569

Numerical study of soil conditions under which

matric suction can be maintained
L.L. Zhang, D.G. Fredlund, L.M. Zhang, and W.H. Tang

Abstract: The effect of negative pore-water pressure is often ignored in slope stability studies. There is a perception
among geotechnical engineers that negative pore-water pressures will dissipate with rainfall infiltration and cannot be
relied upon in design considerations. The objective of this paper is to illustrate that under certain conditions soil suc-
tion can be maintained. Based on the theory of infiltration and seepage through a saturated–unsaturated soil system,
steady state and transient finite element seepage analyses were conducted using Seep/W on a 20 m high slope inclined
at 30°. The results of the analysis showed that under steady state conditions, the most important factor influencing the
permanency of matric suction in the soil is the magnitude of rainfall flux expressed as a percentage of the saturated
coefficient of permeability of soil. For the analysis under transient seepage conditions, the results showed that the pore-
water pressure profile depends on the magnitude of the rainfall flux, the saturated coefficient of permeability, the soil-
water characteristic curve, and the water storage function. For a soil with a low coefficient of permeability and a large
water storage capacity, the matric suction needs a substantial amount of time to dissipate and thus may be maintained
over a longer time period than the rain is likely to fall, even if the ground surface flux is equal to or greater than the
saturated coefficient of permeability. Engineers should address more appropriate engineering design assumptions that
can be related to the permanence of matric suction in soil slopes based on the numerical analysis. Measures such as
slope cover or surface recompaction can be taken into consideration to minimize the rainfall infiltration and thus main-
tain active matric suction in slopes.
Key words: unsaturated soils, slope, rainfall infiltration, matric suction, permeability.

Résumé : On ne tient souvent pas compte de l’effet de la pression interstitielle négative dans les études de stabilité de
talus. Il existe une certaine perception parmi les ingénieurs géotechniciens à l’effet que les pressions interstitielles né-
gatives vont se dissiper avec l’infiltration de la pluie et qu’on ne peut donc pas compter sur elles pour fins de calcul.
Le but de cet article est d’illustrer que dans certaines conditions la succion peut être maintenue dans le sol. Sur la base
de la théorie de percolation et d’infiltration à travers un système de sols saturés-non saturés, on a conduit des analyses
d’infiltration par éléments finis dans les états permanent ou transitoire au moyen de Seep/W sur un talus de 20 m de
hauteur incliné à 30 degrés. Les résultats des analyses ont montré que dans des conditions d’état permanent, le plus
important facteur influençant la permanence de la succion matricielle dans le sol est l’amplitude du flux de la chute de
pluie exprimée en pourcentage du coefficient de perméabilité du sol saturé. Pour l’analyse dans des conditions transi-
toires, les résultats ont montré que le profil de pression interstitielle dépend de l’amplitude du flux de la chute de
pluie, le coefficient de perméabilité du sol saturé, la courbe caractéristique sol-eau et la fonction d’entreposage de
l’eau. Pour un sol avec un faible coefficient de perméabilité et une grande capacité d’entreposage, la succion matri-
cielle requiert un temps appréciable pour se dissiper et ainsi peut être maintenue pour une période de temps plus
longue que la durée vraisemblable de la pluie, même si le flux à la surface du terrain est égal ou plus grand que le
coefficient de perméabilité du sol saturé. Pour fins de calcul basé sur l’analyse numérique, les ingénieurs devraient uti-
liser des hypothèses plus appropriées pouvant être reliées avec la permanence de la succion matricielle dans un talus de
sols. Des mesures telles que le couvert du talus ou le recompactage de la surface peuvent être prises en compte pour
minimiser l’infiltration des chutes de pluie et ainsi maintenir la succion matricielle dans les talus.

Mots clés : sols non saturés, talus, infiltration des chutes de pluie, succion matricielle, perméabilité.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] Zhang et al. 582

Received 25 October 2002. Accepted 8 January 2004. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at http://cgj.nrc.ca on
5 August 2004.
L.L. Zhang,1 D.G. Fredlund,2 L.M. Zhang, and W.H. Tang. Department of Civil Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
1
Corresponding author (e-mail: cezll@ust.hk).
2
Present address: Department of Civil Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada.

