‘PRAYER’ IN ISLAM – A CHRONOLOGICAL STUDY OF ITS

INCEPTION

M Anwarul Islam

Introduction

The act of praying is primarily an attempt to communicate with something holy or

sacred, usually transcendental, like the God, gods or some other form of supernatural
power. It is performed either in silence or with audible recitations, singing or loud
chants with or without some physical gesture but usually with a feeling of submission
and/or humility towards the object of prayer. Prayer is practised as a ritual by the
followers of most of the world religions in the form of a petition, confession, praise,
thanksgiving or a combination of two or more of these. In the religion of Islam, which
is followed by 1.5 billion people, two-thirds of whom live in Asia, the prayer (salat) is
one of the ‘five pillars’ on which its fundamental tenets are based. Other four being i)
the shahadah or testifying the belief that “there is no god but God and Muhammad is
His Messenger”, ii) the sawm (day-long fasting during the month of Ramadhan), iii)
the zakat (giving of alms at a stipulated scale) and iv) the hajj (pilgrimage to Makka).
Performance of the daily prayer at five different times of the day is considered to be
the first obligatory practice of a Muslim. It involves standing, bowing (ruku),
prostrating (sajda) and other movements along with recitations of passages from the
Qur’an, the prescribed manner of which were established within the life of Prophet
Muhammad (pbuh) (570-632 AD). The available biography (sira) of his life by
authors dating back to the second century AH (i.e., 8/9 th c. AD) provide some
information about prayer in the very earliest period of the religion. The collections of
Sahih Hadith, i.e., tradition of the Prophet, compiled nearly 150 years after his death
through the process of authenticating by isnad (the verification of the chain of
transmission), give more detailed accounts of its performance by the Prophet. Based
on these sources and the relevant Qur’anic revelations, this study is an attempt to find
the chronological evolution of prayer among the first Muslims of Makka and Madina.

The earliest period

At the time of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), the people in and around Makka were
either polytheists or Bedouins. While the nomad Bedouins had little regard for idols,
the polytheists usually belonged to one of the two categories, i.e., those who were
devoted to a number of idols and those who believed in a god (Allah) of Ka’ba, the
holy sanctuary in Makka, and other idols subservient to Allah. The rituals of their
worship did not specifically involve a formal ‘prayer’ although some from of
prostration, chanting, circumambulation, etc. are believed to have been practised.
There were, however, a limited number of Christians in Makka (e.g., Waraqah b.
Nawfal, cousin of the Prophet’s wife Khadija), and in Yathrib, the name by which
Madina was known, there were Jews belonging mainly to the three tribes of Banu
Nadir, Banu Qurayza and Banu Qaynuqa, whose “number has been estimated at
between 36,000 and 42,000”.1

Among the Jewish people, ‘prayer’ is usually a part of the services in a synagogue on
the weekly Sabath day, i.e., Saturday, and other holy days, festivals, etc. and takes the
form of praise of God, thanksgiving and petition for various types of favours.
However, in the 7th century Arabia it was more likely to have been an individual and
household activity that involved recitation of the psalms of the Old Testament in
‘standing prayer’ performed ‘two or three times a day’.2   The Christian prayer was
founded by Jesus Christ with the words “When you pray, go into your room and shut
the door and pray to your Father which is in secret. In praying do not heap up empty
phrases as the Gentiles do; for they think that they will be heard for their many
words.” (Matthew/6:6-7). Early Christians continued with the Jewish custom of
praying three times a day reciting the Lord’s Prayer (Matthew/6:9-13) and for them,
the special times for prayer were in the morning and the evening.

The religion of Islam began in the year 610 AD when Prophet Muhammd (pbuh)
received the first of the divine revelations while meditating in his spiritual retreats at
the cave of Mount Hira (also known as  Jabal-i-Noor or the Mountain of Light) in the
city of Makka. The revelations continued intermittently during the life of the Prophet
in Makka, except for a brief interval near the beginning (known as the Fatrah), and
then in Madina where he emigrated to in 622 AD (the Hijra). These revelations are
presented in ayat (verses) and surahs (chapters) of the holy Qur’an and form the creed
of the religion of Islam as well as the primary source of law and guidelines to a
Muslim’s way of life. Although most of the regulatory surahs were revealed in
Madina, the concept of prayer was introduced in the early surahs revealed in Makka
where the basic method of its performance was also established.

In the Qur’anic vision of the world, “prayer is first of all and always remains … the
fundamental fabric of religious behaviour”3. Various forms of prayer are mentioned in
the Qur’an by using different words, such as, du’a, the prayer of supplication or
invocation (as in 40:50), istighfar, the prayer as an appeal for pardon/forgiveness (as
in 3:17), tasbih, the glorification and praise of Allah (as in 3:41) and also dhikr, the
remembrance/reminding of Allah (as in 33:41). However, the formal prayer that has
been made obligatory for the Muslims is expressed by the word salat which originates
from the root s-l-w. “The word salat does not seem to occur in pre-Quranic Arabic
literature … The etymology of the Aramaic word selota … means to bow, to bend or
to stretch. It is used in several Aramaic dialects for ritual prayer, although it can also
mean spontaneous individual prayer … Muhammad took over the word salat in this
sense from his neighbours … the verb salla is a denominative derived from the
substantive salat with the meaning ‘to perform salat’.”4 

The Qur’anic revelations came in small parts, usually a passage consisting of a

number of verses at any one time and many of the very small surahs are made up of
such a passage. Larger surahs include a number of such passages revealed gradually
within a period of time although some verse/verses of a surah may have been revealed
at a time different from that of the rest of the surah. The exact dates of these
revelations have not been recorded contemporaneously and the Qur’an, compiled
during the caliphate of Uthman (644-656 AD), does not show the surahs in the
chronological order of their revelation. Subsequent research by the various experts has
produced a number of chronological lists that are not in total agreement with each
other. ‘Bell’s Introduction to the Qur’an’ presents four such chronologies, by i) Muir,
ii) Noeldeke, iii) Grimme and iv) the official Egyptian version, with some variation
amongst them.5 According to the Egyptian chronology, for example, 86 of the 114
surahs of the Qur’an were revealed in Makka whereas according to Noeldeke this
number is 90. These two versions, indicated by letters (E) and (N), will be followed in
this study. Notwithstanding the variations, most of these lists have a broad similarity
in the chronologies and agree that the first five verses of Surah al-Alaq (surah number
96), as quoted below, were the very first revelation to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) in
the cave of Mount Hira, the incident designated as the “call” to prophethood: “Read
(or proclaim)! in the name of your Lord or Cherisher, Who created - created man, out
of a (mere) clot of congealed blood; Read! And your Lord is most bountiful, - He Who
taught (the use of) the pen, - taught man that which he did not know” (96:1-5).

In the beginning, due to the hostile environment of the idolatrous society of Makka,
dominated by the tribe of Quraysh, the Prophet kept the news about the revelations
confined to him and his wife and the period of Fatrah caused a feeling of
apprehension and doubt in their minds. The lull was broken by the revelation of
Surah al-Dhuha (11thE/13thN), the opening verses of which are, “Your Guardian-Lord
has not forsaken you, nor is He displeased. And verily the Hereafter will be better for
you than the present. And soon will your Guardian-Lord give you (that wherewith) you
shall be well-pleased” (93:3-5). The last verse of the same surah which reads: “But the
bounty of your Lord – rehearse and proclaim!” (93:11), was taken by the Prophet as a
command to disclose the news of the revelations and according to Lings, “he began to
speak about the Angel and Revelations to those who, after his wife, were the nearest
and dearest to him” 6 (the act to be referred hereto as the ‘proclamation’)      

Noeldeke has divided the Makkan surahs into groups of three consecutive periods and
from the 48 surahs of the first period, Watt has identified the very first 13 revealed
passages of the Qur’an.7 This was based on the principle that the verses that express
matters relating to opposition to the Prophet or his message that called for giving up
the polytheistic practices must have been revealed after the people came to know
about his mission. Eliminating such passages from the earliest surahs, his
chronological list is: 96:1-8; 74:1-10; 106; 90:1-11; 93; 86:1-10; 80:1-32; 87:1-9,14-
15; 84:1-2; 88:17-20; 51:1-6; 52(parts); and 55. Only one of these passages (in Surah
al-A’la) mention ‘prayer’ as follows: “But those will prosper who purify themselves,
and glorify the name of their Guardian-Lord, and (lift their hearts) in prayer” (87:14-
15). Here, prayer is quoted along with two other acts, i.e., self-purification (tazakka)
and glorification of God. Watt’s list shows this surah as the 8th revelation and Surah
al-Dhuha that prompted the ‘proclamation’ as the 5th, implying that prayer has not
been mentioned in any of the verses revealed to the Prophet before the ‘proclamation’
although, as will be seen later, there is evidence that prayer was performed in the
Prophet’s household earlier than that.

