3-1

Chapter 3
Uniform Plane Waves
Dr. Stuart Long
 3-2

What is a “wave” ?

Mechanism by which a disturbance is

propagated from one place to another

water, heat, sound, gravity, and EM

(radio, light, microwaves, uv,IR)

Notice how the media itself

is NOT propagated
 3-3

One Dimensional ⎡ ∂2 1 ∂2 ⎤
⎢ 2 − 2 2 ⎥ p ( x, t ) = 0
Wave Equation ⎢⎣ ∂x v ∂t ⎥⎦

Given p ( x, 0) = f ( x)
1
A solution p ( x, t ) = [ f ( x − vt ) + f ( x + vt )]
2
Unique solution depends on physical problem

∂2 ∂2
p ( x, t ) = f ′′ p ( x, t ) = v 2 f ′′
∂x 2 ∂t 2
∂
time harmonic case ⇒ jω
∂t
⎡ ∂2 ω 2 ⎤
⎢ 2 + 2 ⎥ p ( x) = 0
⎢⎣ ∂x v ⎥⎦
 3-4

Maxwell’s Equations

∇ × E = − jω μ 0 H
∇ × H = jω ε 0 E
∇ iH = 0
∇iE = 0
Source Free ⇒ ρv = 0 ; J = 0

jω t
Time Harmonic case ⇒ e Time dependent

Linear medium ⇒ B = μ 0 H ; D = ε 0E
 3-5

Vector Identity ∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇ (∇ iE) − ∇ 2E

− jωμ0 (∇ × H ) = ∇ (∇ iE) − ∇ 2E

− jωμ0 ( jωε 0E) = 0 − ∇ 2E

∇ 2E + ω 2 μ0ε 0E = 0 Wave equation for E

for E = E x xˆ and E x ( z )
∂ 2E x
+ ω 2 μ0ε 0 E x = 0 (1-dim. case)
∂z 2

try soln of form E = xˆ E0e − jkz

[− k 2 + ω 2 μ0ε 0 ]E0 = 0

k 2 = ω 2 μ0ε 0 Dispersion Relation

{ }
E ( z , t ) = Re Ee jωt = xˆ E0 cos(ωt − kz )
 3-6

Ex ωT
1 periodic in time
0.8
period T

0.6

0.4
E x = E0 cos(ω t )
0.2

ωt
0

-0.2 x component of the

-0.4 electric field at z=0 as
a function of time
-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 π
pi/2
πpi 3π 22πpi spatially repeating
2 2 every wavelength λ

angular frequency ω=2πf

 3-7

E x = E0 cos(ω t − kz ) Electric field as a function of

z at different times

π
E x1 ωt=0 E1 x ωt = ωET ω t =π
2 1 x

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

z 2π z z
0 0
λ= 0

-0.2 -0.2 k -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6 -0.6

-0.8 -0.8 -0.8

πpi
-1
π
-1
πpi
-1
0
π
pi/2 pi
3π
3pi/2
2π
2pi 0
π
pi/2
3π
3pi/2
2π
2pi 0
π
pi/2
3π
3pi/2
22piπ
2 2 2 2 2 2

Δz
λ
ω
v= = 2=
Δt π k
ω
 3-8

E x = E0 cos(ω t − kz ) Electric field as a function of

z at different times

0
z

−1
π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π
0
4 2 4 4 2 4
Δz
λ ω
v= = 2=
Δt π k
ω
 3-9

Quick Review

- The wave spacially repeats at point z = λ where k λ = 2π .

2π
- The quantity λ , where λ = is called the wavelenght.
k
- The number of wavelengths contained in a spatial distribution of
2π
2π is given by k = and it is called the wavenumber.
λ
- The velocity of the peak of the wave (position of constant phase)
requires that ω t - kz = constant so the velocity of propagation is
∂z ω
given by =v= [m/sec]
∂t k

- The velocity in free space is given by

ω ω 1
v= = = ≈ 3 × 108 [m/sec]
k ω μ0 ε 0 μ0 ε 0
 3-10

So far we have come across some useful expressions such as:

1 ω
Period T= [sec] Phase Velocity v = [m/sec]
f k

Angular ω = 2π f [rad] Velocity in c ≈ 3 × 108 [m/sec]

