An Matbook Matematyka SGH Podstawowa

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1 Elements of mathematical logic and set theory, relations and mappings

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(Maria Ekes, Jacek K≥opotowski) 6
1.1 Logical statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
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1.2 Set operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Page 2 of 298
1.4 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Go Back
2 Properties of functions (Monika DÍdys) 29 Full Screen

2.1 Domain, range and graph of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Injections, surjections and bijections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Close
2.3 Monotonicity of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.4 Local extrema of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Quit
2.5 Image and preimage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.6 Superposition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.7 Inverse function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3 Sequences (Maria Ekes) 54

3.1 Sequences and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Home Page
3.2 Convergence of sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

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4 Limit and continuity of a function (Maria Ekes) 67

4.1 Limit of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Contents
4.2 Continuity of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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5 DiÄerential calculus of one variable functions
(Maria Ekes, Jacek K≥opotowski) 77 � �
5.1 Derivative of the first order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2 Interpretation of the first derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Page 3 of 298
5.2.1 Geometric interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5.2.2 Physical interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Go Back
5.2.3 Economic interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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5.3 First derivative applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3.1 Computation of limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
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5.3.2 Monotonicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3.3 Local extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
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5.3.4 Global extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4 Derivative of the second order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.5 Second derivative applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.5.1 Finding local extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.5.2 Concavity and convexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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5.5.3 Rate of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.5.4 Sketching the graph of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
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6 Integrals (Monika DÍdys) 105

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6.1 Indefinite integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2 Definite integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
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6.3 Geometric interpretation of the definite integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7 Vector space Rn (Jacek K≥opotowski) 123 � �
7.1 Points and vectors in R2 and in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

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7.2 Linear structure in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3 Linear independence, basis of a vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
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8 Matrices (Jacek K≥opotowski) 140

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8.1 Definition of a matrix, operations on matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.2 Elementary row operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
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8.3 Determinant of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.4 Systems of linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
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8.4.1 Solving systems of linear equations by elementary row operations . . . . . . . 167
8.4.2 Cramer’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9 Multivariable functions (S≥awomir Dorosiewicz) 176

9.1 Preliminary notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.2 Continuity of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Home Page
9.3 Partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

9.4 Extrema of a bivariate function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Title Page
9.5 Appendix. Directional derivatives. DiÄerentiability

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of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.6 Appendix. Extrema of multivariable functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
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10 Solutions and answers 210

10.1 Solutions and answers to chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 � �
10.2 Solutions and answers to chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

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10.6 Solutions and answers to chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Full Screen
10.8 Solutions and answers to chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Close

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Index 291
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Chapter 1 Title Page
Elements of mathematical logic and set Contents
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theory, relations and mappings
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Page 6 of 298
1.1. Logical statements

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A statement is a sentence, which can be either true or false. We denote statements by letters
p, q, r, . . .. If the statement p is true, then we say that its logical value is equal to 1. If the statement Full Screen
p is false, then we say that its logical value is equal to 0. Applying logical operators ∼, ∨, ∧, ⇒, ⇔
(called respectively: negation, disjunction, conjunction, implication, equivalence) we can construct Close
complex formulae using simple statements.

The statement ∼ p, which should be read not p or not true that p, is called negation of the Quit
statement p; the statement p ∨ q, which should be read p or q, is called disjunction of statements

p, q; the statement p ∧ q, which should be read p and q, is called conjunction of statements p, q;
the statement p ⇒ q, which should be read if p, then q, is called implication of statements p, q,
the statement p is called the antecedent of the implication, and the statement q is called the
consequent of the implication; the statement p ⇔ q, which should be read p if and only if q or p
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is equivalent to q is called equivalence of statements p, q.
Observe that negation is a univariate operator while all remaining operators are bivariate.
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The rules of logical operators are given in the table below (0 means that the corresponding
statement is false, and 1 means that the corresponding statement is true).
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p q ∼p p∨q p∧q p⇒q p⇔q

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0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0
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1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Page 7 of 298
We can see that:

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• negation changes the logical value of the statement p (from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0);
• disjunction p ∨ q is true if at least one of statements p, q is true;

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• conjunction p ∧ q is true only if both statements p, q are true; Close
• implication p ⇒ q is false only in case where p is true, and q is false; Quit
• equivalence p ⇔ q is true if the logical value of both statements p, q is the same.