According to the Egyptian and Noeldeke chronologies, however, prayer is mentioned

in verses revealed earlier than Surah al-Dhuha. In the Egyptian list, four such verses
refer to prayer of which three are in surahs earlier than Surah al-A’la (8thE/19thN).
First of these is in the very first surah, i.e., Surah al-Alaq: “Do you see one who forbids
- a votary when he (turns) to pray?” (96:9-10). The expression, ‘one who forbids’ is
believed to be a reference to Abu Jahl, a powerful opponent of the Prophet who
publicly expressed his hostility towards the Prophet and threatened to hurt him: “Abu
Jahl said, ‘If I see Muhammad offering salat (prayer) at the Ka’ba, I will tread on his
neck’” (HSB/6:482). This must have happened sometime after the Prophet’s mission
was known to the people. The second is in the last verse of Surah al-Muzzammil
(3rdE/23rdN) (73:20), which is generally agreed to be a Madinan revelation in spite of
being included in this early surah. The next reference is in Surah al-Muddaththir
(4thE/2ndN) that reads: “And (ask) of the sinners: ‘what led you into hell-fire?’ They will
say: ‘we were not of those who prayed” (74:41-43). Noeldeke’s list of surahs of this
period that mention ‘prayer’ also includes 96:9-10 and 74:41-43. Two others - in
Surah al-Kauthar (5thN/15thE) and Surah al-Ma’un (7thN/17thE) - are: “To you We
have granted the fount (of abundance). Therefore to your Lord turn in prayer and
sacrifice” (108:1-2) and “So woe to the worshippers who are neglectful of their prayers”
(107:4-5),

Irrespective of the exact sequence of their revelation, the verses quoted above came
before the ‘proclamation’, i.e., before Surah al-Dhuha, and contain the earliest
references to ‘prayer’ in the Qur’an. Being the 11 th out of 86 (E) or 13th out of 90 (N)
surahs revealed in Makka in 12 years, Surah al-Dhuha, may be assumed to have been
revealed sometime after a year of the first revelation. The time of Ali embracing
Islam, to be discussed later, supports this assumption. So, in the first year of Islam
prayer does not seem to be mentioned in the Qur’an as a command to be followed by
the believers of the new faith or as a new concept that needs to be defined. Moreover,
it is quoted along with several other acts/deeds that outline the duties of a follower,
such as, showing gratitude to God, generosity, purification and worship (ibada). Some
of the relevant expressions are: “give (in charity) and fear (Allah)” (92:5), “glorify the
name of  Guardian-Lord” (87:1), “enjoin deeds of kindness and compassion” (90:17),
“spend wealth for increase in self-purification” (92:18), “honour the orphans” (89:17),
“feed the poor” (89:18), not to “refuse (to supply) neighbourly needs” (107:7), etc.
These acts form one of the three main themes of the early surahs of the Qur’an, i.e., i)
the duties of a follower; the other two being ii) God is the Creator, His goodness,
power & absolute authority, and iii) the inevitability of man’s return to Him on the
‘Day of Judgement’.

A passage of Surah al-Muzzammil (3rdE/23rdN) revealed in this period, however,

commands the practice of an act that has been interpreted by some as ‘prayer’: “Stand
(to prayer) by night, but not all night, - half of it, - or a little less, or a little more; ...
Truly the rising by night is most potent for governing (the soul), and most suitable for
(framing) the word (of prayer and praise)” (73:2-6). The word ‘salat’ has not been
used in these verses and although the word ‘prayer’ has been added by the translator
in parenthesis 8, the same verses have been translated by another author, without any
suggestion of ‘prayer’: “Keep vigil the night long, save a little - a half thereof, or abate
a little thereof or add (a little) thereto ... Lo! the vigil of the night is (a time) when
impression is more keen and speech more certain.” (73:2-6).9 The verses seem to
indicate an act similar to that of the Prophet in the cave of Mount Hira before his
‘call’. Ibn Kathir (1313-1374 AD) describes his devotional exercise in the cave as
‘prayer’: “He used to go out to Hira for one month every year and pray alone, he
being one of those Quraysh men who would, in jahiliyya, practice this prayer in
seclusion”.10 It may therefore be concluded that this form of night-vigil, as suggested
by the verses above, was the earliest form of prayer and is very likely that “the earliest
Muslims observed the practice of night-prayer for a time”.11

The Prophet’s ‘nearest and dearest’ to whom the ‘proclamation’ was made included
Abu Bakr, a wise and respected man of Makka, and his influence helped the
conversion of many of the growing number of followers. However, the hostility of the
disbelievers continued which included one of the Prophet’s uncles, Abu Lahab, while
the other three uncles have neither accepted nor rejected his mission. Following the
revelation of Surah al-Shu’ara (47thE/56thN) and Surah al-Hijr (54thE/57thN), where
the Prophet was commanded to ‘admonish/warn’ his nearest kinsmen and ‘expound
openly’, he summoned them publicly and invited them to join the new monotheistic
religion. The relevant verses being, i) “And admonish/warn your nearest kinsmen, and
lower your wing to the believers who follow you. Then if they disobey you, say: ‘I am
free (of responsibility) from what you do!” (26:214-217) and ii) “Therefore expound
openly what you are commanded, and turn away from those who join false gods with
Allah.” (15:94)

Let us examine the Qur’anic verses that refer to prayer in the surahs revealed in the
period between the ‘proclamation’ and the public ‘admonition/warning’. It is
mentioned in nine verses, three of which are common to both the Egyptian and
Noeldeke versions. These are: “So he gave nothing in charity, nor did he pray!”
(75:31) in Surah Al-Qiyyamah (31stE /36thN), “Verily, I am Allah: There is no god but
I: so you serve Me (only), and establish regular prayer for celebrating My praise”
(20:14) (addressed to Moses), and “Enjoin prayer on your people, and be constant
therein” (20:132), both in Surah Ta Ha (45thE/55thN). Surah al-Maryam (Mary)
(44thE/58thN), which is placed before Surah al-Shu’ara only in the Egyptian
chronology, has three references to prayer. In the first of these, Prophet Ibrahim
(Abraham), failing to convince his father not to “worship that which does not hear and
does not see”, left him saying: “I will call on my Lord:  perhaps, by my prayer to my
Lord, I shall be not unblest!” (19:41&48). This is followed by a verse that refers to his
son, Ismail: “He used to enjoin on his people prayer and charity, and he was most
acceptable in the sight of his Lord” (19:55). The next verse refers to the people who
lived after the periods of prophets Adam, Noah and Abraham, “But after them there
followed a posterity who missed prayers and followed after lusts” (19.59). The
remaining three references of this period are in Surah al-Ma’rij (79thE/42ndN) and
Surah al-Fatir (43rdE/86thN) which are likely to be revelations of a later period as
categorised by one of the versions. However, some of the passages omitted by Watt
from the list of earliest surahs can be assumed to have been revealed by this time,
e.g., 96:9-10 and 74:41-43, quoted earlier.

The revelation of Surah al-Shu’ara and Surah al-Hijr, the 47th and 54th out of 86(E) or
56thN and 57th out of 90(N) Makkan surahs, may be assumed to have happened
sometimes in the middle of the Makkan period, i.e., 616 AD. However, the
approximate time of beginning of the Prophet’s preaching in public, which followed
these two surahs, suggests an earlier date. According to Ibn Ishaq (85-152 AH),
“Three years elapsed from the time that the apostle concealed his state until God
commanded him to publish his religion, according to information which has reached
me”.12 The sira of Ibn Hisham (d. 218 AH) states: “The new religion gradually
became more widespread in Mecca . At this time the call was still secretly proceeding.
But, three years after Mohammad’s mission he was ordered by Allah to manifest the
call explicitly”.13 Depending on whether the three year period is meant to begin from
the date of the ‘call’ or from the date of ‘proclamation’, the revelation of the two
surahs would have happened either in 613 or in 614 AD.

It may be noticed that the reference to prayer in the Qur’anic passages revealed after
the ‘proclamation’ convey slightly more obligatory nature of the practice than in the
earlier verses. Also, it is mentioned as a ritual that existed at the time of the earlier
prophets and in the verses related to Moses, it seems to have been a commandment to
him (i.e., ‘establish regular prayers’). However, there is yet no suggestion that the
practice of prayer is obligatory for the contemporary Muslims or to be performed in a
specific way or at any particular time. Some verses of this period specify times of the
day for the worship of God without mentioning ‘prayer’, e.g., “and celebrate
(constantly) the praises of your Lord, before the rising of the sun, and before its setting;
yes, celebrate them for part of the hours of the night, and at the sides of the day: that
you may have (spiritual) joy” (20:130) in Surah Ta Ha (45thE/55thN) and  “celebrate
the praises of your Lord, before the rising of the sun and before (its) setting, and during
part of the night” (50:39-40) in Surah Qaf (34thE/54thN). So, in the Qur’anic
revelations up to 3 or 4 years from the “call’, there is no indication about any formal
way of performing a prayer although the words sajda (prostration) and ruku (bowing)
have been used in some of the verses in various contexts. Nevertheless, the Prophet’
sira provides some information in this respect as discussed below.