Frequency free space

1
Frequency f = [Hz] Wavenumber k = ω μ0 ε 0 [1 m]
T
2π
Wavelength λ= [m] Note: f [GHz ]iλ[cm] ≈ 30
k

Also, remember that the orientation of the E field of a uniform plane

electromagnetic wave is perpendicular to the H field of that wave and that
both are perpendicular to the direction from which the wave propagates
 3-11

Uniform Plane Waves

Waves with constant phase

fronts (plane waves) and whose
amplitude (E0 ) is uniform

Recall ∇ × E = - jωμ0 H

Where the E field of a uniform http://www.elec.york.ac.uk/cpd/img/em-wave.png

plane wave is given by

− jk z
E field is in xˆ direction
E = xˆ E0 e
H field is in yˆ direction
The magnetic field is then Wave propagating in + zˆ direction
E0 e − j k z
H = yˆ
η0
 3-12

Or in the time domain

{ }
E ( z , t ) = Re Ee jωt xˆ = xˆ E0 cos(ω t − kz )
Similarly
⎧⎪ Ee jωt ⎫⎪ E0
H ( z , t ) = Re ⎨ ⎬ yˆ = yˆ cos(ω t − kz ) http://www.elec.york.ac.uk/cpd/img/em-wave.png

⎪⎩ η0 ⎪⎭ η0

Where the η0 is the intrinsic impedance of free space

μ0
η0 = = 120π ≈ 377 [Ohms]
ε0
1
Permittivity ε 0 ≈ × 10 − 9 ⎡ F ⎤
36π ⎣ m⎦

Permeability μ 0 = 4π × 1 0 − 7 ⎡ H ⎤
⎣ m⎦
 3-13
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Source Freq.[Hz] Freq. (common units) Wavelength [m] Wavelength (common units)
U.S A-C Power 60 60 Hz 5x106 5000 Km
ELF Subm. Comm. 500 500 Hz 6x105 600 Km
AM radio 106 1000 Hz 300 300 m
CB radio 2.7x107 27 MHz 11 11 m
Cordless phone 4.9x107 49 MHz 6.1 6.1 m
TV ch. 2 6x107 60 MHz 5 5m
FM radio 108 100 MHz 3 3m
TV ch. 8 1.8x108 180 MHz 1.7 1.7 m
UHF Aircraft Comm. 5x108 500 MHz .6 60 cm
TV ch. 39 6.2x108 620 MHz .48 48 cm
Cellular phone 8.7x108 870 MHz .34 34 cm
μ-wave oven 2.45x109 2.45 GHz .12 12 cm
"C" band 6x109 6 GHz .05 5 cm
Police radar 1.05x1010 10.5 GHz .0285 2.85 cm
mm wave 1011 100 GHz .003 3 mm
He-Ne Laser 4.7x1014 6.3x 10-7 6300 Å
Light 1015 3x10-7 3000 Å
X-ray 1018 3x10-7 3 Å
 3-14
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

http://www.impression5.org/solarenergy/misc/emspectrum.html
 3-15
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 3-16

Polarization
The polarization of a wave is
described by the locus of the tip of
the E vector as time progresses at
a fixed point in space.

If locus is a straight line If locus is a circle the If locus is an ellipse the

the wave is said to be wave is said to be wave is said to be
Linearly Polarized Circularly Polarized Elliptically Polarized
 3-17

Polarization

If locus is a straight line

the wave is said to be
Linearly Polarized

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/imgpho/pollin.gif
 3-18

Polarization

If locus is a circle the

wave is said to be
Circularly Polarized

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/imgpho/pollin.gif
 3-19

Polarization

If locus is an ellipse the

wave is said to be
Elliptically Polarized

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/imgpho/pollin.gif
 3-20

Polarization
Consider a plane wave propagating in the positive z direction.
E = E0 cos(ω t − kz )
The associated electric field can be expressed in the form of

E = xˆ Ex + yˆ E y
E x = a cos(ω t − kz + φ a )
where the two components are, in general terms,
E y = b cos(ω t − kz + φb )

