INTRODUCTION

THE MAIN CONCEPTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

Foreign policy is the relationships which central governments have with

other countries, their central governments, and international organizations, both
intergovernmental and non-governmental. The conduct of foreign policy is
primarily directed at influencing the behavior of other central governments. Since
all central governments are, however, impacted by their domestic societies over
which they rule, some effort is exerted at influencing public opinion in foreign
counties and maintaining contacts with powerful non-governmental groups in
those other countries. Central governments are well advised to maintain contact
with opposition groups, especially political parties, which might some day gain
control of that county’s central government.
Conversely, foreign governments maintain relations not only with the central
government but also with non-governmental, private organizations. Where
possible they also seek to influence the media and public opinion. With these
caveats made, foreign policy is still primarily a central government to central
government relationship.
Foreign policy can be either bilateral or multilateral. Bilateral, as the word
implies, is the relationship between two countries. Multilateral relationships
involve a group of countries. International organizations like the United Nations
or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) are established through
multilateral agreements (treaties) between the member states.
The goals and objectives of a country’s foreign policy are as varied as are
the motives of human beings.  They can, however, be arranged in an order of
priorities.  The following foreign policy objectives may be identified for the
United States and for all other foreign countries:

1. Protecting the territorial integrity of the home country ( also includes

protecting one's embassies and safeguarding one's military forces stationed
in or visiting other countries);  
2. Protecting the territorial integrity of allies;
3. Maintaining the international Balance of Power;
4. Fostering international security through the United Nations;
5. Protecting access to strategic resources;
6. Maintaining international legal principles, such as freedom of the High
Seas;
7. Furthering the interests of business;
8. Safeguarding nationals in foreign countries;
9. Fostering modernization and economic development throughout the world;
10.Protecting human rights, democracy, and other values.
   
 These foreign policy objectives are often divided into high politics and low
politics.
High Politics refers to the political and military relationships between
states. Items 1 through 6 in the list above are components of high politics.
Low Politics refers to the economic, social, and cultural relationships
between states. Items 7 through 10 belong to what is called low politics.
Historically, high politics has had preference over low politics in the conduct of
countries' foreign policies.
    One should also differentiate strategic goals from tactical goals.
Tactical objectives are means toward a larger, strategic goal. Strategic goals
refer to the ultimate ends of a country's foreign policy. There are certain core
values which any strategy must protect. These core values are often referred to as
maintaining one's  national security and defending one's national interests.

Tools of State Power for the Conduct of Foreign Policy:

Diplomacy Foreign Aid Propaganda

Foreign Trade Cultural Exchange Programs Subversion

Intelligence Operations Overt and Covert Operations

Terrorism Trade Wars Trade Embargo

Seizure of Assets Currency Manipulations

Denial of Raw Materials Boycott Blockade

Breaking Diplomatic Relations Gunboat Diplomacy

Military Maneuvers Quarantine War

Language Focus
Task 1. Match the synonyms:
1. exert a) obtain , secure
2. advise b) advance , contribute , implement ,
promote
3. gain c) inform
4. foster d) influence
5. further e) protect , guard , defend
6. safeguard f) encourage
7. nationals g) secret
8. covert h) capture , usurpation
9. seizure i) overthrow
 10.subversion j) compatriot , fellow countryman
Task 2. Match the terms with their definitions:
1. gunboat a) when there is fighting between two or more
diplomacy countries or between opposing groups within a
country, involving large numbers of soldiers
and weapons
2. propaganda b) to refuse to buy something, use something, or
take part in something as a way of protesting
3. diplomacy c) the surrounding of an area by soldiers or ships
to stop people or supplies leaving or entering
4. embargo d) the practice of threatening to use force against
another country to make them agree to your
demands
5. subversion e) the act of suddenly taking control of
something, especially by force
6. intelligence f) the use of violence such as bombing, shooting,
or kidnapping to obtain political demands such
as making a government do something
7. blockade g) an official order to stop trade with another
country
8. seizure h) information which is false or which emphasizes
just one part of a situation, used by a
government or political group to make people
agree with them
9. war i) secret activities that are intended to damage or
destroy the power or influence of a government
or established system
10.terrorism j) information about the secret activities of
foreign governments, the military plans of an
enemy etc
11.boycott k) the job or activity of managing the
relationships between countries

Task 3. Match the words in Column A with the words in Column B to make
up possible word combinations:
A B
1. international a) wheat exports
2. to impose a b) aid
3. an embargo on c) subversion
4. intelligence d) blockade
5. to engage in e) political propaganda
6. the spreading of f) diplomacy
7. humanitarian g) national
8. British h) operations
Task 4. Complete the sentences with the words from the box:
subversion, gunboat diplomacy, terrorism, boycott, diplomacy,
blockade, propaganda, intelligence

