Chapter 2

Sound Absorption
SOUN D-ABSORBING TRSATMEI{T

When sound impinges on the boundary surfaces cf a rcom, pan o{ it*

energy is absorbed and transmitted, and part is reflected back into the room.
Sound levels in a rgom can be reduced by effective use of saund-absorbing
treatment, such as fibrous ceiling boards. cunains, and carp€ts.
ln the room with no acousticaltreatment shown below, office workers
hear direct sound energy from the computer equipment as well as reflected
sound energy from the ceiling, floor, and walls. The computer operators, on
the other hand, primarily hear direct sound from the nearest sound sgurce, the
computer. lf sound-absorbing materials are added to the room, the o{fice
workers will hear considerably less sound because the reflected sound is re-
duced in their part of the room. The sound level near the computer equipment,
however, is due mainly to direct sound and remains unchanged.

Room with No Acoustical Tieatment

Irl9 tl0or
Room with Sound-Absorbing Treatment
1vE oeaded gould - absorbi ng
(uibh plenurt abavc)

t'
**6or;nd- sbaorbing ,/
rl,all panels
\r*'sJf Lou,ler &?'
noisa lg'ralg
Lvusr rrvre9-lEYt
- {rom coYn?$ter
)

Carpet ( static diseipative)

38 soi.sro ABSoFPTToN
NOISE RSDUCTION OUTDOORS ANtr WITHIN ENCLOSURES

Free Field

Frae-field conditions occur when sound waves are free from the influence
of reflective surfaces {e.9., open areas outdocrs, anechoic rooms*}. Under
free-field conditions, sound en€rgy from poinr sources {e.9., warning siren.
truck exhaust) spreads spherically and drnps off 6 dB for each doubling of dis-
tance from the source. Lne sources of vehicular traffic consist of successive
point sources which reinforce each other. Sound energy from line $ources
spreads eylindrically, ncr spherically, and drops off only 3 dB for each doubling
of distance.

in lree f ield"
9,o,snd decau
uhers t*-o,+d"

s
-s 6dD redrlcNien
{rorn doublin6
dieLe^ce foi point sovt og
rl
{s
-a
g
a
a
rfl
d' dt " Zdr
OiELanaa Frorrr gourr.e (\og $ctle)

Raverberant Field

lndoors, scund energy drops 11ff under free-field conditions only near the
sourcg {usually < S ft for small roomsi. Because room surfaces reflect sound,
there will be little further noise reduction with distance away from the source
{called reverberant fietdl . fhe more absorption in a room, the less the buildup
of sound energy in the reverberani field. As shown on the graph below' the re-
verberant buildup of sound is lower for situation 2 than for situation 1 due to a
greater amount of absorption.

,Afte€hoic roorns have sound-sbso.bing wedges { 2 2 ft deep} cn all six enslosrng surfaces to simulate the fre€
fi*ld. Th€*e extremaly "dead" rooms allcw indoor sfudy of and resfa.ch an dirgtt saund witholt room reflectpn
etfecls.

scuruD AssonPrroN 39
 Roverberanf {ield

)60*nd lavel ir .srerbe.anlt€ld ,rile.i t'ula

io
-a
( lillie or ao redrction uiin disLanol)
Saund fells
off near Naiss redu*iion (HR) due
; aor,rcc lil*e to adding Sbsorpfion
!q ,rlrar f irld'
-p csndilions 9ound lgvsl in re,rcrbcrsnt {ield
:sc (urilh addsd zbsarpNian)
(o
dr d*
Oi*lan*e {ro"rr aoffoe ilog acale}

Note: Beyond distance d x JTIG trarn the source, lhe sound level is relatively con-
stant and depends primarily on the total room absorption a, where a is measured in
sabins.

4O sano AssoFPTg{
EFFECT OF ADDING SOUNO-ABSORBING TREATMENT TO ROCIMS

The addition of scund absorption tCI the ceiling of a small room {< 500
ft:) ean reduce the reverberant sound levels by 10 dB as shornrn below for an
example noise source. However, clsse to the source. the reduction willbe cnly
about 3 dB. lf the ceiling and all four walls are treated with sound-absorbing
material, the sound level in the reverberant field drops an additional 6 dB, but
the sound levels near the source {in the free field} are rot affected. Note that
no reduction is achieved from funher sound*absorbing treatment. Also, in this
example the room initially was completely anclosed by sound-reflecting sur-
faces and trad few furnishings to absorb sound energy. Thus a reduction sf 6
to I dB in reverberant noise is more likely the upper limit for furnished spaces
af comparab'le size.

Free {ield Reverberant field

UnNreaiad ro.gn (g4paum board {l-

u,rall6 and ceil ing, eonorggz i1oor1 -{l
Ei.
+ll
10 b-o--
$c'
44a
r$B
lnF

b0 ttpr
ro
-! t:i€
(t \\ Etss
a q) <'.I
$s (!t
(t \\ ,r6ab drop per
-€ \. / aoublins'oF dis+,ance E;ei
(.
:o \ \ (ovldooY reduclion) - \tr<
\tr o-+P
(n
60L , r <.e.is
0,2 2?.4 too
Dician ca lrom gorlnd source (ll)

sou$rD ABsoRFTror* 41
SOUI\ID ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT

The effectiveness of a sound-absorbing material can be expressed by its

absorptian coefficient a. This caefficient describes the fraction of the incidenr
sound energy that a rnalerial absorbs. Theoretically. it can vary from 0 lno
sound energy absorbedl to 1.O {perfect absorption with allincident saund
energy absorbed ) . Coefficients are derived from laboratory tests or estimated
from measuremsnis in finished rooms. ln the laboratory test, sound ensrgy
from all directions is incident on the sample being tested (called random
incidencel.
olo Sovnd absorplion
olo rallecled absorbed
dndtranErailted codl+io\ertb'P1)

o too l.u

Qpgn ruindoulx

ffi
lh" trrlc.t* glgge {ibel
e.a ba a.bo

WI
qb 2 0.02.

ffiffir
4d lt,iett" briolr

'1 ft? ol peffeci ab$orplion i5 squvalent ro 1 sabin.

The total room absorption (i.e., the sum of all room surface areas times
their respective sound absorption coefficients) for a space can be found by:
a=ISa
where s s total room absorption {sabins }
5 s surface area {ftr)
c= sound abso,rption coefficient at given frequency {decimal percent}

42 scu'o AssonPTonr
Note: To find metric sabins. divide a by 1O.76.

,Absorption csefficients for building rnaterials normally vary frorn about

0.01 to O.99" However, acoustical testing bboratories sometirnes report coef-
fici*nts which exceed perfect absorpticn of 1.0. This apparent impossibility can
occur because of peeuliarities of testing methCIds {e.9", effecrs from size of
test specimen or expossd edges of test samples) and diffraction of sound
energY.
Materials with medium to high sound absorprion coefficients {usually
> 0.50) are referred ts as sound-absorbing; those with low coefficients {usu-
ally < 0.20) are sound-reflecring. The effect of a difference in eoefficients be-
tween two materials at a given frequency is shown by the following table.

Differen*e in Coefficient Effect for Most $ituations

< 0.10 Liule (usually nor noticeable I

0.1O to O,40 Nsticeable
> 0.40 Considerable

Hxceptions to the differenee in absorption coefficient a given in the table

ars room$ used for hearing research. testing of sound-abscrbing materials, and
the like. For example, reverberatian room$ used to measure "random inci-
dence" e'$ must have highly reflective surfaces {<< 0"20}. Even very small
differences in a for the enclosing surfaces are therefore extremely important.

Note: Sound absorption coefficients for normal incidence ao {i.e., sound waves perpen'
dicular to the surface of the ab$orberl can be measured using a closed tube, called an
impedance tube. With the sample to be rested placed at one end of the rube. pure
tgnes can be generated and measured within the tube to determine the absorpticn effi-
ciency of the sample. For materials with law absorption coefficients, un*a/3, for maler-
ials with very high coefficients, ensu. Details of the test are given by ASTM C 384.

souruD ABsoRPTToN 43
RET'ENB€RATP'{ ROOMS

Reverberation r2oms are fairly large {usual}y > 1O,00O ft3}, and all interior
boundary surfaces are highly sound reflecting {s < O.Ob al 12$ to 4OOO Hz}.
Walls normclly are painted concrete bloek, metal panels, or concr€te' To pro-
vide isolation from exterior noises. enclosing constructions usually consist of
double or triple layers (e.g., double walls, flsated floors) and must be com-
pletely isolated lrom the rest of the building. That is, a room is constructed
within a raoml
Reverberation rooms cAn be used to measure the absorprion efficiency of
building materials {under pravisions of ASTM test method C 423 ) , sound
power levels of noise-producing equipment {ANSI S'1.21, ASHRAE 36}, and
can bo the source or receiving room for sound transmission loss TL tests
{ASTM E 90 } and impact noise tests ( ASTM E 492 } .
To measure sound absorption, s large sample of the material 172 ftzl is
placed in the reverheration room. The time it takes a test sound signal to
decay by 60 dS {roughly to inaudibility) after the source of ssund is stopped
is measured first with the sample in the room and again with the room empty.
The difference in decay time defines the efficiency of th€ absorbing materisl.
For example, the shorter the decay time, the nnore efficient the sound-
absorbing material being tested.