Can. Geotech. J. 41: 569–582 (2004) doi: 10.1139/T04-006 © 2004 NRC Canada
570 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004

1. Introduction Fig. 1. Suction measurements in a weathered rhyolite in Hong

Kong (after Sweeney 1982).
The effect of negative pore-water pressure is often ignored
in geotechnical engineering practice, particularly when it re-
lates to slope stability studies. For example, in slope stability
analyses the contribution to the shear strength of soil by
matric suction is often ignored. The main reason for this ap-
pears to be related to the perception that infiltration of rain-
fall will always produce a wetting front that gradually moves
downwards and consequently causes a reduction in the
matric suction profile. It is assumed that negative pore-water
pressures will eventually dissipate with rainfall infiltration.
Consequently, it is prematurely concluded that matric suc-
tion cannot be relied upon to provide long-term stability to
the slope. However, the infiltration of rainfall in an initially
unsaturated soil slope depends not only on the rainfall inten-
sity and duration, but also on the saturated coefficient of per-
meability, the permeability function, and the water storage
capacity of the soil.
An unsaturated soil may have a coefficient of permeability
that is greatly reduced from that of a saturated soil and a
high capacity for water storage. To eliminate matric suction
from the soil, the rainfall needs to be sustained over a sub-
stantial time period and the rainfall intensity needs to ap-
proach the saturated coefficient of permeability of the soil at
the ground surface.
In situ measurements of matric suction illustrate that neg-
ative pore-water pressures may or may not disappear follow-
ing a rainstorm. Sweeney (1982) presented in situ suction
measurements from a slope instrumented with tensiometers Fig. 2. Suction measurements in a colluvium in Hong Kong (af-
in Hong Kong. The slope was inclined at 60° with an aver- ter Anderson 1983).
age height of 30 m. The soil from the slope surface to 10 m
depth consisted of a completely weathered rhyolite. The range
of values of the saturated coefficient of permeability for in
situ completely decomposed rhyolite is 10–5 to 10–7 m/s ac-
cording to the Geotechnical Engineering Office of the Gov-
ernment of Hong Kong (GEO 1993). The next stratum was a
5–10 m thick, completely to highly weathered rhyolite with
an underlying layer of slightly weathered rhyolite. Fresh
bedrock was 20–30 m below the ground surface.
Suction measurements were made throughout the year
1980 and a few observations can be made from the results
presented in Fig. 1. First, matric suction showed a gradual
reduction during the rainy season. The pore-water pressures
remained negative, even during the rainy season. Second,
matric suctions between 5 and 17 m depth remained constant
throughout the year. The groundwater table, which was at a
greater depth, rose and fell about 9 m throughout the year.
These results demonstrate the water storage capacity of the
soil and its role in maintaining matric suction in a zone be-
low the ground surface. Water continued to flow downward
through the soil and matric suction decreased at the shallow
depths in the slope while the matric suction throughout the
intermediate depths remained almost constant.
Anderson (1983) presented in situ suction measurements
in a slope consisting of colluvium materials in Hong Kong
as shown in Fig. 2. The saturated coefficient of permeability
of colluvium ranges from 10–4 to 10–7 m/s (GEO 1993). The
matric suctions measured were relatively low and essentially
disappeared after a heavy rainstorm.

© 2004 NRC Canada

Zhang et al. 571

The objective of this paper is to illustrate, by means of a Fig. 3. Variation of degree of saturation with depth during infil-
rainfall infiltration and saturated–unsaturated seepage model, tration (after Lumb 1962).
the matric suction behavior in an unsaturated soil slope. The
conditions under which matric suction can be maintained in
a slope are investigated through the use of a finite element
numerical study. The range of rainfall and soil conditions
under which soil suction can be maintained are presented
along with a rationale for using the infiltration–seepage
model in geotechnical engineering practice.

2. Brief review of matric suctions during

rainfall infiltration
The physical processes of infiltration of rainfall and seep-
age through a saturated–unsaturated soil system have been
studied by many researchers. The “wetting front” or “wet-
ting band” concept was introduced by Lumb (1962) in rela-
tion to the investigation of slope failures in Hong Kong.
Figure 3 shows the variation of degree of saturation with
depth during rainfall. The soil is assumed to become satu-
rated near the ground surface and nearly saturated down to a
Fig. 4. Transient infiltration in an unsaturated soil (modified
depth h under infiltration conditions. The wetting front is
from Sun et al. 1998).
assumed to have a sharp separation between the initial con-
dition and the wetted zone. Under prolonged and heavy rain-
fall, the depth h of the wetting front is defined as
ksat t
[1] h =
n ( S f − S 0)