According to Lings, immediately after the ‘proclamation’ the Prophet “had no

demands to make upon them, except that they should not divulge his secret. But this
situation did not last long” and the religion was “established on the basis of ritual
purification and prayer”14, i.e., some form of prayer following the night-vigil type
mentioned earlier. He also suggests that this followed the demonstration of a formal
prayer to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) by angel Gabriel which is described in Ibn
Kathir’s sira as follows:

“Gabriel came to the Messenger of God (SAAS) when prayer was made incumbent
upon him; he made a mark with his heel on the side of the valley and a spring water
from zamzam gushed forth. Then Gabriel performed the ablution, along with
Muhammad, peace be upon them both. He then bowed in prayer twice and made four
prostrations. Thereafter the Prophet (SAAS) went home, God having much comforted
him and brought him what he wanted. He took Khadija’s hand and led her to the well
and there performed the ablution as Gabriel has done. He then made two bows in
prayer and four prostrations. Thereafter Khadija and he would perform the prayer in
secret.”15   

The above description is that of a standard two-rak’at prayer without taslim (i.e., the
greetings at the end of a prayer by turning the face at first to the right and then to the
left reciting each time the greetings, ‘assalamu alaikum wa rahmatullah’). However,
Ling describes the demonstration as that of “the postures and movements of the
prayer, the standing, the inclining, the prostrating and the sitting with the repeated
magnification, that is, the words Allahu Akbar, God is Most Great, and the final
greeting as-Salamu ‘alaykum, Peace be on you”.17 Ibn Ishaq’s description of the event
only states, “Then Gabriel said a prayer with him while the apostle prayed with his
prayer”16, and does not include the two bowings and four prostrations or the taslim.
Ibn Kathir’s description also includes: “I wish to comment that Gabriel’s prayer on
this occasion was different from the prayers he performed twice at the Ka’ba” 26,
which suggests the possibility that at an earlier stage prayer was performed in a way
different from the way demonstrated here.

Another example is the Prophet’s uncle Abbas’s description of the former’s prayer in
front of the Ka’ba that relates to the Abu Jahl incident mentioned earlier (ref: 96:9-
10). As stated by Al-Bayhaqi: “The Messenger of God (SAAS) entered (the Ka’ba)
then, recited the verse, ‘Read in the name of your Lord, who created, created man
from a clot.’ … When the Messenger of God (SAAS) reached the end of the surat he
prostrated himself in prayer”.21 This description is of a one-rak’a prayer of single
prostration without any ruku. The last verse of Surah al-Alaq, referring to the same
incident (as translated by Pickthall), also suggests prostration without any ruku: “Nay,
do not obey him: But bow down in adoration (prostrate) (wasjud waqtarib), and bring
yourself the closer (to Allah)! (96:19).

The next example is the Prophet’s prayer in front of the Ka’ba with Ali and Khadija
as seen by Yahya b. Afif. Ibn Jarir’s version of this incident suggests the performance
of a one-rak’a prayer with ruku and sajda but no taslim:

“When the sun rose and hung high as I (Yahya b. ‘Afif) was overlooking the Ka’ba, a
young man approached. He looked up at the sky then went to the Ka’ba and stood
there facing it. A boy soon arrived and stood there to his right, and shortly thereafter a
woman came and stood behind them. The man bowed down and so did the boy and
the woman. Next the man made a prostration and they both did, along with him.” 18

Ibn Ishaq’s description of the same event adds: “Afif said after he had become a
Muslim and Islam was firmly established in his heart, ‘Would that I have been
fourth!’”19, implying that the incident happened as early as when only three people
mentioned above used to pray.

The tradition relating to Ali’s acceptance of Islam also mentions the performance of
prayer. One day when the matter of revelations were still confined to the Prophet and
his wife, Ali came home (he used to live with the Prophet’s family) and found them
praying. When asked what they were doing, the Prophet explained and invited him to
join the new faith. The following day Ali became the third person, after the Prophet
and his wife, to embrace Islam.

Of the four examples of prayer described above, the first one, unlike the other three,
was a perceived scenario only experienced by the Prophet. As such, it is not known
exactly when it happened or when the Prophet mentioned about it to his disciples.
Although Lings suggests the time for this event to be sometime after the
‘proclamation’ in 611 AD, in Ibn Ishaq’s sira, Guillame’s note about another tradition
of Gabriel’s two-day demonstration on the timing of the five daily prayers (to be
quoted later) suggests a much later date, possibly in 614 AD, i.e., after the public
‘warning’. In spite of the fact that the other three examples have also not been dated
in the siras, approximate times of their occurrence can be estimated. The two
demonstrations of prayer in front of the Ka’ba possibly took place around the time of
the public ‘warning’, i.e., in 613/614 AD, the one involving Abu Jahl is likely to have
been after the event. The last of the four examples, i.e., the incident involving Ali, is
likely to be the earliest as according to Al-Waqidi, “Ali accepted Islam one year after
the Messenger of God became a Prophet”20, i.e., in 611 AD. This shows that some
form of prayer was practised in the Prophet’s household before the ‘proclamation’ and
before any outsider was aware of Muhammad’s “call” to prophethood. No description
of this ‘prayer’ is available and as this incident must have happened before the prayers
in front of the Ka’ba, it is possible that this was also a one-rak’a prayer. Based on all
the information presented so far it may be concluded that in the period up to the
‘warning’ some formal way of praying that involved sajda and possibly ruku was
practiced by the Muslims although not in any particular time/times of the day.
After the public ‘warning’

After the public ‘warning/admonition’, the level of persecution by the Quraysh

increased to such an extent that some groups of Muslims emigrated to Abysinia in 615
AD and any demonstration of the religion, like praying in public, had to be curtailed
to avoid retaliation by the non-believers. The situation changed to some extent with
the conversion of Umar (616 AD) who began defending the believers. “Abd Allah b.
Mas’ud used to say: We were unable to pray at the Ka’ba until Umar accepted Islam;
having done so, Umar battled Quraysh until he was able to pray at the Ka’ba, and we
prayed with him”.22  

Let us examine the Qur’anic verses referring to ‘prayer’ in the surahs revealed in the
period between the public ‘warning’ and the Prophet’s ‘Night Journey’ (Isra and
Miraj) that happened in 619 AD. Surah al-Isra is likely to be the surah revealed
immediately after the event as its first verse describes the Isra, i.e., the first part of the
‘Journey’ from Makka to Jerusalem :

“Glory to (Allah) Who took His servant for a journey by night from the Sacred
Mosque (Masjid al-Haram) to the Farthest Mosque (Masjid al-Aqsa), whose
precincts We did bless, - in order that We might show him some of Our signs;
for He is the one Who hears and sees (all things)” (17:1), the Sacred Mosque being
the Ka’ba and the Farthest Mosque indicating the place in Jerusalem associated with
the earlier messengers of God, Sulayman (Solomon) and Da’wud (David).  

In the Egyptian chronology this surah has been listed as the 50th revelation, whereas
Noeldeke shows it as the 67th, Muir 87th and Grimme, the 82nd revelation. In the ten
surahs of Noeldeke’s list and the two in the Egyptian list that belong to this period,
there are four verses that mention ‘prayer’. One of these, in Surah al-Anbiya (65thN
/73rdE), continues the theme of the last verse of the previous period, i.e., ‘prayer and
the earlier prophets’: “And We made them leaders, … to establish regular prayers, and
to practice regular charity; and they constantly served Us (and Us only)” (21:73), where
‘them’ means Abraham, Lut, Isaac and Jacob. Among the other verses, some begin to
express the obligatory nature of the ‘prayer’ for the followers of Prophet Muhammad
(pbuh) in a cotemporary sense. The following verses are in Surah Al-Mu’minun (64thN
/74thE): “The believers must (eventually) win through, - those who humble themselves in
their prayers” (23:1-2) and “Those who faithfully observe their trusts and covenants;
and who (strictly) guard their prayers; - these will be the heirs, who will inherit
paradise: they will dwell therein (forever)” (23:8-11). The last reference is in Sura al-
Naml (48thE/68thN): “Those who establish regular prayers and give in regular charity,
and also have (full) assurance of the Hereafter” (27:3). In the last two verses we find,
for the first time, the promise of some future reward directly linked with the practice
of prayer.