Ler*e rol.elin* vane (to 'lerge o?cnin6 (to

oroiide t diff rise" gound acco-mmodate lloor - 6,giling
'f igld throri ghout, roorn ) coaslrutliano {Er TL and
inpaaN t ael,e, aee Chap. t)

> lo,OOO ft3 reverberation Removable qlail (to protide

roorn (lor aoavta+nioTl legAg openinS {or TL teetJ panel)
$nder oontroltad conditiana)
l'Flostad'lloor (to isalri*&
+!rucirrrall q tranEmitted
so,tnd ) -

44 sourrn ABsonPTnh,
 The sketch above depicts an exarnple reverberation room which has a rc-
tatiilg vane to help achieve a diffuse reverberant sound field during test mea-
surem€nts by constantly changing the orientation of the suriaces enclosing the
sound waves. The goal is to achieve diffusicn over as wide a frequency range
as possible. ln addition, panels can be removed to provide openings between
adjacent test rooms for evaluating the sound isqlatisn effectiveness of wall and
ceiling systems. The two adiacent rooms must be completely isolated from
each olher and from the rest of the building"

Test Refsrences
"Standard Test Method for Sound Absorption and Sound Absorption Caefficients by
rhe Reverberation Room Merhod." ASTM C 423
"Standard Method for Laboratory Measurement of Airborne Sound Transmission Loss
cf Building Partitions," ASTM E 90.
"Standard Method af Laboratory Measurement of lmpact Sound Transmission Through
Floor-Ceiling Assemblies Using the Tapping Machine," ASTM E 492.

$ouup AasonPTroru 45
EFFTCT OF THICKNESS ON ABSORPTION EFFICIENCY

$ound absorption by porous sound absorbers {identified on drawings by a

"ribbon candy" symbol) is predominately the indirect conversion of sound en-
ergy into thermal €nergy. The impinging sound wave hss its energy reduced
largely due 10 frictional flow resistance from the walls of mazelike intercon-
nected pores. The amount of absorptic'n that can be achieved is determined by
the physical prop€Ries of thickness, density, and porosity far most porous
materials, and fiber diameter and orientation for fibrous materials" Manufac-
turers try lo optimiu€ these properties to achieve high sound absorpticn effi-
ciencies. Fibrous sound absorbers {such as glass fiber or rnineralflber} are
sometim€$ referred to as fuez.
As shown by the curves below, thickness has a significant effect on the
efficiency of a porous sound absarber. ll is also sssentisl that the internal
structure of a porous material has interccnnected pore$. For example, plastic
and elastomeric foams which have olosed. nonconnected pores provide little
sound absorption although they may be effective thermal insulators.
A simple t€st to determine if a porous material can be an effective scund
absorber is to blow through it. lf the material is rhick and passes air under
moderate pressure, it should be a good absorber.

C thi"t r
luaa
CI,b

d
*J
g 0.6 ll thisF f ura
{} (5la+s itb* or minaral f iber)
"!
(+
$
$
(J O,q /
c
,9 ^
-p
lI-
L
s
(s 0.1.
-"*
(!
-a
{:
s
(J}

125 zg? 600 1000 2000 ri000

Frequency (He)

Note: Fornus sound absorbers are extremely pocr sound isolators! $ue to their soft,
lightweight, interconnected structure, sound energy easily passes frqm cne side sf the
material lo lhe other, $ee Chap. 4 for a diqcl:ssion of the principles of sound isolarion.

46 souuo ABscRPTIoN
RETATIVE EFFICIENCY OF SOUND ASSORBERS

The basic types of sound abscrbers are porous materials. vibrating {or
resonantl panals, and volsme resonators (called Helmholtz resonators). Po-
rous sound absorbers {thick materials or thin materials whh airspace behind}
should be placed at location of maximum compression for impinging sound
vvaves {e.g., },/4 distance from backup wall surface}. Combinations of porous
materials and vibrating panels or volume rssonators can provide the uniform, or
"flat," ssund absorption with frequency required in recording or radio/TV
studios.

Thin Porous Materials { Convert sound energy into heat by friction }

Thin librous
pfnal (luza)
l-0 AirEpace (t'o i^lftesa
larr,t-$ragusnoL{
zbsarplilon)'

0.b
x
$g o"6
s)
:t
(t ?" t
hicl<*uzg urii,h eir6?ece benind
q-
.O (iow. I r e opueo aq I
o un d' ab sorbin 5
{} e$l ioienoq inc'reagos w tLh eirsgeca
(} o.1 der4,.h increage )
c
.9
{f
s_ l'/,?." laie* *'tu' wibhooi
L
{} airspace Dehind
Itt
{a
o"L
qa
-s
C
3
o
dl o
25 t60 5a0 t7ao ?.000 li000
Frgtuen&! ( HE)

scRJHp nBso&non 4?
Thick Porous Materials

Perforatad laeirtg Hard bgskup

gutlgs,g

Thich {ibreut
PanOl
(fur*)

6
$
s: o,6 H igtr -.f req,uencg
,! sound-ab6orbin{
+ {'i itric* {ull ui*h eft iciencq is reduced
(&
q) pt rSareted facingi becerse €olid areeg
t!
(")
o* facin( reTlecl
gound uavei
c o.+ qd ih;cF lrrrr ( tow-lraqlencu
.9 sou n d - eb S o t.6i a
5. el F.i c'i e n oy-
"*
$- t^qee'eg ur?h thi 6Knes€
L
$ incrsrsa)
8az
(!
'to
E
-s
('lO
11-6 5rA t00o zaoo i+000
';50(Ha)
Freqrrancg

Vibrating Panels* {Convert sound energy ints vibrational energy which is

dissipated by internal darnping and radiation )

Sesonanl panel
0,9 Airgozoa (aolE eg
'apring\ absorbir'6
d c^ct6,\)
{}
.I
.!
o.c
(+- ( rlifhorrl librorrr
Penc,l
C$
r! mafarial in ab*paae)
3
o,L+
c
,9
{l Panel (r.uith fibreus rnatariEi in
s-
t. eirapaaa *o broalan abecrpiion)
o
$s ,.2
-s
:c
3a 63L te5 Lgo 600 pao %aoa
Fre,qrlcncg (Ha)

48 gloABsoprrcnr
Volume Resonators* { Reduce sound energy by friction at opening and by
interreflections within cavity )

Slsttad consrgla
blpok volurrrg
t.6 rotenrbor
Opan c*ll ( zir
mAsg creeLes
ragananca candiiionr)
0,b
U
t-Valumg resanelor (varq narrol"l rer\6e
$ af marimum absorpiioa)'
c
.* 0.6
.*
q-
<{-
r) Valune resanafor u.riih librouE
s(, maieritt in cavilu (to increaae h;{h-
+?eq$encu obgarilion and widen-
c o,q eriint 6$ loa'l'r*uencu- Aosot^elion
o
*l
bg dampin6 ailecls)
TL
L
$
lt}
$ o.L \
<!
'o
c,
:t
q
\
\fi OL rtl
b3 128 26A 600 1000 ?000
7ra+$&n&5 C ilr)
'Thes€ speciali?€d fypes of *oufid absorption *n be usad la supplemsnt Foroug marerials oa ta absorb specifle
low-frequency sound energy {e.9., l2GHr "hir.rm" from electrical equipment}.

sowo AgsonPrtol 49
NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT

The noise reductian caefficient NRC is the arithmetic average, rounded off
to the nearsst multiple of O.05, of the sound absorption coefficients c's at
25O, 500, 1OO0, and 20O0 Hz for a specific material and mounting condition.
The o's at 125 Hz and 4O00 Hz, although measured during the ASTM C 423
test, are npt used to calculate the NfiC. Therefsre, the NFC is intended as a
single-number rating of sound-absorbing efficiency at rnid-frequencies. lt is not,
as its name implies, the difference in sound levels between two conditions or
between rooms (see also Chap. 4 ) . The NRC can be found by:

ttrso * c[soo * tlro* * ttr*,,

NRC s

where NRC = noise reduction coefficienr (decimal percent)

o = sound absorption coefficient {decimal percenl}

Be careful when selecting a prcduct based on its NRC alone. Because the
NRC is an average number over a limited frequency range. two materials may
have identical NRCs but very different absorption characteristics, ln addition,
because the NRC does not include the a's ar 125 Hz and 4ffi0 Ha, it should
not be used to evaluate materials for rooms where music or speech perception
is important (e.9., music practice rooms, counrooms). As shown by the two
curves at the top of the graph below, fibrous acoustical board panels have far
greater absorpticn at 125 Hz than shredded-wood formboard. Although rhe
a's differ by more than 0.50 at 125 Hz, rhe NRCs differ by onty 0.1b. Where
low-frequency absorption may not be an important factor {e.g., lobbies, small
offices), the NHC can be an adequate rating to cornpare materials.