Definition 1.1. A formula is called the tautology if it is always true, regardless of the logical
value of statements which are its components.
Example 1.2. We will prove that the formula
∼ (p ∨ q) ⇔ (∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)
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(de Morgan’s law for disjunction negation) is a tautology.
Solution. We apply the 0 − 1 method in the proof. We put all statements included in the Contents
considered formula into the table, and we analyze the logical value of the formula depending on
the logical values of statements p, q. ��
p q p ∨ q ∼ (p ∨ q) ∼ p ∼ q (∼ p) ∧ (∼ q) ∼ (p ∨ q) ⇔ (∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 � �
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 Page 8 of 298
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
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All entries in the last column are equal to 1 which means that the considered formula is a tautology.
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Exercises
Close
1.1. (?) Prove that the following formulae are tautologies:
a) ∼ (p ∧ q) ⇔ (∼ p) ∨ (∼ q) – de Morgan’s law for conjunction negation,
b) p ⇒ q ⇔ ((∼ q) ⇒ (∼ p)) – contraposition law,
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c) (p ⇒ q) ⇒ ((∼ p) ∨ q),
d) ((p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)) ⇔ (p ⇔ q),
e) ((p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ r)) ⇒ (p ⇒ r).
1.2. (?) Check whether the following formulae are tautologies:

a) (p ∧ q) ⇒ (p ∨ q), Home Page
b) (p ∨ q) ⇒ (p ∧ q),
c) (∼ p) ⇔ (p ∧ q), Title Page
d) ((∼ p) ∧ q) ⇒ (p ∨ q).
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1.3. (?) Check for which logical values of sentences p and q the following formulae are true:
a) (p ⇒ q) ⇔ q, b) (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (q ⇒ p), c) (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (p ∨ q). ��
1.4. (?) Write the formula equivalent to p ∨ q using logical operators ∼ and ∧.
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1.5. (?)Write the formula equivalent to p ∧ q using logical operators ∼ and ∨.
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1.6. (?)Write the formula equivalent to p ∧ q using logical operators ∼ and ⇒.
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1.2. Set operations Full Screen
We will denote sets by capital letters A, B, . . . , X, and their elements by small letters a, b, . . . , x.
The notation x ∈ X means that x is an element of the set X, otherwise we write x ∉ X. A finite set,
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composed of n elements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is written as {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. A set which has no elements is

called an empty set and is denoted by the symbol �.
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A special notation is adopted for the following sets of numbers.

The symbol N denotes the set of natural numbers, the symbol C denotes the set of all integer
numbers, the symbol W denotes the set of all rational numbers, and the symbol R denotes the
set of all real numbers.1
In the sequel we define set operations, applying logical operators defined in the previous para-
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graph.
We say that a set A is a subset of the set B if and only if the following condition holds for
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each x
x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B.
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We write then A ⊂ B. In the opposite case, if A is not a subset of B, we write A ⊂� B.

We say that sets A and B are equal if and only if the following condition holds for each x ��
x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B. � �
We write then A = B. Observe immediately that A = B ⇔ A ⊂ B ∧ B ⊂ A. Page 10 of 298
The union of sets A, B is the set A ∪ B defined by the condition

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x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B.
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Therefore, the union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong at least to one of
them. Close
1
In the literature other symbols are also used, e.g. the set of all integers is denoted by Z, and the set of all rational
numbers is denoted by Q. Quit
The intersection of sets A, B is the set A ∩ B such that
x ∈ A ∩ B ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B.
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong to both sets A and B. Home Page
The diÄerence of sets A, B is the set A − B given by the condition

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x ∈ A − B ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B,
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so it is the set of those elements of A which do not belong to B.