Like in the previous period, some verses of this period also indicate the times of the
day for the worship of God without using the word salat. These are: “celebrate the
praises of your Lord while you stand forth, and for part of the night also you praise him,
- and at the retreat of the stars!” (52:48-49) in Surah al-Tur (40thN/76thE), “And part
of the night, prostrate yourself to Him; and glorify Him a long night through ” (76:26)
in Surah al-Insan (52ndN/98thE), “celebrate His praises night and day” (21:20) in
Surah al-Anbiya (65thN/73rdE) and “spend the night in adoration of their Lord -
prostrate and standing” (25:64) in Surah al-Furqan (66thN/42ndE). With phrases like
‘establish regular prayer’ and ‘guard their prayers’, etc., the revelations of this period
would have generated adoption of prayer by more and more Muslims and by the time
of the ‘Night Journey’, the formal prayer must have been a common practice amongst
them. This is substantiated by another tradition that narrates Ali having said, “I prayed
seven years before the people did”. 23 Ali had possibly made this claim when he saw a
large number of people praying in and around the year 618 AD, i.e., seven years after
he himself started praying in the Prophet’s household.

The late Makkan surahs in the period between the Miraj (the second part of the
‘Night Journey’) and the Prophet’s Hijrah (i.e., between 619 and 622 AD), are more
explicit about the obligation of performing the daily prayer  and instead of ‘celebrate
the praises of thy Lord’, expressions like ‘steadfast in prayer’ or ‘establish regular
prayer’ (aqamu-as-salata or its derivative) is more common, e.g., 31:04 (57 thE/82ndN),
42.38 (62ndE/83rdN), 14:31 (72ndE/76thN), 70:23 (79thE/42ndN), 30:31 (84thE/78thN) and
13:22(96thE/90thN), the last one being listed as a Madinan surah in the Egyptian
chronology. The three verses in Surah al-Ma’rij and Surah al-Fatir, mentioned earlier
as possibly of this period, also contain similar expressions, i.e., “remain steadfast to
their prayers” (70:22-23) and “establish regular prayer” (35:18 & 35:29). Further
reference about God’s commandment to a previous prophet ‘to establish regular
prayer’ is made in a verse (10:87) (to Moses) in Surah Yunus (51stE/84thN) and in
another (31:17) the phrase is included in the sermon of Luqman the Wise in Surah
Luqman (57thE/82ndN).

According to tradition, the number of obligatory daily prayers was fixed during the
Miraj. “The Prophet received the command from God that men should perform the
prayer fifty times each day; when the Prophet descended, Moses advised him to return
in order to ask that the number be reduced to one more within men’s capabilities; it
was finally reduced to five”.24 According to a Hadith, the Prophet was asked by
Moses to request for reduction in the initially recommended number of obligatory
daily prayers “as your followers will not be able to bear it” (HSB/1:345). This event
clearly illustrates that at the time of the Miraj, there existed a standard length of a
formal prayer which multiplied by the number of such prayers per day formed the
basis of “men’s capabilities” or “be able to bear it”. And as will be ascertained by
Hadith and sira in later discussion, this length was of two rak’at.  So the two-rak’at
prayer must have been adopted as a standard practice sometime before the Miraj
although we do not know exactly when.

Ibn Kathir’s observation from a detailed study on these dates is as follows: “the five
daily prayers (that were enjoined) on the occasion of laylat al-isra, the ‘night
journey’. As for the origin of prayer, it was (already) made necessary (by Gabriel’s
demonstration) during the lifetime of Khadija”. 25 Although the statement does not
give a specific date, it gives the impression that prayer may not have been made
necessary very early in Khadija’s life after the ‘call’ to prophethood irrespective of
when Gabriel’s demonstration took place. She died in 619 AD, before the Prophet’s
Miraj, and the obligatory status of the prayer possibly came more near to this date
than that of the ‘proclamation’. So, it may be surmised that at various stages, between
611 and 614 AD, the prayer was performed either only as one-rak’a of prostration
with or without any ruku/taslim, or both as one-rak’a and two-rak’a prayers, the latter
becoming the standard practice sometime before the Miraj. In any case, the one-rak’a
prayer continued to remain a valid form for some voluntary prayers in certain
circumstances, as demonstrated by the Prophet much later in Madina, e.g., Witr prayer
(HSB/2:109) and the Fear prayer (Salat al-Khauf) (HSM/1463 & HSB/2:64).

There is no Qur’anic verse where the word ‘five’ is mentioned as the required number
of daily prayers. However, the Prophet’s traditions show that following the
ordainment at the Miraj, he made ‘five prayers a day’ an obligatory practice for the
fellow Muslims (HSB/1.44 & 1.63) and the Qur’anic revelations soon after the Miraj
include verses that began to specify the various times for the performance of the daily
prayers (salat). Some of these are: “Establish regular prayers - at the sun’s decline till
the darkness of the night, and the morning prayer and reading: for the prayer and
reading in the morning carry their testimony. And pray in the small watches of the
morning: (it would be) an additional prayer for you” (17:78-79) in Surah al-Isra
(50thE/67thN) and “And establish regular prayers at the two ends of the day and at the
approaches of the night” (11:114) in Sura al-Hud (52ndE/75thN). Also, like in the
previous periods, some verses specify the various times of the day for prayer without
using the word salat: “Is one who worship devoutly during the hours of the night
prostrating himself or standing (in adoration)” (39:09), in Surah al-Zumar
(59thE/80thN), “and celebrate the praises of your Lord in the evening and in the
morning” (40:55), in Surah Ghafir (60thE/78thN) and “for in the presence of your Lord
are those who celebrate His praises by night and by day. And they never flag (nor feel
themselves above it)” (41:38), in Surah Fussilat (61stE/71stN).

Verses of this period also deal with various other aspects of a prayer. In Surah al-
Ankabut (86thE/81stN), a verse points out the ensuing benefits of practising prayer:
“and establish regular prayer: for prayer restrains from shameful and unjust deeds”
(29:45). In Surah Al-Araf (87thN/39thE), three verses highlight some other features:
“and that ye set your whole selves (to Him) at every time and place of prayer” (7:29),
“O Children of Adam! Wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer”
(7.31) and “Verily those whom ye call upon besides Allah are servants like unto you:
Call upon them, and let them listen to your prayer, if you are (indeed) truthful” (7.194).
The verse: “Neither speak your prayer aloud, nor speak it in a low tone, but seek a
middle course between” (17:110) in Surah al-Isra has been interpreted as instruction
for not to disturb the non-believers of Makka with noisy prayer sessions.

In Madina

On the basis of the discussion above, it may be concluded with reasonable certainty
that the basic aspects of the ritual of obligatory daily prayers were established and
practised before the Prophet’s Hijra to Madina in 622 AD. The Prophet reached a
place called Quba on the outskirts of Madina on Monday the 24 th of September.
There, on the mirbad (open space) for drying dates that belonged to Kulthum b.
Hidm, the first public performance of a congregational prayer led by the Prophet was
held and the foundation of a mosque was laid. According to Lings 27 the Prophet
stayed in Quba for three full days and on Friday he set out for Madina. On the way, he
stopped at the valley of Ranuna where he attended a congregation of early afternoon
prayer with the Khazrajite clan of the Bani Salim and delivered a sermon. This is
considered as the first Friday congregational prayer led by the Prophet and the sermon
is quoted in full by Tabari (839-923 AD) in Ta’rikh al-rusul wa’l-muluk.28
After the ‘First Aqaba’ pledge in June 621 AD, when the representatives of the
Khazraj and Aws tribes invited the Prophet to Madina during their pilgrimage trip to
Makka, the Prophet asked Mus’ab b. Umayr to accompany them back to Madina. He
was a trusted follower of the Prophet, dedicated to the religion and well versed in the
Qur’an. He provided religious instruction to the new Muslims of Madina and
according to Ibn Ishaq, a typical conversion ceremony conducted by him would be:
“You wash, and clean yourself and your clothes, Then you give testimony to the truth
and make two prayer prostration”29. This confirms that in the pre-hijra period Musab
established prayer as an essential part of the religion and its standard length was of
two rak’at. Unlike the Qurayash of Makka, the Jewish community of Madina was
used to the practice of prayer as a part of its monotheistic religion and was not hostile
to the Muslims which enabled the latter to pray without any fear of persecution.

Although the number of surahs revealed in Madina is only 28(E) or 24(N) out of a
total of 114, these constitute more than one-third of the contents of the Qur’an
because of their longer size. Surah Al-Baqara is generally accepted as the first surah
revealed in Madina. It is the second surah of the Qur’an and, with 286 verses, it’s
longest. “Most of the passages composing it belong to the first two or three years after
Hijra”.30 The word salat or its derivative appear a number of times in the Madinan
surahs of which 23 are in Surah al-Baqara alone. These references may be divided
into two main categories. Those in the first category emphasise the importance of
prayer - usually by continuation of expressions like ‘establish regular prayer’, ‘be
steadfast in prayer’, etc., beginning with 2:03 in Surah al-Baqara and up to 5:55 in
Surah al-Ma’idah (114thE/112thN). Some of the Madinan verses use other expressions
like “seek (Allah’s) help with patient perseverance and prayer” (2:45, 2:153) and one
mentions a particular prayer: “Guard strictly your (habit of) prayers, especially the
Middle Prayer …” (2:238), which has been interpreted as a reference to the Asr
prayer. Most of these expressions also include zakat along with prayer, e.g., “be
steadfast in prayer and practice regular charity”, the association that began in Makka
with the verse 19:55 in Surah Maryam (44thE/58thN).