where ksat is the saturated coefficient of permeability; Sf and

S0 are the final and initial degrees of saturation, respectively;
n is the porosity of the soil; and t is the time.
Sun et al. (1998) proposed a generalized wetting band
equation based on Lumb’s (1962) wetting band approach
and presented the results of a series of one-dimensional fi-
nite element analyses. Figure 4 shows a typical variation of
soil suction with depth in an unsaturated soil. For a given
ground surface moisture flux q0 less than ksat under steady
state conditions, the matric suction is u0. If the infiltration
rate is increased to q1, a new infiltration zone with the
matric suction u1 will be formed that gradually progresses
downwards with time. The depth of the wetting front can be
calculated using the following equation:
with an infiltration rate of 5 mm/h than those of the case
(k1 − k0) t
[2] h = with an infiltration rate of 80 mm/h (Fig. 5).
θ1 − θ0 The matric suction in an unsaturated soil will not neces-
sarily be destroyed, even under long-term conditions of rain-
where k0 = q0; k1 = q1; and θ0 and θ1 are the initial and new fall infiltration. Kasim (1997) and Kasim et al. (1998)
volumetric water contents, respectively. studied the relationship between steady state rainfall, the
Equations [1] and [2] are similar, with the later equation coefficient of permeability function, and the soil-water char-
applying to a flux change from one steady state condition to acteristic curve on the equilibrium matric suction conditions
another steady state condition. The wetting front concept for both a horizontal ground surface and a sloping ground
provides a simplified methodology for considering changes surface. The study showed that steady state rainfall does not
in soil saturation (or matric suction) under a change in rain- necessarily eliminate matric suction in the soil. When the
fall conditions. However, there will not always be a distinct steady state rainfall is one or more orders of magnitude less
difference between the infiltration zone and the zone where than the saturated coefficient of permeability, the long-term
the negative pore-water pressures have been maintained. The matric suction in the soil is largely maintained. It appears
results from a numerical study conducted by Sun et al. that matric suction will not disappear unless the steady state
(1998) show that under the same initial pore-water pressure rainfall flux approaches the saturated coefficient of perme-
distributions, the wetting fronts are less distinct for the case ability of the soil near the ground surface.

© 2004 NRC Canada

572
Fig. 5. Transient infiltration at (a) q = 80 mm/h and (b) q = 5 mm/h from one-dimensional Seep/W analysis (after Sun et al. 1998).
3. Theory of saturated–unsaturated
seepage
3.1. Water flow through an unsaturated soil
Water flow can be assumed to be governed by Darcy’s law
in saturated and unsaturated soils (Childs and Collis-George
1950). According to Darcy’s law, the discharge velocity of
water is proportional to the gradient of hydraulic head:
∂h
[3] v = −k
∂y
where v is the discharge velocity of water (m/s), k is the co-
efficient of permeability with respect to the water phase
(m/s), h is the hydraulic head (m), and ∂h/∂y is the hydraulic
gradient in the y direction.
The hydraulic head h is comprised of an elevation head y
and a pore-water pressure head [uw/(ρ wg)]:
uw
[4] h =y+
ρ wg
where uw is the pore-water pressure, ρ w is the density of
water, and g is the gravitational acceleration.
The coefficient of permeability for a saturated soil can
usually be assumed to be a constant value. For an unsatu-
rated soil, however, the coefficient of permeability is a func-
tion of matric suction (or negative pore-water pressure) and
decreases with an increase in the matric suction of the soil.
The relationship between the coefficient of permeability of
an unsaturated soil and soil suction is called the permeability
function.
Based on continuity considerations and Darcy’s law, the
governing partial differential equation for two-dimensional
transient flow through an unsaturated soil can be formulated
as follows:
∂  ∂h  ∂  ∂h  ∂θ
[5]  kx +  ky  =− w
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂t
where kx is the coefficient of permeability in the x direction,
k y is the coefficient of permeability in the y direction, and
θw is the volumetric water content.
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004
Fredlund and Morgenstern (1976) proposed the following
water phase constitutive relationship for an unsaturated soil:
[6] dθw = m1w d(σ − ua ) + m 2w d(ua − uw)
where σ is the total stress; ua is the pore-air pressure; m1w is
the slope of the water volume versus σ − ua relationship
when d(ua − uw) is zero; and m 2w is the water storage coeffi-
cient, which is the slope of the water volume versus (ua − uw)
relationship when d(σ − ua ) is zero.
For a transient seepage analysis, it can be assumed that
the total stress remains constant and the pore-air pressure
remains at atmospheric conditions. Then a change of volu-
metric water content can be related to a change in pore-
water pressure:
[7] dθw = m 2w d(− uw)
Substituting eqs. [4] and [7] into eq. [5] leads to the fol-
lowing governing partial differential equation for water flow
through an unsaturated soil:
∂  ∂h  ∂  ∂h  ∂h
[8]  kx + ky = m 2wρ w g
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂t
Under steady state conditions, the time dependence of the
matric suction profile disappears and eq. [8] can be simpli-
fied as follows:
∂  ∂h  ∂  ∂h 
[9]  kx + ky =0
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y 
In eq. [8], the three soil parameters kx , k y , and m 2w are not
constant values in an unsaturated soil but are functions of
negative pore-water pressure, which is part of the hydraulic
head. The meaning of the parameters and their relationship
to the soil-water characteristic curve are explained in the fol-
lowing section.
3.2. Unsaturated soil property functions related to
seepage
The soil-water characteristic curve is a relationship be-
tween water content and suction in the soil, either for drying
or wetting conditions. Several mathematical equations have
© 2004 NRC Canada
Zhang et al. 573

been proposed to describe the soil-water characteristic curve. Fig. 6. Relationship between the soil-water characteristic curve,
In this paper, the Fredlund and Xing (1994) equation with a the water storage function, and the coefficient of permeability
correction factor C(ψ), equal to 1, is used: function for an unsaturated soil.

