. Michels argues that democratic attempts to hold leadership positions accountable are prone to fail, since with power comes the ability to reward loyalty, the ability to control information about the organization, and the ability to control what procedures the organization follows when making decisions. All of these mechanisms can be used to strongly influence the outcome of any decisions made 'democratically' by members.