The second category of references provides guidelines in respect of the different

aspects of prayer. The earliest of these is about praying when there is fear from the
enemy: “pray on foot, or riding (as may be most convenient), but when you are in
security celebrate Allah’s praises in the manner He has taught you” (2:239). Similarly,
there is a verse on shortening the duration of prayer in certain circumstances: “When
you travel through the earth, there is no blame on you if you shorten your prayers, for
fear the unbelievers may attack you” (4:101). In the same surah, i.e., Surah al-Nissa
(98thE/100thN), there is a verse about the ineligibility of prayer if the mind and the
body of the person have not been cleansed: “do not approach prayers with a mind
befogged, until you can understand all that you say, - nor in state of ceremonial
impurity (except when travelling on the road), until after washing your whole body”
(4:43). The verse about the details of ablution before prayer (wudu) came later in
Surah al-Ma’idah:

“… when you prepare for prayer, wash your faces and your hands (and arms) to
the elbows; rub your heads (with water); and (wash) your feet to the ankles. If
you are in a state of ceremonial impurity, bathe your whole body. But if you are
ill, or on a journey, or one of you comes from offices of nature, or you have been
in contact with women, and you find no water, then take for yourselves clean
 sand or earth, and rub therewith your faces and hands. Allah does not wish to
place you in a difficulty, but to make you clean …” (5:6).

In Surah al-Nissa there is a verse in which the following instruction is given: “When
you pass/finish (congregational) prayers, celebrate Allah’s praises, standing, sitting
down, or lying down on your sides” (4:103) and in the preceding verse there is
instruction to the Prophet to provide everyone the opportunity of sharing the prayer
under his leadership: “let one party of them stand up (in prayer) with you, … when they
finish their prostrations, let them take their position in the rear. And let the other party
come up which has not yet prayed – and let them pray with you” (4:102). There are two
verses in Surah al-Jumu’a providing instructions relevant to the Friday congregational
prayer: “When the call is proclaimed to prayer on Friday (the day of assembly), hasten
earnestly in the remembrance of Allah, and leave off business (and traffic) …And when
the prayer is finished, then you may disperse through the land, and seek of the bounty of
Allah: and celebrate the praises of Allah” (62:9-10).

Apart from these two main categories, Madinan surahs also refer to prayer in various
other contexts. Some of these are about the non-believers and the hypocrites. A verse
in Surah al-Ma’idah states, “When you proclaim your call to prayer, they take it (but)
as mockery and sport; that is because they are a people without understanding” (5:58)
and even when they attend for a prayer, “they come to prayer without earnestness;
and that they offer contributions unwillingly” (9:54) and again in 4:142, “when
they stand up to prayer, they stand without earnestness, to be seen of men, but little do
they hold Allah in remembrance”. There is also a command: “Nor do you ever pray for
any of them that dies, nor stand at his grave; for they rejected Allah and His messenger”
(9:84). However, about those who “have acknowledged their wrong doings”, “verily,
your prayers are a source of security for them” (2:102&103). A passage of Surah al-
Tauba is believed to be about a mosque of the followers of Abu Amir, who fought
against the Muslims in the battle of Uhud, which was built “by way of mischief and
infidelity – to disunite the believers” (9:107) and as rival to the Quba Mosque founded
by the Prophet. Qur’an asks “You never stand forth therein” (9:108). Prayer is also
implied in verses of Surah al-Baqara (2:149-150) that refer to the change of Qibla
from Jerusalem to Makka. Like some verses in the Makkan surahs, there are also
Madinan verses that mention about the prayer of the earlier prophets, e.g., the prayer
of Zakariyah (3:39) and about the “station of Abraham as a place of prayer” (2:125).
Finally, in one verse the prayer is mentioned as a medium through which to celebrate
Allah’s praise by “all things in the heavens and on earth” and “each one knows its own
(mode of) prayer and praise” (24:41) and in another, as an expression of dedication to
God: “my prayer and my service of sacrifice, my life and my death, are (all) for Allah,
the Cherisher of the Worlds” (6:162).

Shaping of the liturgy

The study so far has presented the Qur’anic revelations on prayer and how its
obligatory aspect evolved chronologically through these verses. However, the
liturgical details of the prayer were not established wholly on the Qur’anic guidelines
and according to one author, none of the reference to prayer in the early Surahs of the
Qur’an is used “in the technical sense of the ritual prayer” and only “on both sides of
the Hijra, extending from the years 620 to 624 AD, the communal nature of prayer
become manifest” 57. The gradual evolution of the ritual of prayer during the period of
its inception was guided by the Qur’an as well as other events in the life of the
Prophet in Makka as narrated in the sira. Although the basic aspects of prayer were
conceived in Makka, the development of the details of its final format happened
during the Prophet’s lifetime in Madina. These were mostly based on the Sunnah, i.e.,
the sayings and actions of the Prophet, and many of these are narrated in the
collection of Hadith, particularly in Sahih al-Bukhari’s ‘Book of as-Salat’. The
various aspects of a Muslim’s prayer with reference to the background of their
formation will now be discussed.  

The Qibla

There is no guideline in the Qur’an with regard to Jerusalem being the direction to
face for prayer (the Qibla direction), nor the city is mentioned anywhere by name.
However, reference is made in Surah al-Isra about Masjid al-Aqsa (the farthest
mosque) (17:1), indicating the site in Jerusalem where the Isra ended and the Miraj
began, and where a monotheistic ‘house of worship’ was built by Prophet Sulayman
who is mentioned in several verses (e.g., 38:30, 2:102). As narrated in verses of
Surah Sa’ad (38:21-24), it is also where his father, Prophet Da’wud, gave a
judgement in the dispute among two people who “climbed over the wall of his private
chamber (mihrab)”. When Jerusalem was conquered in 638 AD, the then caliph Umar
wished to visit the site of ‘mihrab Dawud’ of Surah Sa’ad, and he was taken to the
platform of Mount Moriah , i.e., Masjid al-Aqsa. The Prophet was aware of the piety
of the site of this ‘farthest mosque’ through these Qur’anic verses, all of which were
revealed in Makka, when he decided to make Jerusalem the first Qibla for the Muslim
prayer.  

In the pre-Hijra period, there was no mosque built in Makka nor any information
about the orientation of prayer in Makka is available, except for the Prophet’s prayer
in front of the Ka’ba in the Abu Jahl incident. This has been described as:

“That morning, the Messenger of God (SAAS) came as usual; his direction of prayer
at that time was towards Syria . When he prayed he positioned himself between the
corner (of the Ka’ba) with the ‘black stone’ and the Yemeni corner, facing so that the
Ka’ba was between himself and Syria ” 31 (the direction towards Syria is meant to be
towards Jerusalem ).

In his other prayer with his wife and Ali, it is known that they were facing the Ka’ba
but not whether they were also facing towards north, i.e., towards Jerusalem . No
other evidence of the orientation of a prayer performed in Makka, either in public or
at home, is available.

In Madina, Muslims of the pre-Hijra period also used Jerusalem as the Qibla which is
clearly evident from the following tradition. 32 When Mus’ab b. Umayr returned to
Makka with a group of Madinan Muslims, a year after the First Aqaba pledge, one of
them, Al-Bara’ b. Ma’rur, did not want to face towards Jerusalem for his prayer which
would have meant turning his back to the Ka’ba. But the Prophet asserted that he
should face Jerusalem like all the others. Documentary evidence on the Prophet’s
Mosque in Madina shows that the first mosque built by him had its Qibla wall on the
north, i.e., towards Jerusalem . A recent work on the earliest phases of the Quba
Mosque33 shows that it was also built at first with the Qibla towards Jerusalem . As
such, the suggestion made by some Western scholars that Jerusalem was chosen as the
Qibla by the Prophet only after the Hijra, to satisfy and woo the Jewish community of
Madina, who faced towards the site of the Solomon’s Temple for their prayers, is not
a justifiable one.

The Qibla was changed from Jerusalem to Ka’ba in the second year of the Hijra to
comply with the guidance in the Qur’anic verses 2:144-150 of Surah al-Baqara. The
change happened “halfway through the month of Sha’ban, eighteen months after the
arrival of the Messenger of God in Madina. … Others say that the Qibla was changed
to the Ka’ba sixteen months after the beginning of the Hijra era.”34 Either of the dates
will make it early 624 AD which is confirmed by the fact that it happened before the
Battle of Badr that took place in March, 624 AD 35. It is believed that the relevant
Qur’anic verses were revealed while the Prophet was leading a prayer in a mosque in
Madina. He recited the verses, turned back and crossed over to the opposite side of
the prayer hall and the members of the congregation turned their faces back from
north to south behind the Prophet. This mosque is now known as Masjid-i- Qiblatain
or the Mosque of two Qiblas.  