Fi bror.r* eaaugti r.4l baAd

{l.iRC r O.40 $or rnoun{ing: E)

fr_;
1.0

q
o.b o \ 6hreddcd-u ooi [armboard
oo {l}\Ct 0.16 fer nouniingi A)
6 g
P*
OT
.5 a.e i;d.
.! d+
o
g
E{
u
r) iio
.:6
C"
.4,{ \6Q
r Cer?Cl o. heavq pad
*
.q
cr-
ri; (rtA'C' O.qO +o.-nounlia( A)
L
a
o
* a.2
-o
t
sa
-o
rll
i26 260 aol tooo ?000 4000
Freluenc3 (Ha)

5O souxn AgsoRFTrori
EXAMPLE PROBLFM INNC COMPUTATION}

Find thCI NftC for a carpet with the following sound absorption coefficients:
0.20 at 250 Hz, 0"35 at 500 Hz. O"45 at 1000 Hz, and 0.55 at 2ffi0 Hz.

NRC = 9& t 9' q{.++

o'+u * o'uu ll!
- = o.3e

This answer must be rounded offto the nearest 0.OS increment. Therefore.
the NRC for this carpet will be 0"ffi6

sor"l*osnSwnO'r $1
 SOUND ABSOAPTION DATA FOR COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS I\ND
FURNISHINGS
Srund Abmtion Cdstfcient NRC
Marerial 12Fllr 250Hr 59OHa 100OHr 300OHr 4000He fiur&er'
Walls{1.s. s. 12l

$ound-Seffecting:
1. 8rick. unghred 0.0? o.o? 0.03 0,o4 0.05 0.07 0.o$
?. Brick, unglaaed and painted o.o1 0.01 o.o2 a.az 0.02 0.o3 0.00
3. Conwete, rough 0.01 q.oz 0.04 0.06 o.08 0.10 0,05
4. Concrete bloek, painted s.10 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.o8 0.o5
5. Glass, haavy {large panes} 0.18 0.06 0.o4 0.03 0.02 0.o2 0.o5
6. Glass, ordinary window 0.35 0.t5 0.18 0.12 0.o7 0.04 0"15
7. Gypsum board, 112 in thick {naiied ro 2 X 4s, 16 in 0.29 0.10 0.o5 0.04 o.o7 0.o9 0.05
oci
8. Gypsum board, 1 layer, 518 rn thick (screwed t$ 1 x O,55 *. 14 0"08 0.04 0.12 0.1 1 0^10
3s, ]6 in oc with airsprces fill€d with fibrous
ansulation )
I. Construction no. 8 with ? layers ol 5/8-in-lhick 0.?8 o. r? 0.10 0.o7 0.13 0.o9 0, 10
gypsum board
10. Ma&le or glazed tile o.or o.01 0.o1 0.01 0.02 a.az 0.00
1 1. Pta$er on brick o"o1 0,04 o.o2 0.o3 o.04 0.o5 0.o5
12. Plagler on concrste block {or 1 in lhick on hrh} 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.o4 0.05
13. Plasrer on lath 0.14 0.1s c.06 0 05 o.04 0.o3 0.05
14. Plyw.od, 3/8-in paneling o.28 8.22 0.17 0.OS 0.10 0.r 1 0.15
15. Steel o,05 0.10 0.lo o.10 a.a7 0 02 0.10
16, Venetian blinds. metal 0,06 o.o5 0.07 c.15 o,13 0.17 o.to
17, W6od, 1 l4-in paneiing, with airspace behind o.42 o.?1 0. r0 0 08 0.06 0.06 0.lo
18. Wood, f -in paneling with airspace behind o.1g 0.]4 009 006 0.06 0.o5 0.]o
$ound-Absorbing:
19. Concrete trlock, coarse UJO 0.44 0.31 0.29 o.39 0.25 0.35
20. Lightweighr drapery, 1O o:lyda, flat on wall ilVcre: 0.03 0.o4 0.11 0.17 a.?4 0.35 0.15
Sound-relleeting at most frequ€ncies. l
2 L Mediumweighr drapery, 14 oz / yd2, draped to half area 0.o7 0.31 0,49 0.75 o.70 0.60 0.55
{i-e.. 2 ft o{ drapery ro 1 ft of walll
tt. Heavyweight drapery. 18 ozlyd2" drap*d ro half area 0.14 0 3s 0.5s 0.?2 o.70 0.s5 0.60
23. Fiberglass fabric cunain, I
1 /2 oz/yd2, d.aped to half 0.Og 0.32 0.68 0.83 o.3s 0.76 0.55
area {Noaei The deepsr the airspace behind the d.apery
(up to 12 in), the greatcr the low'tequency
absorption. l
24. $hredded-wood fiberboard. 2 thick on conqreie 0.15 4 26 0.6' 0.94 0.64 A 9? o.60
{mtg. A} 'n
25. Thick. fibrous n€tenal behind opsnfacirig 0.60 0.75 0.82 o.80 0.60 0.38 0.75
2S, Carper. heavy, on 518-in pedorat€d mineral iiberboard 0.37 o.41 0.63 0.85 0.s5 0.s2 0.70
wirh airspace behind
27. Wood, 112-in paneling. perfo€led 3116-in-dismfier 0.4O 0.90 0.80 0.50 0.{o 0.30 0.65
holes, 11 % open area, with 2 1/2-in glass fiber in
a'rspace behind
Floletsle' rll
$ound-fiefleaing:
28. Concrete or terrazzo 0.o1 o.o1 0.o2 0.0a 0.02 0.s2 0.00
29. Linoleum, rubber, or asphah dla on concrete o.02 o,03 0.o3 0 03 o.o3 0,o2 0.o5
3O. Marble or gla?ed tile 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 01 0.02 0.02 0.00
31, Wood 0.15 o,1 1 0.t0 007 0.o$ o.07 0.10
32. Wood parguet on concreie 0.04 o.04 0.o7 0.06 0.0€ 0.0? 0.05
$cund-Absorbing:
33. Carpet. heavy, on concrete 0.O2 0.06 0" 14 0.37 0.60 0.65 0.30
34. Carper, heavy. on foam rubber 0.08 0.24 0.57 069 o.71 0.73 0.55
3$. Carpat, heavy. with impermeable latex bscking on ioam O.08 a 2'7 0,3S 0.34 0,48 0.63 0.3s
rubbe;
36. lndoor-outdoor carpet 0.01 o.05 0.10 0.20 o.rt5 a.65 0.20
Ceilings{6 rrct 1

Sound-Refe;ting:
3?. Ccncrere o.or 0.ol 0 02 o.02 o.02 0,02 0.00
38. Gypsunr board, 1 l2 in tllck o.29 o.10 0.o5 Q.04 o.07 0.09 u.ub
39. Gypsum t:oad. 1/2 rn thrck, rn suspensron systern 0.15 0.10 0.o5 o.04 o.07 0.o9 0.05
4S. Plasrcr on lath o.14 o_10 0.06 0.05 o.o4 0.03 o.05
4,l. Plywood, 3/8 in thick o28 a.?2 0.17 o.os 0. 10 0r1 0.15
totrnd-,Ab*orbing:
42. Aco*stical board, 314 in thck, in suspension system 0.75 0.s3 0.83 0.gs o,cs 0.94 Q.g5
lmtg. il
43. Shredded-waod fiberboard. 2 in thick on l*y-in grid 059 0.51 0 53 A.73 o.88 0.?4 0.65
{mtg. t }