θs
[10] θw = m
  n 
  ψ  
 ln e +    
   a   

where θs is the saturated volumetric water content, e is the

natural base of logarithms, ψ is the soil suction (i.e., matric
suction at low suction values and total suction at high suc-
tion values beyond the residual condition), a is the matric
suction value at the inflection point and is closely related to
the air-entry value of the soil (the air-entry value of the soil
is the suction beyond which the soil starts to desaturate), n is
the slope of the soil-water characteristic curve at the inflec-
tion point, and m is a fitting parameter related to residual
water content.
The water storage coefficient m 2w represents the water
storage capacity of the unsaturated soil at any soil suction
level. The function of m 2w with respect to the soil suction is
defined as the water storage function. According to the defi-
nition of the water storage coefficient (eq. [6]), differentia-
tion of the equation of the soil-water characteristic curve on
an arithmetic scale yields the water storage function. Fig-
ures 6a and 6b illustrate a soil-water characteristic curve and
the corresponding water storage function.
The character of the coefficient of permeability function
bears a relationship to the soil-water characteristic curve as
shown in Figs. 6a and 6c. The coefficient of permeability re-
mains relatively constant until the air-entry value of the soil
is exceeded. At suctions greater than the air-entry value, the
coefficient of permeability decreases rapidly.
The coefficient of permeability function can be satisfacto-
rily estimated for most slope stability problems using the
saturated coefficient of permeability and the soil-water char-
acteristic curve. In this paper, the coefficient of permeability
function is estimated using the Fredlund et al. (1994) predic-
tion method.

3.3. Kisch’s interpretation of the infiltration model
Analysis of seepage and infiltration in an unsaturated soil
can be readily performed through the use of available finite
element seepage software. The results from numerical analy-
sis are sometimes difficult to interpret, however, because
several parameters are involved. These parameters are re-
lated to the soil-water characteristic curve, coefficient of per-
meability function, rainfall intensity, and rainfall duration.
The fundamental processes associated with infiltration under
both steady state and transient situations need to be consid-
ered separately when interpreting the results of a numerical
analysis.
Kisch (1959) derived an equation for one-dimensional
steady flow in a soil subjected to a constant water flux q at
the ground surface. The magnitude of q can be calculated for
a vertical soil column of unit cross section:
 duw 
[11] q = k 1 +  water pressures at the top of the sand remain at a constant
 ρ w g dy 
Under steady state conditions, the flux q is a constant, and
eq. [11] can be written as
d(uw/ρ wg)
[12] = (q/k −1)
dy
If the magnitude of the ground surface flux q approaches
the coefficient of permeability of the soil k, d(uw/ρ wg)/dy = 0
(i.e., pressure head uw/(ρ wg) tends to be a constant).
Figure 7 (Kisch 1959) shows the steady state pressure
head profiles in a clay liner and an underlying sand layer for
a surface water flux q equal to the saturated coefficient of
permeability of the clay liner, ksclay. The saturated coefficient
of permeability of the sand, kssand, is 149ksclay. The thickness
of the clay liner is 0.5 m. The water tables are at depths of
2.5 and 4.5 m, respectively, for cases I and II. Under steady
state conditions, the gradient of pressure head is zero at the
upper portion of the sand layer for both cases. The pore-
value of –5.5 kPa when the ground surface flux q, which is

© 2004 NRC Canada

574 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004

Fig. 7. Variation of pore-water pressure with depth in the clay Fig. 8. Infiltration into an unsaturated soil under steady state
liner and the underlying sand layer for a surface water flux q = conditions with various ground surface moisture fluxes.
ksclay = 0.0068kssand (modified from Kisch 1959).

Fig. 9. Infiltration into an unsaturated soil under transient seep-

age conditions with two different ground surface fluxes: (a) q <
ksat; (b) q ≥ ksat.

equal to ksclay, is equal to the coefficient of permeability of

the unsaturated sand.
Figures 8 and 9 show typical pore-water pressure distribu-
tions under steady state and transient seepage conditions, re-
spectively. Under hydrostatic conditions, there is no ground
flux. According to eq. [12], the gradient of the pore-water
pressure is –1, as shown in Fig. 8. Under steady state condi-
tions, the water flux in and out of the soil reaches a balance.
If the magnitude of the water flux is the same as the coeffi-
cient of permeability of the unsaturated soil at a particular
value of matric suction, the value of the pore-water pressure
is constant, as shown in Fig. 8.
Infiltration under transient seepage conditions can be con-
sidered as a transitional state between initial state and the
final steady states (Fig. 9). The time to reach steady state is
a function of the ground surface flux, the coefficient of per-
meability of the soil, and the water storage of the soil. When
the flux is less than the saturated coefficient of permeability,
the matric suction in the unsaturated soil can decrease but
not disappear. The matric suction can be eliminated only
when the ground surface moisture flux is equal to or greater
than the saturated coefficient of permeability. The frame-
work set forth by Kisch (1959) sets steady state bounds for
the infiltration model for unsaturated soils.