Length and time of the prayers

The study shows that the earliest available description of the performance of a
‘prayer’ in Islam, is the Prophet’s ‘prayer’ in front of the Ka’ba. Happened after the
Prophet’s ‘proclamation’ in 611 AD and possibly around or after the public ‘warning’
in 613/614 AD, this was a one-rak’a prayer without any ruku or taslim. The prayer of
the Prophet, his wife and Ali at the same place and about the same time, was also
described as a one-rak’a prayer, but with ruku.  However, sometimes before the
Prophet’s Miraj in 619 AD, the two-rak’at prayer following the demonstration by
Gabriel to the Prophet came into practice, and remained the standard length of a
prayer at the time of the Miraj. It has also been derived in this study that such a
practice may have begun only after the public ‘warning’. The following Hadith
confirms that the prayer was initially of two-rak’at length when it was made
obligatory: “Allah enjoined the As-Salat (the prayer) when He enjoined it, it was two
Rak’at only [in every Salat (prayer)] both when in residence or on journey. Then the
Salat (prayers) offered on journey remained the same, but (the Rak’at of) the Salat
(prayers) for non-travellers were increased” (HSB/1:346) and “Allah has prescribed
the prayer through the word of your Prophet (peace be upon him) as four rak’as when
resident, two when travelling, and one when danger is present.” (HSM/1463). With
regard to the time of introduction of this variation of length, it is suggested to have
happened in the first year of the Hijra. The following extract is from Ibn Kathir:

Ibn Jarir stated, “That same year, the first year of the hegira, the length of the salat
al-hadar, the prayer while at home, was increased by two rak’at, prayer cycle, or so it
is said. previously both the prayer at home and while travelling had been two rak’at.
This came about after the arrival of the Messenger of God (SAAS) on the 12th of
Rabi ‘al-Akhir”.36                                                   

He also comments: “Al-Waqidi maintained that that there was no dispute among the
people of Hijaz on this subject”. Tabari, confirms Ibn Jarir’s view: “The change took
place a month after the arrival of the Messenger of God in Madina, that is, on 12
Rabi’ al-Akhir (October 24, 622 AD).”37
The only reference in the Qur’an about the length of prayer is related to its shortening
in certain circumstances (4:101), as mentioned earlier. The reduction in the length of
obligatory Fajr and Maghrib prayers to two-rak’at and three-rak’at respectively,
while the other three remained four-rak’at prayers as prescribed in the Hadith, was
the result of following what the Prophet used to do most of the time and his practices
in this respect are also available from the collection of Hadith. “The Prophet (SAAS)
… used to prolong the first rak’a of the Fajr (early morning) prayer and shorten the
second” (HSB/1:726), clearly implies that the Fajr prayer was two-rak’at long. “The
Prophet (SAAS) prayed eight rak’at for the Zuhr and Asr, and seven for the Maghrib
and Isha prayers in Al-Madina” (HSB/1:518), indicates that the Zuhr, Asr and Isha
prayers were all four-rak’at prayers and the Maghrib was a three-rak’at prayer. These
are confirmed by a number of other Hadith: “Mu’adh asked Aisha how many rak’ahs
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) prayed at the forenoon prayer. She replied:
four rak’ahs, but sometimes more as he pleased” (HSM/1549). “I saw Allah’s
Messenger (SAAS) delaying the Maghrib prayer till he offered it (along with the Isha prayer).
He used to pray Maghrib prayer three rak’at and perform taslim whenever he was in a hurry
during a journey. And after waiting for a short while, Iqama used to be pronounced for the
Isha prayer and he would offer two rak’at and perform taslim. …”. Narrator: Abdullah bin
Umar (HSB/2:197). This Hadith  indicates that on a journey, although the Prophet
shortened the Isha prayer, he still prayed three rak’at for the Maghrib.

About the times for performance of the five daily prayers, the Qur’anic verses specify
only the various parts of a day when one should pray (17:78-79, 11:114, etc. as quoted
earlier). However, according to tradition there was another demonstration by Gabriel
which is described by Ibn Ishaq as:

Utba b. Muslim told me, “When prayer was laid upon the apostle Gabriel came to
him and prayed the noon prayer when the sun declined. Then he prayed the evening
prayer when his shadow equalled his own length. Then he prayed the sunset prayer
when the sun set. Then he prayed the last night prayer when the twilight had
disappeared. Then he prayed with him the morning prayer when the dawn rose. The
he came to him and prayed the noon prayer on the morrow when his shadow equalled
his height. Then he prayed the evening prayer when his shadow equalled the height of
both of them. Then he prayed the sunset prayer when the sun set at the time it had the
day before. Then he prayed with him the last night prayer when the first third of the
night has passed. Then he prayed the dawn prayer with me when it was clear but the
sun was not shining. Then he said, ‘O Muhammad, prayer is in what is between your
prayer today and your prayer yesterday’.”38

A description of this demonstration is also narrated in a Hadith (HAD/0393).

Guillaume’s note in Ibn Ishaq’s sira with regard to this incident includes the
following:

“Traditions are agreed that this storey belongs to the morrow of the prophet’s night
journey some five years later (than the other demonstration by Gabriel on prayer).
Opinions differ as to whether this occurred eighteen months or a year before the hijra,
but that would have been long after the beginning of the revelation” 39 

As such, it may be concluded that immediately after the Prophet’s Mitaj in 619 AD,
both the number and times of the obligatory daily prayers were established.
Guillaume’s note also suggests a date for the earlier demonstration of a standard
prayer by Gabriel, i.e., five years earlier than this demonstration, possibly sometime
in 614 AD.

More specific guidelines about the beginning time and the latest time within which to
perform each of the prayers were provided by the Prophet’s tradition. When he came
to Quba, the Prophet was already following the stipulated times for the daily prayers
and during his stay in Abu Ayub’s house on arrival in Madina “he used to pray
wherever he happened to be when time for prayer came, he would even pray in sheep
pens”.40 The only Qur’anic reference about praying at the stipulated time was revealed
in Surah al-Nissa after the Battle of Uhud (625 AD): “for such prayers are enjoined on
believers in stated times” (4:103), following which it is likely to have been a common
practice in Madina to follow the appropriate times for the prayers. Documentary
evidence in this respect is provided by the texts of the Prophet’s treaties with Ukaydir
and Harithah of the people of Dumat al-Jandal (5 AH) which show that one of the
conditions imposed on them was: “You are to perform the worship (salat) at its
(proper) time, and to give zakat as is due”41. Included in Sahih al-Bukhari is the ‘The
Book of the times of As-Salat’ with more than 75 Hadith which provide several
accounts of the times followed by the Prophet for the daily prayers as narrated by his
companions (Sahaba). These show some degree of variation and flexibility, thus
making the performance of prayer as convenient as possible within the overall
guidelines on the range of time for each. The following Hadith is a relevant example:
Allah’s Messenger (SAAS) said, “If anyone of you (or was able to pray) one Rak’a of
the Asr prayer before sunset, he should complete his prayer. If anyone of you got one
Rak’a of the Fajr prayer before sunrise, he should complete his prayer.” (HSB/1:531)

Posture, movement & recitation

Sajda and ruku are two distinct postures in the performance of a prayer. The earliest
mention of the word sajda in the Qur’an is in the very first surah, i.e., Surah al-Alaq
(96:19), as quoted earlier. This is followed by a number of other Makkan surahs that
uses the word sajda as well as ruku (77:48) most of which are not referred in the
context of a prayer. In the Madinan surahs, however, ruku and sajda are usually
mentioned as the postures of a prayer or are interpreted to mean so. Arranged
chronologically, these are: “And be steadfast in prayer; ... and bow down your heads
with those who bow down” (2:43) in Surah Al-Baqara, “O Mary! Worship your Lord
devoutly: prostrate yourself and bow down (in prayer) with those who bow down”
(3:43) in Surah Ali-Imran, “stand up, or bow, or prostrate themselves (therein in
prayer).” (22:26) and “O you who believe! Bow down, prostrate yourselves, and adore
your Lord” (22:77) in Surah Al-Hajj, “You will see them bow and prostrate themselves
(in prayer)” (48:29) in Surah Al-Fath, “those who establish regular prayers ... and they
bow down humbly (in worship)” (5:55), in Surah Al-Maida and “bow down and
prostrate themselves in prayer” (9:112) in Surah Al-Tawbah. When fifteen of these
verses with the word sajda are recited, it is a good practice to make an instantaneous
prostration.