52 souxo AssoRPnoN
 lq:{n9l}bsorption coelficie-nt ---
- NRc
Materi.l 125 Hz 2$O Hz 6O0 Ha "1000 fir Z0S Hz 4O0O Hz Numberr
44. Thin, porou$ cound€bsorblng material, o.10 0.60 0.80 0.82 s,78 0.60 0,75
3/4 in thick {mts. g}
45. Thhk, porous sound-absorting material, 2 in thick o.38 0.60 0.?s o,80 o,7B o.70 0.75
lmtg. Bl, or lhin nlateriai wilh srrspace behind
lmtg_ &)
46. Sprayed cellulose fibers, 1 in rhick on concrete {mtg. o.0s 0.29 0.75 0.98 0.93 0.76 0.75
A}
47. 6ase"fib* roof tab.ic, 12 azfy* 0.65 0.71 0.81 0.86 0.76 0.62 0.30
4S- 6ass-fiber roof fabd., 37 1 I 2 oz / vdz { Nare: $oun* 0.3€ 0.23 0"17 0.15 0.0s 0.0€ o.15
refleeting at mosl trequencies, I
49- Folyurelhane to6m, 1 in thick, open cell, reticular€d 0.07 0.'t 1 0.20 o,32 0.60 0.65 0.30
50" Parallel gfass-fiberbcard pa*els, 1 in thick by 1S in o.o7 0.:0 0.44 o.$2 0.60 0.67 0.45
de€p, sp$c€d 18 in apan, susponded 1t in below
ceiling
51. Parallel glass-fbsrboard panal$, 1 in thick by 18 in 0.10 0,29 0.6! 1.1t 1r1 1.38 0.85
deep, spaced 6 1 l3 in apsrt suspendsd 12 in below
ceiling
Seats ahd Aucllencell. s ?. {}t
52, Fakic welFupholslered seats, with perforaled seal o.ls 0.37 056 0.67 0.6.1 0.59
pans, uncecuped
53. Leather-cov€red upholstered seals, unoccupiadt 0.44 0.54 0.60 0.6? 0.58 0.50
54. Audicnce, seated in upholsteted sealsl o.39 0.5? o,80 0"94 0.92 0.87
55. Congragaxsn. s€ated in wooden pews 0,57 0.61 0.75 0.86 0.91 0"86
56. Chair. metal or wood geat, unoccupied o. 15 0.19 0.12 0.3S O 38 0.30
5?. Srudenls, infcrmally dress€d, seated in €blet-arm chairs o.30 o 41 0.49 0.84 A.87 0.84
OpeningSleir
58. Deep balcony. with uphal$ered seats o.50-1.00
59. Diffusers or g.iHe3, mechanical system 0^ 15-{.50
60. Stag€ 0.25-{.75
Miscellaneoi$13's. ltl
61. Gravel. loose and morsl. 4 in fhick 0.25 0-60 0.65 0 70 0.75 o.80 0.70
62. Grass, marion bluegrass. 2 in high 0, 11 0.26 0.60 0 69 0.s2 o 99 0.60
63. Snow, freshly fallen, 4 in thiik 0"45 O.75 0.90 0,95 0 95 o.95 0.90
64. 9oil. rough 0.15 0"25 0.40 0.55 0 60 0.60 0.4s
65. Trees, balsam firs, 20 ft: ground ar*a per lree, 8 ft hrgh O.03 O.Oa o.1 1 0, 17 0.27 o.31 0, 15
56. Watar $urtace {swmfirng pod} O.O1 0.01 0.01 0,o2 a a2 o.o3 0 00
'NFC {no}se reduction coeftici*nt} is a single-number rating af lhe sound absorption coefficient$ of a malerial. lr is an
average rhat only includes the coefficients in the 25G rc 2OOO Hz frequency range and therefore shauld be used wilh
cautron. Se€ page 50 for a discussion of the NRC raling method.
tRefer ta msnufacturer's caulogs for absorpticn data whieh should be from up-to-date t€s1s by independent acoustical
bboratori€$ according to cunent ASTM procedures.
lCoefficients are per square foot of seatrng floor area or per unrt. Where the audience rs randomly spaced {e.9..
courtroorn, cafeteria). mid-frequency absorption can be esltmaled at about 5 sabrns per person To be preose.
coefficiBnts per person must be stated ir relation to spacrng pattern.
SThe ficor area occupied by the audience must be cslculated:c include an €dge effect Et aisles. For an aisle bounded
on bolh sides by audience, include a $rip 3 ft wide; for an aisle bounded on only one side by audience, inclr.rde a strip 1

1 12 {t wide. No edge effect is used when the seatins abuis walls or balcony frants {because the edge is shielded I ,

I
The coefficients are also valid for orchestra and chorrl areas & 5 to ftt per person. Orehestra areas include people,
.srumentg. mutic racks, etc. No edge effecls are used around musicians.
lCoefficients for op*nings dopend on absorption and cubic volume al opposire side.

Test Heference
"$tandard Test Method for Sound Absorprion and Sound Absorption Coetficients by
the Reverberation Room Method," ASTM C 423. Available from American $ociety for
Testing and Materials {ASTM}, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia' PA 19103'

$ources
1. L. L" Beranek, "Audienee and Chair Ab'sorprion in Large l-lalls." Journal of the
,Acoustical Sotiety af America, January 1969.
2, A. N. Surd et al., "nata for the .Acoustic Design of Studios." British Broadcasting
'1956.
Corporation, BBC Engineering Monograph no. 64, November
? E" J. Evans and E, N. dq'tlgy, "Sound Absorbing tvlat€riats," H. M. Stationery Office,
Lnndon, 1964.

SOUNO ABSORPTNN 53
 R. A. Hedeen , Cumpendiun of Materials for Noise CantroL National lnstitute for Oc-
cupational Safety and H€ahh {NIOSH}, Publicatian nc. 80-'116, Cincinnati, Ohio,
May 1980. {Cantains sound absorption data on hundreds of commercially available
materials. )

H. F. Kingsbury and Vl. J. Wallace, "Acoustic Absorption Characteristics of

People," Sound and Vibration, December 1968.
6. T. Mariner. "Control of Noise by Sound-,Absorbent Materials." &oise Cantrol, July
1957.
7. J. E. Moore and R. Wesr, "ln Search of an lnstanl Audience," Journal of the
Acoustical Socrety af America, December 197O.
8" R. Moulder and J. Merrill, "Acoustical Properties of Glass Fiber Roof Fabrics,"
Saund and Vibration,0ctober 1983.
"Performance Data, Architectural Acoustical Marerials," Acoustical and lnsulating
Materials Associalion {AIMA}, {This bulletin was published annually from 1941 ro
197 4.t
10 W. E. Purcell, "Materials for Noise and Vibration Control," Sound and Vibratian,
July 198?.
11. W. Siekman, "Outdoor Acoustical Treatment: Grass and Trees," Journal of the
Acoustical Saciety af A,merica, October 1969.
12. "S<lund Conditioning with Carpet," The Carper and Rug lnstitute, Dalton. Ga., 1g7O

Note: For llame spread ratings of finish materials, refer to current edition of "Building
Materials," available from Underwrirers' Laborarories (UL), 333 ffingsten Road, Nonh-
brook, lL 60062.

54 sounn ABsoRFlor{
IABORATORY TE$T MOUNTINGS

Laboratory tests to determine sound absorption efficiency should be con-

ducted according to the current ASTM C 4?3 procedures. The types of
mounting shown below are intended to represent rypical installation methods
for sound-absorbing materials used in buildings. Mounrings A, B, D, and E
apply to most prefabricated products. F to sound-absorbing mechanical air*duct
linings, and C is used for speciali:ed applications. Numerical suffix indicates dis-
tance in millimeters that the test specimen is from test room surface {e.g.,
E-4OO is mounting depth of 4O0 mm or 15 314 in).
When data is reported, the mounting merhod used during the test always
should be indicated along with the sound absorption coefficients. without iden,
tifying the mounting method, scund absorption dara wilt be meaningless. For
example. a product having an advertised sound absorption coefficient of 0.8O

Tcsl apacirnen y Tesf specirnen

Ti,si roorn f ix?ure
Surfaca / Tuovnr;n6

lsrs-A-rgsl'ng.
6gucirr'an
Adheeive

Tgpa E .maun!ing'

Open facin6 *potirtten

6oa^d-abeorbinf 5hatfi rnetel
mate,ri. i
Furrin$ f"lorrnt,ing: firlura
l'1aun de?lh
Angla
T\pe C mounLir\(
l"4orntirr6
deTt'h

*Tecinen
Furringi
l'launiing dapvn

iuoe
Jr-
0 mounling Tgpe F mor;ntinf

souNn ABsoRPTnN 55
 was used in a finished space; however, a scund absorption cosfficient of only
0.40 was achieved becauss the actual installation {mounting A ) did not
duplicate the laboratory te$i, which had a deep airspace behind the sound-
absorbing material (mounting E ) .
$arnples to be evaluated by the ASTM C 423labaratory te$t are installed
on the floor of the reverberation room as depicted above. Therefore, the illus-
tration$ for mcuntings A thraugh F appear to be upside down for ceiling appli-
cations.

Hounting depbh
{x)
r
l-t'l
,

F{
ffi
Solidr)rfr I !
plank

Tggt raom
Eur*ece

ilw
9lind Ar a?er1 w
TtFe 6 roouniingl

Hanger rad Tegt room

( o01' paralle uall 9ur{ace
ta ratl )

0ra peru ( ghoujn

aL 'l1trlo {ullnes,

>5 $b (nrinimum)

Tjpe, H msunting:
( to simrrlate s?aoed 6bsorbers )
NotE; Numerical mounting designations by the Ceilings & lnterior Systems Construction
Association {CISCA) correspond to thE,ASTM mountings as follows: 1 is B, 2 is D, 4
is A, 5 is C. 6 is F. and 7 is f.

References
"Fractice for Mounting Test Specimens Ouring $ound Absorption Tests," ASTM
E 7gg.
"Sftndard Test Method for Sound Absorption and Sound Absorprion Coefficients by
the Reverberation Room Methcd," ASTM C 4?3.