The polarization of this plane wave is determined by the quantity

Ey
= A∠ φ
Ex
Where

| Ey | b and
A= = φ =φb − φa
| Ex | a
 3-21

Polarization If E field is traveling in the positive yˆ , xˆ or zˆ

Classification direction A∠φ can be found respectively by

Ex ∠φx E z ∠φz E y ∠φ y
or or
E z ∠φz E y ∠φ y Ex ∠φ x

A = 0 ; φ = 0 or ± π Linear Polarization (LP)

A→∞ Linear Polarization (LP)

A =1 ; φ = π Left-Hand Circular Polarization (LHCP)

2

A = 1 ; φ = −π Right-Hand Circular Polarization (RHCP)

2
0 <φ <π Left-Hand Elliptical Polarization (LHEP)

−π < φ < 0 Right-Hand Elliptical Polarization (RHEP)

 3-22

Polarization If E field is traveling in the negative yˆ , xˆ or zˆ

Classification direction A∠φ can be found respectively by

Ez ∠φx E y ∠φ z Ex ∠φ y
or or
Ex ∠φ z Ez ∠φ y E y ∠φ x

A = 0 ; φ = 0 or ± π Linear Polarization (LP)

A→∞ Linear Polarization (LP)

A =1 ; φ = π Left-Hand Circular Polarization (LHCP)

2

A = 1 ; φ = −π Right-Hand Circular Polarization (RHCP)

2
0 <φ <π Left-Hand Elliptical Polarization (LHEP)

−π < φ < 0 Right-Hand Elliptical Polarization (RHEP)

 3-23

Polarization
Consider a plane wave propagating in the positive z direction.

E = E0 cos(ω t − kz )

The associated electric field can be expressed in the form of

E = xˆ Ex + yˆ E y
E x = a cos(ω t − kz + φ a )
where the two components are, in general terms,
E y = b cos(ω t − kz + φb )

The complex representation is given can be expressed by

j ( kz -φb )
E = xˆ ae- j ( kz -φa ) + yˆ be-
 3-24

Polarization
Look at z = 0 and φb = φ ; φa = 0

E x = a cos ω t

E y = b cos(ω t + φb )
2
⎛ Ex ⎞
2
⎛ Ex E y ⎞ ⎛ Ey ⎞
⎜ a ⎟ − 2 ⎜ ab ⎟ cos φ + ⎜ b ⎟ = sin φ
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Recall that the general quadratic equation is given by

Ax 2 + Bxy + cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where
1 2 cos φ 1
A= ; B=− ; C = 2 ; D = 0 ; E = 0 ; F = − sin 2 φ
a2 ab b
 3-25

Polarization
Ax 2 + Bxy + cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where

1 2 cos φ 1
A= ; B=− ; C = 2 ; D = 0 ; E = 0 ; F = − sin 2 φ
a2 ab b

If B 2 − 4 AC < 0 this becomes equ of an ellipse

2
2 ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎝ ab ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1
cos φ ⎜ − ⎟ − 4 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 2
⎝ a ⎠⎝ b
⎞
⎟ =
⎠ a b
4
2 2 (
cos 2
)
φ −1 ≤ 0

A-C
rotated by an angle θ ⇒ cot 2θ =
B
⎡1 1 ⎤ ⎡ ab ⎤
cot 2θ = ⎢ 2 − 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣a b ⎦ ⎣ −2 cos φ ⎦
 3-26

Example

Let φ = 0 (or φ = π )
2
⎛ Ex ⎞
2
⎛ Ex E y ⎞ ⎛ Ey ⎞
⎜ a ⎟ − 2 ⎜ ⎟ cos φ + ⎜ ⎟ = sin 2
φ
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ab ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
2
⎛ x⎞
E
2
⎛ Ex E y ⎞ ⎛ E y ⎞ ⎛ Ex E y ⎞
⎜ a ⎟ − 2 ⎜ ab ⎟ + ⎜ b ⎟=0⇒ ⎜ − ⎟ =0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ a b ⎠

Ex E y b
= ⇒ E y = Ex
a b a

Linear polarization (line of slope b a )

 3-27

Example

π
Let a = b ; φ =
2
2
⎛ Ex ⎞
2
⎛ Ex E y ⎞ ⎛ Ey ⎞
⎜ a ⎟ − 2 ⎜ ⎟ cos φ + ⎜ ⎟ = sin 2
φ
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ab ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
2
⎛ Ex ⎞ ⎛ E y ⎞
2