4. Numerical study to illustrate several

cases of infiltration
In this study, analyses for both steady state and transient
seepage conditions were conducted on a 20 m high slope
inclined at 30°. The slope is composed of a homogenous,
isotropic soil. The finite element seepage analysis software
Seep/W (Geo-Slope International Ltd. 2001) for saturated–
unsaturated soil systems was used in this study. The finite el-
ement mesh, along with the boundary conditions, is shown
in Fig. 10. Along the left and right boundaries beneath the
groundwater table, a constant head was applied. A zero flux
boundary was applied along the left and right boundaries
above the groundwater table. To illustrate the pore-water
pressure profiles more clearly, the groundwater table was
fixed by applying a constant pressure head equal to zero
at the groundwater table, on the nodes of the mesh. The

© 2004 NRC Canada

Zhang et al. 575

Fig. 10. Finite element mesh and boundary conditions of the slope.

groundwater table in a soil slope may rise during rainfall in Fig. 11. Soil-water characteristic curves and permeability func-
real situations, however. An example with a free groundwa- tions with varying a values for the soils used in the study.
ter table is presented later in the paper to illustrate the effect
of different boundary conditions. In other cases, the ground-
water tables are fixed.
It was assumed that the base of the finite element mesh
was impermeable. Precipitation was modeled as a moisture
flux boundary, q, applied along the slope surface. Section
X–X is in the middle of the slope. The groundwater table at
the selected section is 15.28 m under the sloping surface.
The pore-water pressure profiles at section X–X are pre-
sented to illustrate conditions under which soil suction can
be maintained. It should be pointed out, however, that the in-
filtration behavior in the entire slope controls the stability of
the slope.
Soils with various a values (e.g., 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and
200) and the same n, m, and saturated coefficient of perme-
ability ksat values (i.e., n = 2, m = 1, and ksat = 1 × 10–5 m/s)
were studied in detail for the parametric study. The soil-
water characteristic curves and the corresponding coefficient
of permeability functions for the soils are shown in
Figs. 11a and 11b, respectively. The effect of n and ksat is
also presented.

4.1. Pore-water pressure profiles under steady state

conditions
The results in Fig. 12 were obtained for soils having the
same saturated coefficients of permeability of 1 × 10–5 m/s,
n = 2, and m = 1. The pore-water pressure profiles shown in
Figs. 12a–12f correspond to soils with a equal to 5, 10, 20,
50, 100, and 200, respectively. Different ratios of ground
surface flux to saturated coefficient of permeability, q/ksat
(i.e., 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.5), were applied to the sur-
face of the slope in the numerical analysis. ficient of permeability. The depth of the constant matric suc-
The results illustrate that as the rainfall flux approaches tion profile increases when increasing the ratio of steady
the saturated coefficient of permeability of the soil, the state rainfall flux to the saturated coefficient of permeability,
matric suction at the surface of the slope approaches zero. q/ksat. It should be noted that these results are based on the
There is essentially a vertical matric suction profile (i.e., boundary condition of a fixed groundwater table. The pore-
d(uw/ρwg)/dy = 0) established under steady state conditions water pressure profiles can be significantly influenced by
when the ground surface flux approaches the saturated coef- varying boundary conditions.