56 souuo ABsoRFTTcN
PREFAERICATEO SOUND-ABSORBING MATERIALS

Generic examples of lhe numerous commercially available prefabricated

sound**bsorbing materials are shawn below. Most sound-absorbing tiles and
pan*ls ar€ not sufficiently durable fsr wall application" For walls, ute fibrous
materials with protective open factngs {e.9., per"forated or expanded metal,
perforated hardbsard, metal slats ), fabric-covered panels, or shredded-wood
formboard.
Use membrane-faced or ceramic tile materials for humid environmenls
such as swimming pools, locker room$, and kitchens. (Sound energy readily
pas$es through membranes with a thickness of less than 1 mil. )
Observe manufacturer's recommendations for the cleaning and painting of
porous sound-absorbing materials. Lightly tnt or stain, rather than paint,
sound-absorbing materials. because painting can seriously diminish the sound-
absorbing efficiency by clogging the openings. For many situations, $pray ap-
plicaticns can achieve a thinner coating than brushes or rollers. {The out-of-
prinr AIMA booklet "How to Clean and Maintain Acoustical Tile Ceilings"
pre$enls useful guidelines. ) When in doubt, a painted specimen can be tested
according to the provi$icns of ASTM C 643 to determine effects of paint {ar
compare painted to unpainted specimens following ASTM E 1050 procedures
for determining absorption using an impedance tube i .

Regular Perforated Tiler Textured and/or Patterned

Tile or Panel

Fissured Tile or Panel Slotted Tile or Panel

flandnrn Ferlorated Tilel Mernbrane-Faced or Ceramic Tile

Materials

s0uN0 ABsoRproN 57
 $hredded-Wood Formboard Smooth $PraY-On MatarialT
{Mineral or Cellulose Fibers)

Glass-Fiber Blankets and Boards Rough $pray-CIn Materialt

'Openings provide about 15 percenr open area to allow patnling without bridgng ovsr the holes. Avoid using oil
and rubber-base paints which may clog pore$. Materials wirh large perforalions normally can be painted without se-
rious reduction o{ sound-absorbing e{flciency.
tUse spray-on materials at 1 ta 3 in ihickness on hErd backup sudace or appiy ro open larh, which can provide
increased absolption at low frequeneies due to resonsnt-panel effects,

58 sourur ABscRPrtoN
AREA EFFECT FOfr SPACED SOUND AB$OBBERS

The efficiency of a sound-absorbing material can be affected by its distri-

bution and location in a room. For example, 25 panels of sound-absorbing ma-
terial. each 2 ft by 2 ft, will abscrb more sound energy per panel when spaced
in a "checkerboard" pattern on a 200-ft? plaster ceiling than a uniform cov-
erage of the same material.
This increase in efficiency icalled the area effect\ is due to the diffraction
of sound energy arcund the perimeters of the spaced sound-absorbing panets
and to the additional absorption provided by the exposed panel edges. The ef-
fieiency of sound-absorbing panels increases as the ratio of perimeter to sur-
face area increases. The 25 spaced absorbers have a ratio of perimeter to sur-
face area 5 times the ratio for the 25 uniform-coverage absorbers. $ound
energy reflected from the hard-surfaced plaster adjacenr to the absorbent
edges in the checkerboard configuration tends to spill over onto the absorbing
panels" Therefore, the spaced absorbing materialabsorbs more sound energy
than would be accounted for by its area. This kind of surface treatment also
can be used to achieve a diffuse sound field, which is desired in music practice
rooms. Note that the total absorption contributed by spaced absorbers in this
exarnple will anly be slightly less lhan the absorption provided by coverage of
the entire 200-ft2 ceiling.

Checkerboard Pattern Uniform Coverage

Plagt er
Sounq' Tosor oi ng ?aneil
("ll bs 2[leach)

Reference

T. W. Bartel, "Effect ot gfsorber Geometry on Apparenr Absorption Coefficients as

Measured in a Fleverberation Chamber," Journal of the Acoustical Saciety of America'
April 1981.

sdJND ABScRPTToN 59
SUSPENDED $OUND-ASSORBING PANSLS AND UNITS

Sound-absorbing materials are commercially available for installation in a

spaced regular patern. When these units {or panels} are installed with all
edges and sides expcsed, they can provide extremely high absorption per
square foot of material because at least six surfaces will be exposed to sound
waves. Absorption data fcr spaced unils are normally presented in {erms of
sabins per unit at the recommended spacings. Note that the totalabscrption
from suspended unirs is fimited by the quantity that can be installed at the rec-
ommended spacings, For example, suspended units tend ro shield each other
when their density {expressed as ratio of exposed surface area of absorbers
tc area of ceiling) exceeds O.5.
Examples of parallel, hcneycomb, and egg-crate layout patterns of sus-
pended, sound-absorbing panels are shown below" Suspended spaced ab-
sorbers can be used where a uniform or continuous applieation of convenlional
sound-absorbing materials is norfeasible {e.9.. industrialplants wirh extremely
high ceilings ) .

Parallel
Sound Abscrption
'{r 9ound-.absorbing
?gnel( rovg ,pitca
Efficiency
>w apari ) Qood

Honeycamb
H

[l

Fl

Egg Crate
H

{t
9a*&or

Note: Suspended flat-panel and spaced sound-absorbing units {e.g.. prisms, cones,
tetrahedrons ) should be well braced to prevent motion from air cirsula{on in roorns.

60 sotmo AgsofrPTtotl
APPLICATIONS FOR SOUND-ABSORBING MATEHIALS

Reverberation Control

Sound-absorbing marerials can be used tc control reverberation so speech

will not be garbled. The larger the room volume, the longer the reverberation
time beffiuse gound waves will encounter room surfaces less often than in
small rooms. Each doubting of the total amouRt of absorption in a room
reduces the reverberation time by one-half. Sound absorption can make the
sound seem to come directly frorn the actual source rather than from every-
where in the room. For example. in recrealionalfacilities, it is important rhat in-
structions and warnings be idenrified with the actual sourse location"

lUoise Beduction in Rooms

When correctly used, sound-absorbing materials can be effective in con-

trolling noise buildup within a room. However, they have a limited application
for noise control and are not the panacea for all noise problems" For example,
caeh doubling of the total amaunt of absorption in a room reduces the noise
level by only 3 dB. Thus, as with other aspects of sound behavior, the law of
diminishing returns can quickly limit the effectiveness of rhis approach to noise
contrgl. ln large open-plan rooms, sound-absorbing materials can contribute to
speech privacy by causing sound energy to decrease wirh distance according
to the inverss-square law {see Chap. 5},

Echo Control

Sound-absorbing materials can be used to control echoes {usually simulta-

neously with controlling reverberarionl. Echoesare long-delayed, distinct re-
flections af sufficient sound level to be clearly heard abave the general rever-
beration 6s a repetition of the original sound. Flutter echo, which can be heard
as s "rsttle" or "clicking'/-lrom a hand clap, may be presenl in small roQms
ior narrow spaces with p}allel walls). lt also can be effectively controlled
with ssund-absorbing materials. Control measures for creep echo {useless
sound reflections concentrated near and along smooth concave surfaces ) are
presented in Chap. 3.

souhro Aaso'pnoN 6l
REVTRBERATION TIME

Until the pioneering work of Wallace Clemenr Sabine. beginning in 1895 at

age 27, criteria for good listening conditions in rocms were largely ncnexistent.
Professor Sabine was asked to improve the atrocious listening conditions fcr
speech in the new lecture hall in the Fogg Art Museum. Harvard University.
Cambridge, Massachusetts (Richard Marris Hunt, architect; see plan and sec-
tion drawings below ) . Sound in the hall would persist for about 5 1 /2 s due
1o the multiple rsflections from the hard*surfaced plaster finish materials in the
hall. Because mo$t English-speaking persons can complere 15 syllables in
5 112 s, words were almost impcssible to understand nearly everywhere in
rhe hall.

Cololua,*annd -rafleoring:,
rear ujell etetivog"he' opazs"
and echaeg (+"o ca*e<'l ,
iraai ruith nddepu lutt or
ioncave dpna gnd lunettes reshepa)
{oaus Sound t,t a w;ract,
*spend pane9'inderneaLh
1'o rc{ieLf ,auad ener63
tprurrd eudiencs) 6eating

5*al,ion

Plan

sabine recognized that the problem of the persistence of reflected sound

energy was due to the size of the room* and its furnishings, including the occu-
pants. He called this persistence the "duration af audibility of residual sound.'.
Repeated tests were conducted in the hall using organ pipes as noise sources.
The organ pipes had an initial sound level in the hall of about 60 dB aboye a
young lisrener's rhreshold of audibility at a frequency of S1Z Hz.

"The si:e of a room affecls the average lengh o{ refleetions, called lhe m€€,"} free p*th. The
nrean free path is ep-
proxtmately oqual to 4U/5 where Vis room volume in cubic feet and $is '
surface area in square l*et.