⎜ a ⎟ +⎜ a ⎟ =1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Circular polarization (circle of radius "a")

 3-28

Example

π
Let b = 2a ; φ =
2
2
⎛ Ex ⎞
2
⎛ Ex E y ⎞ ⎛ Ey ⎞
⎜ a ⎟ − 2 ⎜ ab ⎟ cos φ + ⎜ ⎟ = sin 2
φ
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
2
⎛ Ex ⎞ ⎛ E y ⎞
2

⎜ a ⎟ + ⎜ 2a ⎟ = 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Elliptical polarization (equ of an ellipse with major radius = 2a

and minor radius = a )
 3-29

Polarization
Example

Find the polarization of the following field:

(a) E = ( jxˆ + yˆ )e- jkz

E x = (1∠ − kz + 90 )
E y = (1∠ − kz )
Ey (1∠ − kz )
|1|
A∠φ = = = ∠ − kz − (−kz + 90 )
E x (1∠ − kz + 90 ) | 1 |

A∠φ = 1∠ − 90 ⇒ RHCP
 3-30

Polarization
Example

Find the polarization of the following field:

(b) E = ((2 + j) xˆ + (3 − j) zˆ)e- jky

Ex = ( 5∠− ky + 26.5651 )

Ez = ( 10∠− ky −18.4349 )
Ex ( 5∠− ky + 26.5651 ) | 5 |
A∠φ = = = ∠ − ky + 26.5651 − (−ky −18.4349 )
Ez ( 10∠ − ky −18.4349 ) | 10 |
1
A∠φ = ∠45 ⇒ LHEP
2
 3-31

Polarization
Example

Find the polarization of the following field:

(c) E = ((1 + j ) yˆ + (1 − j ) zˆ )e- jkx

E y = ( 2∠ − kx + 45)

E z = ( 2∠ − kx − 45)
E z ( 2∠ − kx − 45 ) | 2 |
A∠φ = = = ∠ − kx − 45 − (− kx − 45 )
E y ( 2∠ − kx + 45 ) | 2 |

A∠φ = 1∠ − 90 ⇒ RHCP
 3-32

Plane Waves in Dissipative Media

For isotropic conductors Ohm's Law states that

Jc = σ E
where J c conduction current ; σ conductivity ⎣⎡ ⎤
m⎦
J 0 source current

Consequently Ampere's Law becomes

∇ × H = jω D + J c + J 0
⎡ σ⎤
∇ × H = jω ⎢ε − j ⎥ E + J 0
⎣ ω⎦
Where
σ
ε=ε − j Complex Permittivity
ω
 3-33

Plane Waves in Dissipative Media

In a source free conducting medium ( J =0 ) Ampere's

Law states
∇ × H = jω εE
As derived earlier, the wave equation is given by

(∇ 2
+ ω 2με ) E = 0

As we have seen, ε is complex for a conducting medium.

Note: The wave number and the intrinsic impedance are
now complex numbers.

k 2 = ω 2μ ε ; η= μ ε
 3-34

Plane Waves in Dissipative Media

The wave number and the intrinsic impedance can

also be written as
k = k R - jk I

η = η e jφ

The electromagnetic fields of a uniform plane wave

in a dissipative medium are given by
ˆ 0 e − jk z
E = xE

E 0 e − jk z
H = yˆ
η
 3-35

Plane Waves in Dissipative Media

The electromagnetic fields can also be written as

− k I z − jk R z
E = xE
ˆ 0e e
− k I z − jk R z
E0 e e e jφ
H = yˆ
η

Or in the time domain

cos (ω t − k R z )
− kI z
E x ( z , t ) = E0 e

cos (ω t − k R z − φ )
− kI z
E0 e
H y ( z, t ) =
η
 3-36

Plane Waves in Dissipative Media

From the electromagnetic fields we can observe that

1) The wave travels in the + zˆ direction with a velocity

ω
v=
kR
where k R is called the wavenumber.

2) The amplitude is attenuated exponentially at the rate

k I nepers per meter, where k I is the attenuation
constant.

3) The magnetic field H y is out of phase by φ .