1. Garnering such deals requires the art of_____________ . 2. Reports from secret
___________ sources had indicated that there might be another strike against
Royalbion. 3. Fears of revolution and ____________ were widely held in 1880. 4.
Anyway, there was always the suspicion that they were exaggerated by Stalin's
___________ machine. 5. The government is doing everything possible to
combat__________ . 6. It also sounds like the kind of moral purpose with which
Palmerston infused his_____________ . 7. Tbilisi's airport was reopened, putting
an end to the transportation __________ of the city. 8. We _____________ all
products tested on animals.

Task 5. Translate into Russian

1. The justification for this secret diplomacy was that a loud voice would not have
produced better results. 2. According to our intelligence, further attacks were
planned. 3. Murray was jailed for subversion. 4. Its collection of Communist
propaganda is now being dismantled. 5. The generals and admirals said they had
always been against the blockade as being too weak and now they wanted
immediate action.

Task 6. Translate the following:

The conduct of foreign policy; влиятельные негосударственные группы; to gain
control of that county’s central government ; защищать территориальную
целостность страны; to maintain the international Balance of Power;
содействовать международной безопасности; access to strategic resources ;
международные правовые принципы; to further the interests of business ;
защита соотечественников; the ultimate ends; обеспечивать национальную
безопасность и защищать национальные интересы; military forces stationed in
other countries; явные и тайные операции; High Seas; двусторонний;
multilateral.

Task 7. Translate the following into English:

1. При проведении внешней политики прилагаются немалые усилия для того, чтобы
повлиять на общественное мнение.
2. Поддержание международного политического равновесия – главное условие
сохранения мира.
3. Позиция Швейцарии ставит под сомнение двусторонние соглашения,
достигнутые с Европейским Союзом.
4. Защита граждан (подданных), находящихся на территории иностранного
государства – задача обычной политики.
 5. В проведении внешней политике государственная власть прибегает к явным и
тайным операциям.
6. Иностранные правительства поддерживают связи с влиятельными
неправительственными организациями.
7. Поддержание (способствование) международной безопасности относится к
высокой политике.
8. Дипломатия «канонерок» - это внешнеполитический курс, опирающийся на
применение силы.

Task 8. Answer the following questions:

1. What does the term ‘foreign policy’ denote?
2. Why is it essential to influence public opinion in foreign countries?
3. What types of foreign policy, regarding the parties involved, can you
mention? Comment on them, please.
4. What is the difference between high politics and low politics?
5. What is the difference between technical objectives and strategic goals?
6. What examples of high politics goals can you give?
7. What examples of low politics goals can you give?
 PART I

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

 Define the terms:

Isolationism /neutrality /belligerent parties /non-alignment / expansionism

 Read the text and make a timeline of the diplomatic history of the USA:
The main trend regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy since the
American Revolution is the shift from isolationism before and after World War I,
to its growth as a world power and global hegemon during and since World War II
and the end of the Cold War in the 20th century. Since the 19th century, US
foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the
idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations.
The Formative Period. Foreign policy themes were expressed considerably
in George Washington's farewell address; these included among other things,
observing good faith and justice towards all nations and cultivating peace and
harmony with all, excluding both "inveterate antipathies against particular nations,
and passionate attachments for others", "steering clear of permanent alliances with
any portion of the foreign world", and advocating trade with all nations. These
policies became the basis of the Federalist Party in the 1790s. After the 1778
alliance with France, the U.S. did not sign another permanent treaty until the
North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. Over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or
stances have been variously expressed by Presidential 'doctrines', named for them.
Initially these were uncommon events, but since WWII, these have been made by
most presidents.
Emergence as a Great Power. Despite occasional entanglements with
European Powers such as the War of 1812 and the 1898 Spanish-American War,
U.S. foreign policy was marked by steady expansion of its foreign trade and scope
during the 19th century, and it maintained its policy of avoiding wars with and
between European powers. Concerning its domestic borders, the 1803 Louisiana
Purchase doubled the nation's geographical area; Spain ceded the territory of
Florida in 1819; annexation brought Texas in 1845; a war with Mexico in 1848
added California, Arizona and New Mexico. The U.S. bought Alaska from the
Russian Empire in 1867, and it annexed the Republic of Hawaii in 1898. Victory
over Spain in 1898 brought the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, as well as oversight
of Cuba. The short experiment in imperialism ended by 1908, as the U.S. turned
its attention to the Panama Canal and the stabilization of regions to its south,
including Mexico.
American foreign policy during the nineteenth century was always geared to
protect the sovereignty and national interests and was characterized by the
following tendencies:
a. Isolationism and neutrality toward Europe.
 b. Manifest Destiny toward the North American continent.
c. Monroe Doctrine toward the Americas.
d. Open Door Policy toward Asia.
World Wars. The 20th century was marked by two world wars in which the
United States, along with allied powers, defeated its enemies and increased its
international reputation. President Wilson's Fourteen Points, developed from his
idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and fighting militarism
so as to end wars. It became the basis of the German Armistice (really a surrender)
and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Treaty of Versailles, due to
European allies' punitive and territorial designs, showed insufficient conformity
with these points and the U.S. signed separate treaties with each of its adversaries;
due to Senate objections also, the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which
was established as a result of Wilson's initiative. In the 1920s, the United States
followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval
disarmament, and refunding the German economy. New York became the
financial capital of the world, but the downside was that the Crash of 1929 hurled
the entire world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high
tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the
Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s.
The United States adopted an isolationist foreign policy from 1932 to 1938,
but then President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved toward strong support of the
Allies in their wars against Germany and Japan. As a result of intense internal
debate, the national policy was one of becoming the Arsenal of Democracy, that is
financing and equipping the Allied armies without sending American combat
soldiers. Roosevelt mentioned four fundamental freedoms, which ought to be
enjoyed by people "everywhere in the world"; these included the freedom of
speech and religion, as well as freedom from want and fear. Roosevelt helped
establish terms for a post-war world among potential allies at the Atlantic
Conference; specific points were included to correct earlier failures, which became
a step toward the United Nations. American policy was to threaten Japan, to force
it out of China, and to prevent its attacking the Soviet Union. However, Japan
reacted by an attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and the United States was
at war with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Instead of the loans given to allies in
World War I, the United States provided Land Leads grants of $50,000,000,000.
Working closely with Winston Churchill of Britain, and Joseph Stalin of the
Soviet Union, Roosevelt sent his forces into the Pacific against Japan, then into
North Africa against Italy and Germany, and finally into Europe starting with
France and Italy in 1944 against the Germans. The American economy roared
forward, doubling industrial production, and building vast quantities of airplanes,
ships, tanks, munitions, and, finally, the atomic bomb. Much of the American war
effort went to strategic bombers, which flattened the cities of Japan and Germany.
The Cold War Period. After the war, the U.S. rose to become the dominant
non-colonial economic power with broad influence in much of the world. Almost
immediately however, the world witnessed division into broad two camps during
the Cold War; one side was led by the U.S., and the other by the Soviet Union, but
this situation also led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement. This
period lasted until almost the end of the 20th century, and was characterized by
ideological struggle. A policy of containment was adopted to limit Soviet
expansion, and a series of proxy wars were fought with mixed results. In 1991 the
Soviet Union dissolved into separate nations, and the Cold War ended without the
feared World War III. With this, new challenges confront U.S. policymakers. U.S.
foreign policy is characterized still by a commitment to free trade, protection of its
national interests, and a concern for human rights.
Post Cold War World Order. In the 21st century, U.S. influence remains
strong but, in relative terms, is declining in terms of economic output compared to
rising nations such as China, India, Russia, Brazil, and the newly consolidated
European Union. Substantial problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear
proliferation, and the specter of nuclear terrorism.

Language Focus

Task 1. Give synonyms:

Belligerent; alienate; appropriate (v); instrumental; caveat; contain; gear; defer;
halt; alternate; stance; steer clear; punitive; downside; reciprocal; hurl.

Task 2. Translate:
Санкционировать проверки; проводить внешнюю политику; freedom of the
High Seas; распространяться за пределами государства; чрезмерный упор на
силу; core values; играть ведущую роль в обеспечении; raw use of power;
требовать проявления интереса; nationals; пополнять запасы; tutelage; понести
основную тяжесть войны; отменить договор; modern warfare; в момент
заключения договора; enactment of law; укреплять политические позиции; get
an endorsement for; обеспечение безопасности; territorial integrity.