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576
Fig. 12. Pore-water pressure profiles in slopes with various a values subjected to various rainfall fluxes under steady state conditions.
The values of matric suction on the vertical portion of the
pressure profiles decrease with decreasing a values, and the
depth of the constant matric suction portion increases with
decreasing a values for the soil. The long-term matric suc-
tion does not disappear but remains essentially close to or
unchanged from the hydrostatic profile when the steady state
rainfall flux is two or more orders of magnitude less than the
saturated coefficient of permeability and a is greater than
100 (Fig. 12f ). When the a values are smaller, the reduction
in matric suction is more significant.
Figure 13 illustrates the long-term matric suction profiles
in the slope for the soils with different n values. It shows
that the values of matric suction at the same value of q/ksat
do not decrease or increase monotonically with different n
values.
As shown conceptually in Fig. 8 and further illustrated by
Figs. 12 and 13 from the numerical modeling, the matric
suction profiles under steady state conditions consist of a
section of constant pore-water pressure, a transition section,
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004
and a section of the hydrostatic condition. Kasim (1997)
proposed a method to estimate the value of matric suction
(ua – uw)1 at the constant pore-water pressure section, associ-
ated with the steady state rainfall flux q1, using the coeffi-
cient of permeability function for the case of a horizontal
ground surface (Fig. 14). Figure 15 presents the soil-water
characteristic curves and the corresponding permeability
functions for soils with varying n values. Applying the esti-
mation method proposed by Kasim, the theoretical matric
suction (ua – uw)1 for soils with varying n values does not
decrease or increase monotonically at the same value of q1.
Therefore, the pore-water pressure profiles shown in Fig. 13
are reasonable.
4.2. Pore-water pressure profiles under transient
seepage conditions
The effects of air-entry value, water storage capacity, satu-
rated coefficient of permeability, and groundwater boundary
conditions on pore-water pressure profiles are illustrated in
© 2004 NRC Canada
Zhang et al.
Fig. 13. Comparison of pore-water pressure profiles for soils
with various n values.
this section. The initial state is taken to be the hydrostatic
condition for all cases. It should be noted that varying initial
soil moisture conditions could significantly influence the
rainfall infiltration and pore-water pressure profiles in soil
slopes, as has been studied by Freeze (1969), Tsaparas et al.
(2002), and others.
577
Fig. 14. Determination of the matric suction values at a horizon-
tal ground surface for a soil subjected to a steady state rainfall
flux q1 (after Kasim 1997).
Fig. 15. Soil-water characteristic curves and permeability func-
tions with varying n values for the soils used in the study.
4.2.1. Effect of air-entry value on the wetting front
Figures 16a–16f show the pore-water pressure profiles un-
der transient seepage conditions with various a values. The
rainfall flux is equal to the saturated coefficient of perme-
ability, and so the ground surface is subjected to the maxi-
mum moisture flux that it can absorb.
The results illustrate the different patterns created
throughout the pore-water pressure profile. For the soil with
a equal to 1, the wetting front is sharp and distinct. The
© 2004 NRC Canada
578
Fig. 16. Pore-water pressure profiles for soils with various air-entry values and ksat = 10–5 m/s subjected to a flux of q = 10–5 m/s un-
der transient seepage conditions.
matric suction near the ground surface decreases with time,
but the rate of downward movement is small. After 50 days
of rainfall with a flux equal to the saturated coefficient of
permeability, the depth of the wetting front is only about
1 m below the ground surface.
For a soil with a equal to 5, the transition zone between
the infiltration zone and the unaffected zone is still quite
sharp and distinct. At shallow depths into the slope, the
matric suction decreases but remains essentially constant for
deeper soils. It takes only 1 day for the wetting front to
move to a depth of about 1 m. After 3 days the infiltration
depth is about 4 m. The negative pore-water pressure almost
disappears after 6 days of rainfall.
The pore-water pressure profiles of the soil with a equal
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004
to 10 resemble the profiles of the soil with a equal to 5.
However, the negative pore-water pressures almost disap-
pear after 4 days of rainfall infiltration. For a values greater
than 10, the transition between the infiltration zone and the
unaffected zone becomes less distinct. The remaining matric
suction in the soil decreases more rapidly with an increase in
the a value.
The results show that as the a value increases, the wetting
front becomes less distinct. According to eq. [12], the gradi-
ent of the pore-water pressure depends on the ratio of flux to
the coefficient of permeability of the unsaturated soil. Given
the same initial matric suctions (e.g., all the cases are in
hydrostatic conditions initially in this study), the soil with a
smaller air-entry value corresponds to a smaller initial coef-
© 2004 NRC Canada
Zhang et al. 579

ficient of permeability, and the soil with a larger air-entry Fig. 17. Examples of pore-water pressure profiles in a soil sub-
value has a larger coefficient of permeability (see Fig. 11b). jected to a surface flux q = 10–6 m/s.
If the moisture flux q is the same for both cases, then the
value of q/k is larger for the soil with a smaller air-entry
value. Consequently, the gradient of the pore-water pressure
is greater for the soil with the smaller air-entry value.
The previous observations can be further illustrated by the
examples of pore-water pressure profiles when the rainfall
flux is 10–6 m/s, which is 10% of the saturated coefficient
of permeability of the soils (Fig. 17). Comparing the two
graphs in Fig. 17, the most significant difference is the shape
of the wetting front. For the soil with a equal to 10
(Fig. 17a), the wetting front is approximately horizontal,
which means the infiltration rate is much greater than the
unsaturated coefficient of permeability according to eq. [12].
For the soil with a equal to 100 (Fig. 17b), however, the ini-
tial coefficient of permeability in the soil is comparable to
the flux rate and the pore-water pressure gradient ap-
proaches zero.