 3-37

Attenuation

One neper attenuation if

⎡ Amplitudestart ⎤
ln ⎢ ⎥ =1
⎣ Amplitude end ⎦

The attenuation in nepers after lenght d is given by

⎡ E0 e - k I z ⎤
Attenuation[nepers] = ln ⎢ - kI ( z + d ) ⎥
= kI d
⎣ E0 e ⎦
The relationship between nepers and dB is given by
1[neper] = 8.686 [dB]
 3-38

Example

The electric field is decreased by a factor of 0.707.

Find the attenuation in nepers and dB

⎡EF ⎤
ln ⎢ ⎥ = ln [ 0.707 ] = −0.3467 [nepers]
⎣ EI ⎦
⎡ dB ⎤
− 0.3467[nepers]i8.686 ⎢ ⎥ = −3.01 [dB]
⎣ nepers ⎦
or

⎛ EF ⎞
20log ⎜ ⎟ = 20log ( 0.707 ) = −3.01 [dB]
⎝ EI ⎠
 3-39

Note on dB Scale

If dealing with electric field use

⎡E ⎤
20log ⎢ F ⎥
⎣ EI ⎦
If dealing with power use
⎡PF ⎤
10log ⎢ ⎥
⎣ PI ⎦
This is because P ~ E 2

when E F = 0.707E I

then PF = 0.707 2 PI ⇒ PF = 0.5PI

20log [ 0.707 ] = 10log [ 0.5] = −3.01 [dB]

 3-40

General Medium

⎛1⎞
The penetration depth (d p ) such that E( z =d ) = ⎜ ⎟ E( z =0 ) is given by
p
⎝e⎠
kI d p = 1

Where for a conducting media

k =ω
⎡
με ⎢1 − σ ⎤ σ
j ⎥ = ω με 1 − j = kR - jkI
⎣ ωε ⎦ ωε

Keep in mind that

If a >>1 then If a < < 1 th e n

a or a
1 + ja ≈ (1 + j ) 1 + ja ≈ 1 + j
2 2
 3-41

Slightly Conducting Media

σ
(Good Dielectric) << 1
ωε
⎡ σ ⎤
k ≈ω με ⎢1 − j
⎣ 2ωε ⎥⎦

σ μ
k = k R - jk I ; kI =
2 ε

2 ε
dp = ; kR = ω με
σ μ
 3-42

Highly Conducting Media

σ
(Good Conductor) >> 1
ωε
ω μσ
k≈ (1 − j )
2

ω μσ
k = kR - jkI ; kI =
2

2 ω μσ
dp = ≡δ ; kR =
ω μσ 2

δ Also called the skin depth

 3-43

Behavior of k I and k R as a Function of Loss Tangent

σ
ωε
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
400
Exact kr
Exact ki
Good Conductor appx. kr=ki
k I or k R (1/m)

Good Dielectric appx. kr 300

Good Dielectric appx. ki

200

100

0
S e a w a te r
⎡ m ho ⎤
μ = μ 0 ; ε = 8 1ε 0 ; σ = 4⎢ ⎥
⎣ m ⎦
 3-44

Conductors
 3-45
OHM'S LAW
“Good” Conductor J = σE ⇒σ → ∞

Superconductive lead σ = 2.7 × 1020 [ mho/m]

Silver σ = 6.2 × 107 [ mho/m]
Copper σ = 5.8 × 107 [ mho/m ]
Ordinary Gold σ = 4.1 × 107 [ mho/m] A perfect
metal with Aluminum σ = 3.8 × 107 [ mho/m] conductor is
very high Brass σ = 1.5 × 107 [ mho/m ] an idealized
values of σ Solder σ = 0.7 × 107 [ mho/m] material in
approximate Stainless steel σ = 0.1 × 107 [ mho/m ] which no
“perfect” electric field
conductors
Graphite σ = 7 × 104 [ mho/m] can exits
Silicon σ = 1.2 × 103 [ mho/m]
Sea water σ =4 [ mho/m]
Distilled water σ = 2 × 10−4 [ mho/m ]
Sandy soil σ = 10−5 [ mho/m ]
Granite σ = 10−6 [ mho/m]
Bakelite σ = 10−9 [ mho/m]
Diamond σ = 2 × 10−13 [ mho/m ]
Polystyrene σ = 10−16 [ mho/m]
Quartz σ = 10−17 [ mho/m]
 3-46
D=εE
Lossy Dielectrics
ε = ε ′ − jε ′′
Can define an effective conductivity
σ e = ωε ′′
Same effect as σ but from a different source
Can dissipate Phase Lag
ε ′′ σ e
energy in Table gives [ tan δ ] = = caused by
oscillations of ε ′ ωε ′ bound charge
bound charge not “keeping
in a dielectric. ε′ up” with E Field
= εr tan δ
ε0
Ice 4.2 0.1
Dry soil 2.8 0.07
Distilled water 80 0.04
Nylon 4 0.01
Teflon 2 0.0003
Glass 4→7 0.0002
Dry wood 1.5 → 4 0.01
Styrofoam 1.03 0.00003
Steak 40 0.3
 3-47