62 souNn AB$onPrnN
 Sabine used his disciplined sense of hearing to judge vrhen the sound from
the organ pipes ceased to be audible. The time li look the sound to decay the
estimaled 60 dB {or to one-millionth, 1l1,OOO,OOO) of its initial sound tevel
u/as m€asur*d by chronograph and defined by $abine tc be what is now called
the reverberation time" sabine was able to conduct his lests only at night {be-
tween midnight and 5 a.m. i when it was relatively quiet-after the streetcars
sropped running and befcre the milkmen started rattling their carts over the
cobblestones.
with the help of lwo student laboratory assistants. seat cushions were
borrowed from nearby sanders Theater. These 3-in-thick cushions were made
cf porous, sound-absorbing hair-fiber material covered with canvas and light
damask cloth. The more cushions brought in. the greater the toral room ab,
sorption and the lower the rsverberation rime. Sabine found that he could
lower the reverberatisn time to about 1 s when nearly 550 cushions, each
about 1 m long, covered the platform. bench seats. aisles. and rear wall to the
ceiling. Consequently. the frrst unit of sound absorptian was a merer length of
a seat cushion from the Sanders Theaterl
The results of Sabine's work made it possible to plan reverberatron time rn
advance of construction. For the first tirne. desired reverberation time in
rooms, at least at 512 Hz, could be the result of design. norluck or faithful re-
production. The equation which Sabine defined and proved empiricaily is:

r= o.05 Y

where I = reverberation time, or time required for sound to decay 60 dB

after the source has stopped {s}
V= rcom volurne (ft3)
a = total ft? of rocm absorption {sabins, so named to honor
W. C. Sabine)

The above formula {often referred to as the Sabine formulal is generally

used by testing laboratories to compute absorption coefficients and is appro-
priate for use in most architectural work. lt is reasonably accurEte when sound
field conditions are diffuse (6.g., sound absorption uniformly distributed) and
rcom dimensions do not vary widely {e.9., cornpact rooms without one ex-
iremely long dimension, rooms without deep side pockets, or transepts in a
church). lt shculd nat be used for recording studios or anechoic chambers,
which have extremely high ratios cf absorption 1o rcom volume. ln these cases
the Eyring farmula should be used {see ,Appendix A ) .

Refersnces
L. L. Beranek, "The Norebooks of Wallace f. Sabine," Journal of the Acoustical Saciety
af Amorica, March 1977.
L. L. Beranek and J. W. Kopec, "Wallace C. Sabine, Acoustical Consultant," Journal af
the Acousttcal Society af America, January 1981.
W. D. Orcutt, Wallace Clement Sabine, A Eiography, Plirnpton, Norwood. Mass., 1933
{no longer in print. but sho,uld be availahle in mosl university libraries).
W. C. Sabine , Collected Papers on Acoustics, Oover. New York" 1964 {reprinr of 1922
Harvard Universiry Press publication ) .

s0uN0 Agsonprron S3
OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME

The preferred ranges cf reverberation lime at mid-frequency {average of

reverberation at 50O and 1O00 Hz) for a variety of activities are given on the
bar graph below. The ranges, based on the exparience cf normal-hearing lis-
teners in completed spaces. are extended by dashed section$ at the snd$ of
the bars to indicats the extreme limits of acceptability. Satisfactory listening
conditions can be achieved in auditoriums which have different revsrberation
timcs within the preferred range, provided other importanl acou$lical needs are
fulfilled. ln general, large rooms should be nearer the upper end of the reverber-
ation tirne ranges than smaller rooms of the same type {see Chap" 3}" For ex-
arnple, liturgical organ music is composed for church- or cathedral-sized rooms;
chambsr music is intended for small roorns"

")o*dr Bpao&s (eound de*ags rapidig) 'Liue' apacae (sodnd perrists)

\l
'ttt
3
x

-c
o
{l
d

Lectdrg rnd gon{grgns4 pEm!

r-__re

3t
0 .7. 0.q 0.6 0.6 t,0 l,a 4A
2.+
&everberation tirne { sac)

Note: Long reverberation times degrade speech perception of hearing-impaired persons

far more than normal-hearing persons. For hearing-impaired and elderly listeners, rever-
beration times should be well below msst of the values in the graph {e.9., < 0.5 s for
satisfactory speech percePtion).

Refsrence
R. B. Newman, ",Acoustics" in J. H. Callender {edi}
, Iime-Saver S,tandards far Archi-
teeturalAesign Safa, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974, p. 696

64 sourun,AB$0nPnoN
EXAMpLE PRQBLEM { REVERSERATTON T|ME }

A classroom 6O ft long by 3$ ft wide by 15 ft high has sound absorption

coefficients a's of 0.30 for walls, 0.O4 for ceiling. and 0.10 for floar. All a's
are at 50O Hz.

Watls ( N*eSa Ptagtar cailin6 (q' 9.0{ )

cr:0.30) tt+b (hoi6hi)
Tile f laor (x = 0.10 )
t1Y2 +, (f,room
ti,id?h thoiun

6A+t (lcngttr)

f at 50O Hz in this space with no occupants and

Find the reverberation time
no sound-absorbing lreatment.

1. Compute the room volume V.

V= 6O x 35 X 15 = 31,500ft3

2. Compute the sur'face areas 5.

Ceiling S= SQ-* ,Q5 = 210$ftr

Walls S= 2 )< 35 x 15 = 1o50ftz
Ss2 X 60 X 15 = 1800ft2
Floor S= 60 x 35 * 21OO ft2

3. Compute the rotal room absorption a using a = ISa

a {sabinsl
Ceiling 2100 X O.O4 = 84
Walls 2850 X 0.3O = 855
Floor 2100 X O.10 = 2p
Total a = 1149 sabins

souND ABsoRPTrory 65
 Ncte: lnclude air absorption in total for large rooms at freguencies grsater than
Hz {see Chap. 3}.

4, Compure the reverberation time f using f= O.O5

f.
r = o.05 # =
qs##q = s'ar boo Hz
1?18 ="p.st

f'can6+rite\ 6ailing:
p8nala {ot- O.bE) Chall< board

Find the reverberation time f if 50 percent of the ceiling surface {along the pe-
rimeter of the room ) is treated with acoustical panels at a of O.85, The central
area remains sound-reflecting to help distribute sound energy from leciern end
toward rear of the room"

1. Compute the total room absorption a using a = tr 5a.

S 0 a {sabins}
ceiling 1050 X 0.O4 =
Bare 47
ceiling 1050 x 0.85 =
Treared 892
Walls 2850 X 0.30 = 855
Floor 2100 X O"10 =
?y
Total a= 1999gabins

2. Compuu new reverberation rime f"

I = O.O5 V
a = w5##q = +3*3 *:0'7e s at 5oo Hz

The reverberation time is reduced to below 1 s with 5O percent ceiling

trsatment for unoccupied conditions. This represents a reduction of
q#4 X 100 = 42 percent, which is a "clearly noticeable" change.
Absorption provided by teachers and students will fu*her reduce reverberation
depending on the number of occupants, their distribution throughout ths room,
and the clothing worn.

66 souuo ABsoRPTIoN
HOW TO COMPUTE $URFACE AREAS

To find total absorption in a roorn, first compute the surface areas of

ceiling, walls, and fioor and th€n rnultiply by their respective sound absorption
coefficients. Next, add absorption from occupants and furnishings. A wide va-
riety of surface shapes, along with conesponding formulas to find area, are
shown below, Areas of irregular shapes can be found by subdividing the sur-
face into snraller areas of equal widths. The rnoro divisians by parallel lines, lhe
greater the accuracy. For alternate method$ to compute areas of irregular
shapes, see p.667 in J^ lrl. Boaz {ed.}. ArchitecturalGraphicStandards,
Wiley, New York. 1970.

Rectangular $quare

Ss 02
S=lXl#

Triangular Altitude (A) is ee."e^dicvtar

dislance Frorn OaEd (b) lo
o??otitle crrner
Area (3)
3=*ffi$#i
* z-l*s;{$,;{l::;t

I'lalf Circle
(3)

q*rffi
!r- 2::;

souND AgsoftPrroru 67
HalJ Parabola

ffieet**d&i* Area tT)

ffi
i#$ildfit*#a$.qlk#lffii*#

lrregular Divide Q elually spsced paftllel lines (9)

Note: For a review of trigcinometry, see pp. 144-145 in M. D. Fgan, Concepts in Ar.
chttectural Lighting, McGraw-Hill. 1983. A comprehensive self-study review o{ mathe-
matica for arehitecture is presenled by M. Salvadori, Mathematics in Architecture,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.. 1968.