4.2.2. Effect of varying the saturated coefficient of

permeability
Figures 18a–18c show the pore-water pressure profiles for
soils with the same soil-water characteristic curve (i.e., a =
100, n = 2, m = 1) but different saturated coefficients of per-
meability (i.e., ksat = 10–7, 10–5, and 10–3 m/s, respectively).
The rainfall fluxes are equal to the saturated coefficient of
permeability for all three cases (i.e., the ratios of flux versus
the saturated coefficient of permeability are unity for the
three cases). Comparing the patterns of the pore-water pres-
sure profiles, it can be seen that the shapes of the profiles
are similar but the rates of downward movement of the wet-
ting fronts are distinct, which indicates that the behavior of
rainfall infiltration under transient seepage conditions should
be related to the absolute intensity of the rainfall and the soil
properties.
4.2.3. Influence of water storage on the pore-water
pressure profile
Figure 19 can be used to explain the behavior of infiltra-
tion for soils with varying air-entry values. The soil-water
characteristic curves and the corresponding water storage
functions are shown on the graph. The desaturation rate (n =
2) is the same for both soils, but the air-entry values of the
two soil-water characteristic curves are different. The maxi-
mum water storage coefficient for the soil with a equal to 1
is 0.1445, whereas that for the soil with a equal to 10 is only
0.0145. These values are reasonable because the desaturation
rate n represents the slope at the inflection point of the soil-
water characteristic curve, which is expressed on a logarithm
scale of matric suction, whereas the water storage coeffi-
cient, m2w, is the arithmetic slope of the soil-water character-
istic curve. As the n values of the two soil-water
characteristic curves are the same, the same change of volu-
metric water content, ∆θw, is associated with the same
change of matric suction on a logarithmic scale (i.e., ∆ ln(ua –
uw). However, the change of matric suction, ∆(ua – uw), is
much smaller for the case of a equal to 1 than for the case of
a equal to 10 because the desaturation part is in the low
matric suction portion for a equal to 1 and consequently
yields a larger water storage coefficient.
The difference in the water storage functions can help ex-
plain why the rate of movement of the wetting front for soils
with different air-entry values is distinctly different, as
shown in Fig. 16. For soils with the same coefficient of per-
meability and the same desaturation rate, subjected to the
same magnitude of rainfall flux, the soil with a lower air-
entry value has a greater water storage capacity. Thus, the
movement of the wetting front is much slower in the soil
with the lower air-entry value.
On the other hand, if both soils have the same soil-water
characteristic curve (i.e., the same water storage function),
the soil with a smaller saturated coefficient of permeability
allows less infiltration than the soil with a larger coefficient
of permeability, although both have the same water storage
capacity. That is why the rate of downward movement of the
wetting front in a soil with ksat equal to 10–7 m/s is much
smaller than that in a soil with ksat equal to 10–3 m/s, as
shown in Figs. 18a and 18c.
4.2.4. Effect of varying the groundwater boundary
conditions
In all the previous cases illustrating the infiltration behav-
ior in an saturated–unsaturated soil system, it was assumed
that the groundwater table in the slope did not vary during
the rainstorms. In reality, however, the pore-water pressure
profiles and the groundwater tables in soil slopes can be sig-
nificantly influenced by varying boundary conditions.
Figure 20 shows the pore-water pressure profiles when the
groundwater table is allowed to rise (i.e., the constant pres-
sure boundary condition for the groundwater table inside the