Skin Effect

The skin effect is the tendency of

an alternating electric current to
distribute itself within a conductor
so that the current density near the
surface of the conductor is greater
than that at its core. That is, the
electric current tends to flow at the
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/power_loss.html
"skin" of the conductor.

For EM waves

E = xˆ E0 e − kI z e− jkR z Since J = σE

J = xˆσ E0 e− kI z e− jkR z Current is exponentially

damped into material
 3-48

Plane Waves in Plasma is a collection of (+) and (-)

a Plasma charged particles for which <ρv>=0

For low density plasma (few collisions)

⎡ ω p2 ⎤
μ = μ0 ; ε = ε 0 ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ ωp → Plasma freq.
⎢⎣ ω ⎥⎦

"Cold Plasma"
Note: ε is a function of ω ⇒ Dispersive medium

For ω > ωp
1
⎡ ωp 2 ⎤2
k = ω μ0 ε 0 ⎢1 − ⎥
⎢⎣ ω ⎥⎦
2

ω
v=
k
 3-49

Plane Waves in
a Plasma

For ω < ωp the wavenumber becomes imaginary

1
⎡ω p2 ⎤2
k = − jα = − jω μ0ε 0 ⎢ − 1⎥
⎢⎣ ω 2
⎥⎦

Then E(z) = xE ˆ 0 e−α z

ˆ 0 e− j k z = xE Evanescent Waves

α Attenuation occurs
and H(z) = yˆ E0 e −α z but no real power is
jωμ0
dissipated
Since E and H are both imaginary

1 ⎡
s = Re E × H* ⎤ = 0
2 ⎣ ⎦
 3-50

Phase vs. Group

Velocity

The phase velocity

is the speed of the
individual wave
crests, whereas the
group velocity is the
speed of the wave
packet as a whole
(the envelope).

In this case, the

phase velocity is
greater than the
group velocity.
http://www.geneseo.edu/~freeman/animations/phaseani_comp.avi
 3-51

Phase vs. Group

Velocity
Consider a plane wave propagating in the +xˆ direction

E (x , t) = E0 cos (ω t − kx )

with two frequencies ω1 = ω0 − Δ ω and ω 2 = ω0 + Δω

and with wavenumbers k1 = k 0 − Δ k and k 2 = k0 + Δk

For ω1 ⇒ E0 cos ( (ω0 − Δω )t − ( k0 − Δ k ) x )

For ω 2 ⇒ E0 cos ( (ω0 + Δω )t − ( k0 + Δ k ) x )

Sum to get total field

E (x , t)total = E0 {cos ( (ω0 − Δ ω )t − ( k0 − Δ k ) x ) + cos ( (ω0 + Δ ω )t − ( k0 + Δ k ) x )}

 3-52

Phase vs. Group

Velocity

Using trig identities

E (x, t)total = 2 E0 cos (ω0t − k0 x ) cos ( Δωt − Δkx )

The 2 cosine factors give a slow variation superimposed over a more rapid one

Constant phase on rapid (1st cos) term

δ x ω0
ω0t − k0 x = constant ⇒ = = vp Phase Velocity
δ t k0

Constant argument on 2nd slower variation

δ x Δω δω
Δωt − Δkx = constant ⇒ = = = vg Group Velocity
δ t Δk δ k
 3-53

Phase vs. Group

Velocity

http://www.isvr.soton.ac.uk/SPCG/Tutorial/Tutorial/Tutorial_files/littlewavepackets.gif