Further details of movements and postures in a prayer have been adopted from the
Prophet’s traditions most of which are recorded as Hadith. In one of these, Wa’il ibn
Hujr narrates the Prophet’s prayer:
 “I purposely looked at the prayer of the Apostle of Allah (pbuh), how he offered it.
He stood up, faced the direction of the qiblah and uttered the takbir and then raised
his hands in front of his ears, then placed his right hand on his left (catching each
other). When he was about to bow, he raised them in the same manner. He then
placed his hands on his knees. When he raised his head after bowing, he raised then
in the like manner. When he prostrated himself he placed his forehead between his
hands. He then sat down and spread his left foot and placed his left hand on his left
thigh, and kept his right elbow aloof from his thigh. He closed his two fingers and
made a circle (with the fingers)” (HAD/0725). Takbir is the expression ‘Allahu
akbar’ (God is the greatest).

Another Hadith, narrated by Abdullah ibn Abbas, describes the sajda: The Prophet
(pbuh) said, “We have been ordered to prostrate on seven bones, i.e., on forehead
along with the tip of the nose and the Prophet (pbuh) pointed towards his nose, both
hands, both knees and the toes of both feet and not to tuck up the clothes and the hair”
(HSB/1:776). In interpreting this Hadith, Al-Albaani42 states that “the forehead and
the nose – counting as one limb in prostration”. Based on several other traditions, he
describes the beginning of a prayer by the Prophet as: “After completing his recitation
he would pause for a moment, then raise his hands …, say takbir, and make ruku.” As
discussed earlier in the Ling’s version of Gabriel’s demonstration, the Prophet used to
end his prayer with the taslim.

The contents of recitation in a prayer have also been established by the traditions of
the Prophet. The following two Hadith indicate how the typical canonical prayers
have been structured with regard to the recitation of Qur’anic passages:  

“The Prophet (SAAS) in Zuhr prayer used to recite Surat al-Fatiha along with two
other surah in the first two rak’at: a long one in the first rak’a and a shorter in the
second, and at times the verses were audible. In the Asr prayer the Prophet (SAAS)
used to recite Surat al-Fatiha and two more surah in the first two rak’at and used to
prolong the first rak’a. …” (HSB/1:726).

Allah’s Messenger said, “Whoever does not recite Surat al-Fatiha in his prayer, his
prayer is invalid” (HSB/1:723). The obligation of reciting Surah al-Fatiha in every
rak’a of a prayer is further confirmed by Al-Albani’s finding from his study of 
Hadith:

The Prophet ordered “the one who prayed badly” to recite al-Fatihah in every rak’ah,
when he said to him after ordering him to recite it in the first rak’a (Abu Dawud &
Ahmad), then do that throughout your prayer (Bukhari & Muslim) [in one narration:
in every rak’a (Ahmad with good isnad)]. He also used to say, there is recitation in
every rak’a (Ibn Maajah and Ibn Hibban).43   

Apart from recitation from the Qur’an, which is usually done in the standing position,
oral expressions in a prayer include takbir which “punctuates the canonical prayer
(salah)”44 and is uttered at the initiation of a posture. Others, at various stages of a
prayer, are short expressions of adhkar (from dhikr), tasbih and du’a. All these are
based on the Prophet’s tradition and some are in fulfilment of the Qur’anic guideline
of “celebrating My praise” (20:14) while in prayer. According to one Hadith: “When
Allah’s Messenger (SAAS) stood for the prayer, he said takbir on starting the prayer
and then on bowing, (on rising from bowing he said) ‘Sami Allahu liman hamidah’,
and then while standing straight from the bowing he used to say ‘Rabbana walakal-
hamd’” (HSB/1:755B). A number of other Hadith give us the different types of
adhkar/tasbih used by the Prophet that include ‘Subhana rabbil azim’ while in ruku
and ‘Subhana rabbil a’la’while in sujood45. Tashahhud (from shahadah, i.e.,
testimony of faith) is recited in the sitting position. 

Prayer in public / Prayer  in congregation

In Makka, it has always been difficult, if not impossible, to pray in public. In this
study, some instances of praying in front of the Ka’ba at the very early stages of Islam
have been discussed. Some other instances of attempted prayer in the outdoors are
known, one of which is described by Tabari:

“...the messenger of God would go out to the ravines of Mecca , accompanied by ‘Ali
b. Abu Talib, his other uncles and the rest of the clan. They would pray together
there, and then as evening fell, would return. They continued in this fashion as long
as God willed that they should. One day, however, Abu Talib came across them as
they were praying ...”.46 

After the ‘proclamation’ in 611 AD, sessions of congregational prayer of the fellow
believers have taken place within the confines of one’s house. Later on, possibly
around 613/614 AD, Arqam converted to Islam and “placed his large house near the
foot of Mount Safa at the service of Islam. From henceforth the believers had a refuge
in the very centre of Mecca where they could meet and pray together without the fear
of being seen or disturbed.”47 As mentioned earlier, praying in public, especially in
front of the Ka’ba, became more frequent after the conversion of Umar as both he and
Hamza provided an atmosphere of protection to the Muslims. Another example of
praying in public is Abu Bakr’s attempt to do so in front of his house. “Abu Bakr had
a mosque by the door of his house among the Bani Jumah where he used to pray”. 48
The ‘mosque’ in this statement and also in a Hadith on the subject (HSB/5:245) was
likely to be a space created within the compounds of his house to satisfy the
Quraysh’s demand that Abu Bakr should not pray in public in order to avoid
influencing their women and children. However, this arrangement also had to be
stopped as the women and children still gathered around.

Although the prayer at Quba (28th-30th of September, 622 AD) was the Prophet’s first
recorded congregational prayer in public, similar gatherings have already happened in
Madina where the religion of Islam began several months ago. After the First Aqaba
pledge Mus’ab b. Umayr “was known as the reciter of Madina and he was their Imam
in the prayer because Aws and Khazraj did not like anyone from each party to lead
them in prayer”.49 The Prophet’s prayer in the valley of Ranuna on the 1st of October
622 AD is known from all his early biographies to be the first Friday congregational
prayer led by him. However, according to some traditions, congregational prayers on
Fridays were also held in pre-Hijra Madina. One of the tradition suggests that the
Prophet gave written instruction to Mus’ab b Umayr to organise such prayer and the
first of these was attended by twelve devotees. Another report suggests that the first
Friday congregational prayer in Madina was arranged by Asad b Zarara, one of the
earliest Madinan Muslim who was a member of the ‘Second Aqaba Pledge’ group and
the congregation was attended by 140 people. However, there is no evidence to
suggest that the Friday early afternoon prayer had the obligatory congregational status
in pre-Hijra Madina. According to Watt,
 “In the year before the Hijrah, when Musab b. Umayr was acting as Muhammad’s
emissary in Medina, he asked permission (of the Jewish community) to hold a
meeting of the believers, and was told he might do so provided he observed the day
on which the Jews prepared for the Sabbath (i.e., Friday, the paraskeue or
preparation). Thus the Friday worship, which became a distinctive feature of Islam,
was somehow connected with Judaism. Muhammad himself does not seem to have
observed it until his first day in Medina .”50

In the Qur’an, reference to congregational prayer is made in Sura al-Jumu’a (62:9-

10), the 94thN/110thE revelation, as quoted earlier. Although some translators did not
use the word ‘Friday’ and translated the expression ‘salaati min yawmil-jumu’ati’ as
“the prayer on the day of congregation” 51 instead of ‘prayer on Friday’, most of them
have interpreted it to mean the Friday congregational prayer. Also, it is more likely
that instead of being the 110th surah, as listed in the Egyptian chronology, it is the 94th
or the 4th Madinan surah. This will be consistent with two other views, i.e., (i) by Ali
that “it (the surah) may be placed in the early Madinah period, say between A.H. 2
and 3”52 (i.e., 623-624 AD) and (ii) by Watt that it was “revealed in Medina, some
probably early in 624 before the change of Qibla” 53. As the change of qibla happened
16 months after the Prophet’s arrival in Madina, it may be concluded from above that
the Friday congregational prayer was made obligatory very soon after the Hijra and
before the revelation of Surah al-Jum’ua - possibly in the year 623 or early 624 AD.