68 souxo ABgonPTnN
ROOM NOISE REDUCT'ON

The buildup of scund levels in a room is due to the repeated reflections of

sound from its enclosing surfaces. This buildup is affected by the size of the
roonr and the amount of absorption within the room. The differenee in decibels
in reverberant noise levels, or noise reductian, under two conditions of room
absorption can be {ound as follows:

Ez-
NR = 10log a1

where NR = room ncise reduction {dB }

a2 = totsl room absorption after ireatmenl {sabins }
a1 = total rcom absorption befcre treatment (sabins)

The chart below also can be used to determine the reduction of rever-
berant noise level within a roam due to changing the total room absorption.
For example, if the lctal amount of absarption in a $pace can be increased
frorn 700 to ?100 sabins, the reduction in reverberant noise level NR will be
about 5 dB. ($ee dor on chart rcale at absorption ratio af arf a, = 2'100/700
= 3.l Since absorption efficiencies vary with frequency, the NR should be cal-
culated al all frequencies for which sound absorption coeffieient$ are known.

Red*ciian in raverberanl noiae lavei (lD)

ogtotS

t215]0'20
Rtt,ia af t.ofal roatl abtarpi\on. #tla,)
'Praclrcal upper limil of irnprovement for most situations.

The NR is the reduction in reverberant noise level. This does not affect the
noise level very near the source of sound in a room. Also, as indicated on the
chart, a reduction in reverberant nolse level of 10 dB ian increase in absorp-
tion of greater than 10 trmes the initial value before treatment i is the practical
upper limit for most remedial situetions^

souND AssonPrroN 69
EXAMpLE pROBLEM TROOM NOISE REDUCTTON,

A small room 10 ft by 10 ft by 10 fr has all walls and flr:or finished in ex-

posed concrete. The ceiling is completely covered with sound-abscrbing spray-
on material. Saund absorptian coefficients &'s are 0,02 for concrete and 0.70
for spray-on material. b'oth at 5OO Hz.

bvreg'on eaund-
abgorains lvreetnanl.

Conatelt u;alls end

llpor

Find the noise reduction NR in this room if saund-absorbing panels are

added to two adjacent walls. The sound absorption coefficient a is o"g5 for
panels at 5O0 Hz.

6ound - ?btorbingi
uall penglg

Canorabc $lur

,. \,
1. Ccrnpute rhe surfaCe areas S.

5 = $ X 10 X '10
= 5@ fr2 of concrere
S = 10 X 10 = "'l0O ftl of spray-on material
2. compute the total roorn absorption a, with spray,on material on the ceiling.

ar = ISa = {50O X A.A2} + J10O X 0.70} = lO * 70.a SOsabins

3. compute the total room abscrptian a, with sound-absorbing panels covering
tws walls and spray-on material on ceiling.

a2=X$a- {30Ox0,02} + (?0OX0.Bb} * {1OOx0.70}

=6+ 1?0+7A= 246sabins
4. Compute tha noise reduction NH.

Nft = 10 bs
* x 10 los # = 10 log {3.o7s x 1tr}
= 10{0.4878}= 5 dB

7O souruo Ansofrprol
 This woutd be a "noticeable" improvement, ($ee the table Changes in
sound Level, p. 21, in chap. 1.) with no treatment. the total absorption in
the room would only be 600 x 0.02 = 1l sabins. Therefore, treating the
ceiling alone provides

NR = 1O r"g#,a 10log S.67 = t$(O.gt4.1) *I dB

which is a "significant" reduction. However, initial conditions of all hard sur_

faces in unfurnished rooms rarely occur.
Find the noise reduction NB if allfour wall surfaces are reated with fabric-
covered panels and the floor is carpeted. The sound absorptian coefficient a of
the carpet is 0.50 at 500 Hz.

Savnd' sbEorbin{ wall

Tenet,z (all uiall s-tn ea+,edl,

Cgr?e*ed $loor

1. Compute the total room absorption a, with sound-absorbing panels on all

walls, spray-on malerial on ceiling. and carpet on floor.

ds =ISa- {40OXO-85i + {10OX0"7O} + ij00X0.S0)

= 34O * 70 + 50 = 460 sabins
2' compute the noise reduction NR lor these improvements compared to room
conditions of spray-on cbiling lreatment alone.

# = 1o los {5.7s x
NR= '10 lcs
* = ,O bs 10CI}

g
n$.75971 = 8 dB
The results from both parts of the problem are summariaed below

$urfaces Treated Foom NR

{in addition to ceiling i iar 500 l-lz}
Two walls 5dB
Four walls and floor 8dB

Note: The NRs Eiven in the above table would not be as great at low frequencies be-
cause sound absorption coefficients usually are smaller at low frequencies than at mid-
or high frequencies.

$oLh,D AgsofrFTrors 71
ITOISE RETX'CTION FOR HIGH.NOISE ENVIRONMENTS

Low Ceiling, Machines Widely $paced

ln the example shown below, machines are widely spaced so that in-
stalling etfieient sound-absorbing treatment on the ceiling and upper walls can
reduce reverberant noise levels throughout the room. However, the sound-
abscrbing treatment will be of little benefit to the individual equipment opara-
lors in the free field because the direct sound en€rgy will reach the operator
before it reaches the saund-absorbing materials.

tavig,nenl,^ tuvnd-obsorbin6i
o?Pxrtor $ fr* 6.9'r lrnS
{iald'c* oun rnaahi$a Cta rcdwa
{ absorpiion daes ravcrbsrant
nat haip) noisc le va ls)

High Ceiling, Machines Closely Spaced

In the example of closely spaced machines in a room with a high ceiling,

room surface treatrnant can be effective if reverberant noise levels are higher
than the free-field ncise of some machines. A reduction in reverberation will
help make machine noise more directional {by reducing the reflected sound } ,
allowing workers to be more responsive to their own machines. However, op-
erator$ of closely spaced machines may be in the free field of several ma-
ehines, which would be unaffected by ceiling and upper-wall treatment.

6o'lnd-absorvin{
baff le
(onlg noderzlo
help iuhcn mtchir,eA
are cl&14 gga|?d
in roarn ,iit[
n;rr'
coiling)

?2 sounn ABsoRPIoN
Enclosure To Contain Machine Noise

The sound-isolating enclosure shown below can be designed to provide

noise reduction near the $ource so individual cpe€tors can be close to their
machines without experieneing high noise levels. Fnclosures can be designed
with operable viewing panels to allow rapid access when needed {see Chap" 4
for scund-isolation principles, materials, nnd constructians ) ,

t{--,-1o? ?anel o$
a\clogrre

Vierl,r pansl
( arniirated
I - rnonoi ithic
Slass dortblg ui'rdout)

Sound-isolefin<
e^ctolure ( f'rllI tined
r^t,ith Sound - ab'sorbin$
material)

Note: Where noisy rnachines are located close to walls, sound-absorbing wall treat-
rrlent may provide useful noise reduction.

References

P. 0" Emerson et al., Manual of Textile tndustry Naise Control, Center for Acoustical
Studies, Nonh Carolina State University, 1978 icontains over 2O case studiesl.
F. Jensen et al., lndustial ffarse Cantrol fl4anual, U.S. Department of Health, Iducation,
and Welfare, December '1978 (contains over 60 case studies on a wide variety of
industries ) .
R. 8. Newman and W. J. Cavanaugh, "Design for Hearing." Progressive Architecture,
May 1959
W. G. Orr, Handbook for lndustrial Naise Control, National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
rnini$tration. NASA SP-S 108, 1981.

sorno AFsoRProN ?3
TRAN$ONDENT FACING$

Sound-transpar€nt faeings {called transondent} may renge from 5 to 5O

pereent or more open area. depending on absorption requirements. Facings
tend io reduce the effectiveness of saund-absorbing materials by reflecting
high-frequency sound waves. ln general, the lower the percentage af open area
in lhe facing, the less absorptian of high-frequency sound en€rgy. Sizes of
holes, number of holes per unit area, and dimensions of solid area between
openings also affect the reduclion in absorption. Transondent facings such as
perforated sheet metal, expanded metal. or punched and pressed metal can be
used alone in front af sound-absorbing materials, or in combination with wood
slats or olher large-scale prctective elements,
Examples nf open metal materials and a table of perforation sires and
spacings for facing materials are shown below.

th" s+,q6{utd holas t7/A" sla{*trt d holes

-
sN eh" o,c. (10'hofli
'k'ffi'lyg4^" 61, of rc" Xi,.65/o opn)

Note: When painting open facings. use rollers, not sprayers- io reduce rhe likelihood
that the openings will become blocked. Be careful alsr: ts avoid using facings with very
tiny holes whieh may easily become clogged with paint.

Per{oration $izes and Spacing.s* -_.

Hole Diameter {in} $pacing {in oc)

3l ls 0.50'
5132 0.40
1/8 0.301
3ls2 4.221
1116 0.15
1132 0.08
'Do not exceed lhis spacing for hardboard material {e.g., pegboard}.
1 Most suitable {or wall malertals Holes are small enough to_ discourage jabbrng wrth sharp obiecrs
and large enough so facing can be carefulty painred wrtliout becomrngicl6qqedl

Reference

w. R. Farrell. "sound Absorption for walls," Architectural & Engineering Alews. oetober
1 965.