© 2004 NRC Canada

580
Fig. 18. Pore-water pressure profiles in a slope subjected to the
same ratio of q/ksat = 1 for soils with a = 100, n = 2, and
m = 1.
slope in Fig. 10 is removed). Comparing Fig. 20a with
Fig. 16c and Fig. 20b with Fig. 16e, it can be observed that
the rates of downward movement of the wetting front are
comparable. The rising of the groundwater table is more
marked for the soils with a larger air-entry value because the
soil has a smaller water storage capacity.
All the pore-water pressure profiles presented earlier are
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004
Fig. 19. Comparison of water storage functions for soils with
a = 1 and a = 10.
at section X–X in the middle part of the slope as shown in
Fig. 10. The pore-water pressure distribution in the entire
slope needs to be analyzed, however, to better understand
the overall permanency of matric suction. Figure 21 illus-
trates an example of pore-water pressure contours in a soil
slope subjected to a rainfall flux q equal to 10–5 m/s. Al-
though absolute pore-water pressure values vary from one
cross section to another, the change of pore-water pressure
with time in the entire slope follows trends similar to those
presented for section X–X.
5. Geotechnical engineering implications
Numerous research studies have been undertaken that
show the changes in pore-water pressure profiles in a soil
slope subjected to various surface moisture flux conditions.
Much has been learned about the response of the soil in the
unsaturated soil zone to rainfall conditions. A wide variety
of factors can be considered using numerical studies during
the design of a soil slope. Using the soil-water characteristic
curves and the saturated coefficients of permeability for the
materials involved, the times required for the dissipation of
negative pore-water pressure under various rainstorm condi-
tions can be estimated.
The long-term matric suction changes in a slope are con-
trolled by factors related to the ground surface moisture flux
and the hydraulic properties of the soils near the ground sur-
face. The ratio of the ground surface moisture flux to the
saturated coefficient of permeability of the soil near the
ground surface is the primary variable to be considered
© 2004 NRC Canada
Zhang et al.
Fig. 20. Pore-water pressure profiles in a slope with a free water
table subjected to a rainfall flux of q = 10–5 m/s.
when assessing the potential permanence of matric suction.
To maintain negative pore-water pressures in a slope, it is
important to reduce the infiltration flux through the use of a
suitable type of cover system at the ground surface. A com-
mon practice in Hong Kong is to provide a soil–cement–
lime plaster cover called “chunam” on the soil slopes. Lim
et al. (1996) carried out a field instrumentation program to
monitor negative pore-water pressures in residual soil slopes
in Singapore that were protected by different types of sur-
face covers. The changes in matric suction due to changes in
ground surface moisture flux were found to be least signifi-
cant under a canvas-covered slope and most significant in a
bare slope. Other relatively impermeable surface covers can
be adopted depending on the saturated coefficients of per-
meability of the surface materials on the slope.
It is also effective to maintain negative pore-water pres-
sures in a slope through reducing the saturated permeability
of the surface soil. After the 1976 Sau Mau Ping slope fail-
ure, the investigation panel (Government of Hong Kong
1976) recommended that a minimum stabilization require-
ment of a loose slope should consist of removing the loose
surface soil by excavating a vertical depth of not less than
3 m and recompacting at 95% of standard compaction den-
sity. For the Sau Mau Ping fill material, the average satu-
rated coefficient of permeability decreased by three times
when the relative compaction of the fill was increased from
82% to 95%.
Variability of in situ hydraulic properties of a soil may in-
581
Fig. 21. Pore-water pressure contours (in kPa) in a slope sub-
jected to a surface flux of q = 10–5 m/s with a soil of ksat =
10–5 m/s, a = 100, n = 2, and m = 1.
fluence the distribution of matric suction in a soil slope. For
example, the average annual rainfall in Hong Kong is about
2200 mm. If the rainfall is averaged over 1 year, the rainfall
flux intensity is approximately 7 × 10–8 m/s. For a soil slope
comprising completely decomposed rhyolites, this averaged
rainfall flux intensity would correspond to 0.7%–70% of the
saturated permeability that might vary from 10–5 to 10–7 m/s
due to spatial variability of soil properties. With better mea-
surements and monitoring of the field conditions, numerical
studies provide an opportunity to improve the design of the
soil slope by quantifying the permanency of the matric suc-
tion.
6. Summary of findings
Based on the theory of infiltration and seepage in
saturated–unsaturated soil systems, several series of numeri-
cal modeling studies were conducted. The key observations
can be summarized as follows.
Under steady state conditions, the most important factor
that affects the matric suction near the ground surface is the
© 2004 NRC Canada
582
magnitude of the ground surface moisture flux expressed as
a percentage of the saturated coefficient of permeability. The
long-term matric suction does not disappear and remains es-
sentially close to the hydrostatic profile for the steady state
rainfall fluxes that are two or more orders of magnitude less
than the saturated coefficient of permeability when the a
value is greater than 100.
There is essentially a vertical matric suction profile (i.e.,
d(uw/ρwg)/dy = 0) established under steady state conditions
above the water table. The values of matric suction in the
vertical portion of the pore-water pressure profile decrease
with increasing q/ksat ratios and decreasing a values. The
matric suction that can be maintained under long-term rain-
fall infiltration can be estimated by considering the coeffi-
cient of permeability function and the ratio q/ksat.
Under transient seepage conditions, the pore-water pres-
sure profile after a rainfall depends on the magnitude of
rainfall flux, the saturated coefficient of permeability, and
the water storage function.
When the ground surface flux under transient conditions
is equal to or greater than the saturated coefficient of perme-
ability, the saturated coefficient of permeability essentially
becomes the upper limit of the infiltration rate. With the
same saturated coefficient of permeability, the soil with a
larger water storage coefficient has a larger water storage
capacity. Consequently, the downward movement of the wet-
ting front in the soil is slower than that in a soil with a
smaller water storage capacity. On the other hand, given the
same water storage function, the matric suction in the soil
with a larger saturated coefficient of permeability will disap-
pear more easily.
Engineers may formulate more appropriate engineering
design questions that can be addressed relevant to the per-
manence of matric suction in soil slopes based on the nu-
merical analysis. Measures can also be taken to maintain
suctions in slopes in an active manner. Reduction of perme-
ability of fill materials by recompaction and reduction of
surface flux by cover systems are examples of such active
measures.
Acknowledgement
The work described in this paper was substantially sup-
ported by grants from the Research Grants Council of the
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project
No. CA99/00.EG01 and Project No. HKUST 6229/01E).
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© 2004 NRC Canada