Task 3. Match the terms with their definitions:

boycott a refusal to provide access to raw
materials
diplomacy an attempt to transform the
established social order, its structures
of power, authority; an overturning
or uprooting
propaganda the act of voluntarily abstaining from
using, buying, or dealing with a
person, organization, or country as an
expression of protest, usually for
political reasons
gunboat diplomacy a form of communication that is
aimed at influencing the attitude of a
 community by presenting facts
selectively (thus possibly lying by
omission) to encourage a particular
synthesis and produce an emotional
rather than rational response to the
information presented
subversion an effort to cut off food, supplies,
weapons or communications from a
particular area by force, either in part
or totally
blockade pursuit of foreign policy objectives
with the aid of conspicuous displays
of military power — implying or
constituting a direct threat of warfare
intelligence partial or complete prohibition of
commerce and trade with a particular
country, in order to isolate it
embargo secret information that is collected,
for example about a foreign country,
especially one that is an enemy; the
people that collect this information
denial of raw materials conduct of international relations
through the intercession of
professionals with regard to issues of
peace-making, trade, war, economics,
culture, environment and human
rights
quarantine compulsory isolation, typically to
contain the spread of something
considered dangerous

Task 4. Find English equivalents in the text:

мировой гегемон -
придерживаться доброй веры и справедливого отношения ко всем нациям -
поддерживать мир и гармоничные отношения со всеми -
выступать в поддержку (являться активным сторонником) торговых
отношений со всеми странами -
политика избегания войны-
уступить территорию -
осуществлять контроль за (Кубой) -
защищать суверенность и национальные интересы -
политика сдерживания -
война чужими руками -
ориентация на свободную торговлю -
угроза ядерного терроризма -
сохранение и усиление безопасности -
использование грубой силы -
нормы международного права -

Discussion

Task 1. Explain the difference between:

- bilateral and multilateral foreign policy;
- overt and covert operations;
- high and low politics;
- strategic goals and tactical goals;
- isolationism and neutrality.

Task 2. Answer the questions:

1. What is foreign policy and what is it directed at?
2. Who plays the major role in conducting foreign policy of the state? Why?
3. What are the main objectives of foreign policy? How are the US political
ends special?
4. Which approach has been dominating the US foreign policy lately? Prove
your opinion with examples.

Task 3. Check in the textbook ( “An Illustrated History of the USA”. Bryn
O’ Callagahan) or other resources to define these categories. Arrange them
in chronological order and report on:
Camp David Accords Marshall Plan Dollar Diplomacy

Good Neighbor Policy Stimson Doctrine Monroe Doctrine

League of Nations Сontroversy Détente Neutrality Acts

Open Door Policy Dayton Peace Accords Containment

Manifest Destiny Foreign Service Act Shuttle Diplomacy

 Task 4. Summarize the information and fill in the gaps with the
information missed. Which two traditional approaches to the conduct of
US foreign policy are mentioned:

The conduct of American foreign policy has often alternated between two broad
policy approaches: ____1_____and ____2______.
____3____emphasize the role that power plays in international politics.
They would argue that maintaining and enhancing one’s security within the
international system requires a realistic assessment of the world and one’s place in
it.
Since the international system is dynamic and interdependent, changes
anywhere have impacts everywhere including one’s own country. International
peace and security depends on what is called ______4_______. Maintaining
international peace and security requires that ______5_______ is balanced with
_____6______. No one state should become so predominant as to threaten the
_______7____ and ____8_____of other countries.
During the ______9_______between the United States and the Soviet Union
there was a _____10_____ balance of power in the world. Since the collapse of the
Soviet Union in December 1991, the United States has been the world's only
remaining ______11______. Some have begun to call the US a hyper-power.
From 1991 through 2003, the United States was careful to conduct its foreign
policy ______12______ through the United Nations and NATO allies. President
George W. Bush appeared to have broken with traditional conduct of American
foreign policy over the last 100 years by pursuing a _____13_______ foreign
policy, which alienated Russia, France, Germany, China, and most of the Muslim
countries of the world.
______14______criticize ____15______ about their excessive emphasis on
power, particularly military power. They argue that what ultimately shapes world
politics are moral ideals and values. Peace, prosperity, respect for human rights,
self determination of peoples, and the right to democratically elect one's own
government are the ____16______ that drive the international system. The raw
use of power and the use of war as a tool of ___17______must be checked by the
rules of international law, collective security, multilateralism, and the United
Nations.
President Woodrow Wilson is usually cited as a prime example of
_____18_____in American foreign policy. Woodrow Wilson was instrumental in
establishing the League of Nations. Since the League of Nations failed to prevent
World War II, ___19____has often been criticized by ___20___as being
ineffective. Nonetheless, at the end of World War II, President Franklin D.
Roosevelt helped to bring about the United Nations as mankind's last best hope for
a peaceful world.