There are some Hadith, based on the Prophet’s tradition in Madina, that also
emphasise the virtue of attending the congregation in a mosque for all five of the daily
prayers, specially the earliest and the latest: “The prayer in congregation is twenty
seven times superior in degrees to the prayer offered by a person alone” (SAB/
1:618). “No prayer is more heavy (harder) for the hypocrites than the Fajr and the
Isha prayers, and if they knew the reward for these prayers at their respective times,
they would certainly present themselves (in the mosque) even if they had to crawl.”
(SAB/1:626)

Conclusion

In his pursuit of guidance from the God of “the religion of Abraham, the True” who
“joined not gods with Allah” (2:135), Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) used to go to the
cave for his devotional exercise that has been termed as tahannuth, a word suggested
by Watt to be a derivation of “Hebrew tehinnot or tehinnoth, meaning prayers for
God’s favour”.54 So, the Prophet’s ‘night-vigil’ before the “call” was inherently a
form of ‘prayer’ and possibly an act similar to that prescribed in the third revelation of
the Qur’an, i.e., the verses 73:2-6 of Surah al-Muzzammil, quoted earlier. This form
of night-vigil may, therefore, be identified as the earliest form of prayer in Islam.
Even after the introduction of the five-times-a-day formal prayer, and the night-vigil
made non-obligatory in a later Madinan verse (73:20), qiyam al-layl (meaning
‘standing at night’) remained as an optional prayer performed in the formal manner.
This usually refers to the ‘Tahajjud’ prayer (from hajada meaning ‘remain awake at
night’) although according to one scholar, qiyam al-layl includes any “voluntary night
prayer, whose time extends from after Isha prayer until dawn.”55, i.e., Tahajjud, Witr
and Tarawih (in the month of Ramadhan).
While no detailed description of the night-vigil type of prayer in Makka is available,
the first public performance of a prayer in Islam is known to be the Prophet’s prayer
in front of the Ka’ba. This was a one-rak’a prostration prayer, the type of act
described in the last verse of the 1st surah (96:19), quoted earlier. Although the first
five verses of this surah are accepted as the very first revelation, this verse is likely to
have been revealed after the verses of Surah al-Muzzammil (73:2-6), thus indicating
that the guidance for the night-vigil type of prayer came earlier. Prostration is a
primordial form of corporeal gesture of submission and the fundamental premise of
the religion of Islam is total submission to God. As such, it is conceivable that the
earliest public manifestation of worship in the religion, whose name means ‘surrender
or submission’, began with a one-rak’a prostration-prayer. It has also been suggested
that “the prostration of the Muslim form of prayer appear to derive from the older
Syrian Orthodox tradition that is still practised in pewless churches across the Middle
East ”.56

This study shows that when the prayer was made obligatory in Makka, its length was
of two-rak’at and the variations in the length of the five daily prayers as well as the
details of its performance were established by following the traditions of Prophet
Muhammad (pbuh) in Madina. The Prophet’s traditions also initiated a number of
voluntary prayers (Sunnat) to be performed either side of an obligatory prayer apart
from the night-prayers mentioned earlier. The sequence of the evolution of ‘prayer’
may therefore be summarised as follows. Following the Prophet’s practice before the
“call” in 610 AD, it began as a night-vigil which remained as the mode of prayer for a
short period of time. The one-rak’a prostration prayer, the earliest known form of a
Muslim’s prayer, would have begun in public sometime after the beginning of
hostility following the disclosure of the Prophet’s mission, although some form of
prayer was already in practice in the Prophet’s household. The two-rak’at canonical
prayer is likely to have begun in 614 AD or afterwards, definitely by 619 AD, as it
was made necessary within the lifetime of Khadija who died in that year. It became
the standard form of an obligatory prayer before the Prophet’s Miraj later in the same
year. The number of daily prayers was fixed during the Miraj and their approximate
timing was established soon afterwards. The lengthening of prayer to four-rak’at,
when not in journey, began in Madina immediately after the Hijra, i.e., within the
year 622 AD and the obligatory congregational Jum’ua prayer on the Fridays also
began in Madina by the early 624 AD.

The reduction of the Maghrib prayer to three rak’at and the Fajr to two rak’at were
entirely based on the practice of the Prophet in Madina as narrated in the Hadith. In
the absence of any Hadith regarding the two-rak’at length of the Jum’ua prayer,
which replaced the four-rak’at Friday Zuhr prayer, it is generally believed that, as the
joining in a congregation for this prayer was made obligatory by “leaving off business
(and traffic)” (62:9) and as it also involves listening to a khutba, the length of this
prayer was reduced to two rak’at. Apart from shortening the length of a prayer while
in a journey, the Prophet’s traditions also allow combining prayers in such
circumstances, i.e., Zuhr and Asr performed together as well as Maghrib and Isha.
This practice of the Prophet led to the erroneous suggestion by some authors that
during his lifetime the prayer was obligatory only for three times a day, which defies
all the historical evidence and the Qur’anic guidelines.
In the absence of full historical account that deal with this particular aspect of the
religion of Islam which is liable to be influenced by traditional beliefs, this study
attempts to present a credible account on the subject. The derived sequence of
evolution of the ritual of prayer is mainly based on the Prophet’s sira and the
traditional beliefs about his sayings and practices.   The study also shows that the
continued references of ‘prayer’ in the Qur’an are also compatible with this
chronology of its inception.

Abbreviations:

HAD:                      Hadith / Abu Dawud

HSB:                       Hadith / Sahih al-Bukhari   

HSM:                      Hadith / Sahih Muslim

HT(VI) &               A. J. M. al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-Rusul wal-Muluk (The History of al-Tabari), Vol. VI
& Vol. HT(VII)        VII, (Tr. W.M.Watt & M.V.McDonald), State University of New York Press,
1987.

IK(I) & IK(II):        Ibn Kathir, Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya (The Life of the Prophet
Muhammad), (Tr. T.L.Gassick) Vol. I & Vol. II, Garnet Publications, 1998.

II:                            Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah (The Life of Muhammad), (Tr.
A.Guillaume), Oxford University Press, 1955.

IH:                           Ibn Hisham, The Prophet’s Biography, (Tr. M.M.Al-Sharif), Dar

Al-Kotob Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut , 2001.

ML:                         M. Lings, Muhammad – his life based on the earliest sources,

Islamic Texts Society, U.K. , 1991.

WW:                      W. M. Watt, Muhammad at Mecca , Oxford University Press, 1953.    

Verses of the Qur’an are the modernised version of A. Y. Ali’s translation as in footnote no. 8, unless
mentioned otherwise.

Footnotes to be placed at the bottom of the relevant pages:

1     F. E. Peters, Mecca : A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land, Princeton University Press,
1994, p. 62.

2.    Encyclopaedia Britannica, Macropaedia Vol. 14, 1977, p. 952.

3.    Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. VIII, Leiden/EJBrill, 1965, p. 925.

4.    H. A. Gibb & J. H. Kramers (ed), Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden/EJBrill, 1961, p. 491.

5.    W. M. Watt & R. Bell, Introduction to the Qur’an, Edinburgh University Press, 1970.

6.    ML, p. 46.

7.    WW, p. 61.

8.    A. Y. Ali, The Holy Quran, Goodword Books ( New Delhi ), 2003, p. 393.

9.    M. M. Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Qur’an, Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd, 1930, p 418.

10.  IK(I), p. 282.

11.  WW, p. 67.

12.  II, p. 117

13.  IH, p. 46.

14.  ML, p. 47.

15.  IK(I), p. 310.

16.  II, p. 112.

17.  ML, p. 46.

18.  IK(I), p. 312

19.  II, p. 114.

20.  IK(I)., p. 313.

21.  Ibid, p. 338.

22.  IK(II), p. 19.

23.  IK(I), p. 313.

24.  C. Glasse, The Concise Encyclopaedia of Islam, Stacey International, p. 301.

25.  IK(I), p. 312.

26.  Ibid., p. 310

27.  ML, p. 123.

28.  HT(VII), pp. 2-4.

29.  IK(II), p. 123.

30.  W. M. Watt, Companion to the Qur’an, Oneworld Publications, 1994, p. 15.

31.  IK(I), p. 337.

32.  IH, pp. 92-94, II, p. 202.

33.  Z. F. Al-Hamad, Architecture of the Mosque with reference to the early practice & traditional
sources,
       PhD Thesis (unpublished), Manchester Metropolitan University , 2006.  

34.  HT(VII), pp. 24-25.

35.  Ibid., p. 27.

36.  IK(II), p. 221.

37.  HT(VII), p. 9.

38.  II, pp. 112-113.

39.  Ibid, pp. 112-113.

40.  IK(II), p. 200.

41.  W. M. Watt, Muhammad at Medina , Oxford University Press, 1956, pp. 114, 362-63.

42.  S. N. Al-Albani, The Prophet’s Prayer Described, Jam’iat Ihyaa’ Minhaaj Al-Sunnah, 2003, pp. 53
& 42.

43.  Ibid, p. 64.

44.  C. Glasse, p. 394.

45.  S. N. Al-Albani, pp. 42-57.

46.  HT(VI), pp. 83-84.

47.  ML, p. 63.

48.  II., p. 171.

49.  IH, p. 93.

50.  W. M. Watt (1956), p. 198.

51.  M. M. Pickthall, p. 399.

52.  A. Y. Ali, The Meaning of the Holy Quran, Amana Corporation, 1992, p. 1465.

53.  W. M. Watt (1994), p. 265.

54.  WW, p. 44.

55.  M. Al-Jibali, Night Prayer: Qiyam & Tarawih, Al-Qur’an was-Sunnah Society of N. America ,
1997, p. 7.

56.  William Dalrymple, ‘We’ve all got a friend in Jesus’, The Times, Saturday December 13, 2003,
London .      

57.  Encyclopaedia of Islam (1965), pp. 925-26.