74 sour.& ABsofrFTm
PERFORATED FACINGS

Perforated facings can be used to protect and conceal porou$ sound-

absorbing materials or, if highly tran$parent to saund waves, to conceal sound-
reflecting or diffusing suriaces. When used over a solid backup surface without
fuzr {fibrous materials} in rhe cavity, perforated facings can acl as multiple
volume resonators to selectively absarb sound wirh rhe individual holes sharing
a common volurne. Panifioned ior subdivided) cavities can provide wider ab-
sorption near the resonant frequency.
As shown by rhe graph below, the thinner the facing, the rnor€ efficient
the absorption of ssund energy at mid- and high frequencies. The higher the
percentage cf apen area {from numerous, closely spaced perforations to re-
duce size cf solid areas ) , the more efficient the absorption of sound energy at
high frequencies" Saund lransparency increases as ihe size cf the holes and
number of holes per unit area increases, and as the distance between holes
decreases.

64 fao,"6
+:
C:
"9
,9
<**
(+.
qr
o
,n
c sg*E
.q
+)
$-
L
0
\tr
'5
.t*-Th talr- {*oing
e
-'r3
c
o
d)
Frea,rrenag C lia)

The critical frequency f, for circular perforations, above which sound

ab-
$orFtion efficiency drops off raptdly, can be found as follows:
,,c-*Qt
o

where f, = critieal frequency {Hz }

Px open area { % )
O = hcle diameter (in )

souzusaxsoRplon 75
 For example, 25 percent open perforated facing with 'll4-in-diameter
holes will have a criticalfrequency of

r^ -N=\=25 =
0.25 m
Precise analysis should also take into account the thickness of the facing and
depth of the airspace behind the facing {rf,, P. V, Briiel, Sound lnsulatian and
Raam Acausrlcs, Chapman & Hall. London, 1951, pp. 114-123',.

Refurence

T. J, $chultz, Acsu$tical lJses for Pertorated Metals, lndustrial Perforator$ Association,

Milwaukee, Wis., 1986. pp. 14-20.

76 sour'D AasofrPTrol
PROTECTIVE FACINGS FOR WALL ASSQRPTION

When absorption of high{requency sound energy is not fritical, the open

area of prolective facings need only be greater than aboui 10 percent to con-
trol reverberatkln or noise buildup within rooms" As a eonsequence, a wide va-
riety of texture$ and forms can be used to satisfy this requirernenl. When ab-
sorption is used to ccntral echoes, however. protective facings should have a
higher percentage of open area from nurnerous, closely spaced openings. To
conceal the sound-absorbing material behind most facings, tint the material
blaek by spraying with nonbridging water-base paint or use a dark sound-
fan$parsnt protective cover {e.g,, burlap or open-weave fabric } .

l'lo C ihick furz

Prot,e;t"iva 6av9r
(9,9.,,'ne*rl
?ue9!it
monFs cloih, biirlap)

Brich "open'' Concrgtg

top?n"
blocK
ioaen'r {eeing
$acing' $ntint
( coreg gerge/ldicula? {acing
to fuzz')

Reference

R. B. Newman and w. J. cavanaugh, "Acoustics" in J. H. Callender {ed.}, Iime-saver

Standards for Architecturat Design Oafa, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966, p 622'

sour{D ABsonFrtox 77
RESONANT PANELS

flesonant panels are sound-absorbing panels which are designed to pro-

vide low-frequency absarption { S ?50 Hz}. Exarnple applications for resonant
panels are music practice rooms, radio/TV studios, and the like. Hesonant
panels absorb energy from sound waves by vibroting at a frequency deter*
mined by the geom*try and damping characteristics of the panel.
To decrease the rosonant frequency, use wide spacings between supporls
{> 2 ft}, thin panel materials {e.9., plywood, hardboard}, and "deep" air-
spaee behind panels. To increase the resonant fraqueney. use close spacings
between support$, thick panel metenals (ar perfarated, thin panel materials
with sound-ab*arhing rnatsriatlocated alose behind the panetl, and shallaw ar
narrow airspace behind Panels-
It is prudent to test unique re$onant panel designs in reverberation r6oms
to evaluate their performance. The resonant frequency f. can be estimated by:
. 170
,,=T*d
where =
fr r€$ertdnt frequency tHz)
w= surface weight of panel {lb/ft?}
d= depth of airspace behind panel tin)

Thin u;oad reso?eni panEl -

( absorbs loui - Sre4udncq
soutd e^e"6g b3 vibratiiS: )
ftirspecc behino panel
(actE as s2ring, alleciing
Fesonance o+ ?anet ) -
Depth of airrpace fd )

Reference

V. 0. Knudsen and C. M. Harris, 'Acousilcal Oesigning in Architecture, Wiley, New York,

1950. p. 1?O (paperback roprint is available from the Aeoustical Society of America,
500 $unnyside Blvd., Woodbury, NY 1 1797 ) .

78 souNo ABsofrPrsH
 SUGGETTED SOUND.ABSORBING TREATMENT FOH ROOMS

Although the NRC rating methsd has the limitations presented earlier in
this chapter, h can be an adequate index to evaluate sound-absorbing marerials
for use in treating the noncritical spaces listed below. The last two groups in
the table repre$ent many of the spacee where the NRC by itself does nof pro-
vide sufficient information. Therefore, special study may be required io deter-
mine the specific absorption needs. For examplo, absorption for ceilings in
open-plan offices, where sound can reflect over partial-height barriers,
destroying speech privacy, should be evaluated anly by noise isolation class
pnrne NiC' ratings {see Chap. 6 ) . although a minimum NRC is given.

Preferred Ceiling Wall

Type of Space NRCRange Treatment Treatrnent

*wate offices, large cffices, small conference rooms, 0.65 to O.75 Full None required
rospilals, laboratory work spaces, libraries. retail
shops and stores
-:obies, corridors, gymnasiums 0.65 to O.75 Full Yes
Secondary and college classrooms, large meeting 0.65 to 0.75 Partial Yes
'ooms
(cchens, cafeterias, laundries, restaurants > 0.75 Full Usually none required
lornputer equipment rooms, school and industrial > 0.75 Full Yes
slops, machinery spaces
roditoriums, theeters, radiolTV studios, music {These spaces in particular require special study to
practice rooms, audiovisual facilities, churches, determine the appropriate type, amount, and location of
:ourtroom$, chapels, mechanical equipment rooms, sound-absorbing treatment. )
open-plan schools. language laboratories. factories
Jren offices > O.8O Full Yes {see Chap.6i

souNg AgsonPTroru ?9
CHECKL}$T FOR EFFECTIVE ABSORPTION OF $OUND

1. Apply sound-absorbing materials on surfaces that may contribute to excessive

reverberation, produce annoying echoes. or focus sound energy. ln audito*
riums and similar facilities, u$e sound-absorbing materials to control echoes
and reverberation. Excessive reverberatisn can seriously interfere with listening
conditions, especially lor h*aring-impaired and older persons. A doubling of
the existing absorption in a roorn will reduce the revsrberation by one-half.
2. Do nst use sound-abscrbing materials on surfaces which should provide useful
sound reflections {e.9., above lecterns in auditoriums}. Sound-reflecting sur-
faces must have sound absorption coefficiants well below 0.20 and be prop-
edy shaped and oriented {see Chap. 3}.
3. Use sound-absorbing ceilings to control the buildup of noise within rooms, un-
less the floor is carpeted and the room is filled with heavy draperies and other
sound*absorbing furnishings. Sound-absorbing materials are comrnercially avail-
able that have a factory-applied surface finish which is reasonably durable for
ceiling applications as well as satisfying Eppearance. light reflectance, and
other archilectural and fire safety requirements.
4. Place absorption on the walls of very high rooms. small rooms, or long and
narrow reoms. wh€re flutter echo may occur. ln very large rqoms with low
ceilings. wall absorption is rarely beneficial unless needed to prevent flanking
of sound energy anrund partial-height barriers in open plans. Sound-absorbing
wall panels that have a fabric finish and hardened edges to maintain their
shape are cornmercially available.
5. Be sure the mounting method used is best suited for the amount of absorption
desired. The actual method of mounting is important because it will affect ab-
sorptian efficiency. For example, sound-absorbing materials directly attached
with mechanical fasteners {mounting A} are poor absorbers cf low-frequency
sound. flowever, when anached to iuning suppons {mounring D} , they will
provide more absorplion at low frequencies; and when used in suspended
ceiling systems {mounting E } , they can provide considerable low-frequency
absorption. To achieve maximum absorption from special sound-absorbing
materials and units, such as suspended baffles and spaced absorbers, install
them at the spacings recommended by manufacturers.
6. Do not overestimate the noise control benefits frsm sound absorption. Fle-
member, it takes a doubling of rhe existing absorption to achieve only 3 dB o{
noise reduction! lt requires an enormous increase in existing absorption to
achieve 6 dB of noise reduction. consequently, in most situations, 3 ro 6 dg is
the practical of noise reduction benefits from adding sound absorption to
'imit

8O sour.o ABsoFPTIoN