In general we consider subsets of a given, nonempty set X which is called the universal set. ��
The diÄerence X − A, where A ⊂ X, is called the complement of the set A (in the universal set
X) and is denoted by A′ . � �
Example 1.3. We will prove that Page 11 of 298
(A ∪ B) = A′ ∩ B ′
′
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(de Morgan’s law for the complement of sets union). Full Screen
Solution. Applying de Morgan’s law for disjunction negation we obtain

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x ∈ (A ∪ B) ⇔ x ∉ A ∪ B ⇔ ∼ (x ∈ A ∪ B) ⇔ ∼ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ⇔
′
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⇔ (∼ x ∈ A) ∧ (∼ x ∈ B) ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ⇔ x ∈ A ∩ B
′ ′ ′ ′
for each element x. Therefore, sets (A ∪ B) and A′ ∩ B ′ are equal.
′
Exercises
1.7. (?)Prove that (A ∩ B) = A′ ∪ B ′ (de Morgan’s law for the complement of sets
′
Home Page
intersection).
1.8. (?) Prove that for arbitrary sets A, B, C ⊂ X following conditions hold: Title Page
a) A ∪ A′ = X, b) A ∩ A′ = �, c) A − B = A ∩ B ′ , d) A ⊂ A ∪ B,
e) A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C), f) A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C),
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g) A ⊂ B ∧ A ⊂ C ⇒ A ⊂ B ∩ C, h) A ⊂ C ∧ B ⊂ C ⇒ A ∪ B ⊂ C.
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1.3. Quantifiers � �
Definition 1.4. Let X ≠ �. A predicate of a variable x, where x ∈ X, is an expression Ï (x), Page 12 of 298
which becomes a statement (true or false), while we substitute variable x by a specific element from
the universal set X. A predicate of a variable x is denoted by Ï (x), x ∈ X, and the set of all elements Go Back
x ∈ X, such that Ï (x) has the logical value 1 is denoted by the symbol
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{x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} .
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Example 1.5. If A ⊂ X, Ï (x) ≡ x ∈ A, then {x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} = A.

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Example 1.6. The expression x2 − 1 < 0, x ∈ R, is a predicate. Substituting x = 0 we get a true

sentence, and substituting x = 1 we obtain a false sentence. It is easy to notice that
�x ∈ R ∶ x2 − 1 < 0� = (−1, 1) .
Applying logical operators we can write unions, intersections and diÄerences of subsets of a Home Page
given set X as follows:

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A ∪ B = {x ∈ X ∶ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B} ,
A ∩ B = {x ∈ X ∶ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B} , Contents
A − B = {x ∈ X ∶ x ∈ A ∨ x ∉ B} .
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We often use logical operators when formulating definitions or theorems. We say

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for every x ∈ X the conditionÏ (x) holds,

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and
there exists x ∈ X satisfying the condition Ï (x).

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We denote such sentences in the form: � Ï (x) and � Ï (x). The symbol � is called the Full Screen
universal quantifier, and the symbol � is called the existential quantifier.2 The formula
x∈X x∈X
� Ï (x) is true in case, where

Close
{x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} = X,
x∈X
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In the literature quantifiers are also denoted by the symbols: ∀ – the universal quantifier, ∃ – the existential
2
quantifier.
and the formula � Ï (x) is true if
{x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} ≠ �.
x∈X
Example 1.7. We will prove that

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∼ � Ï (x) ⇔ � ∼ Ï (x)
x∈X x∈X
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(de Morgan’s law of universal quantifier negation).

Solution. We have to prove that the logical values of both statements: ∼ � Ï (x) and � ∼ Ï (x) Contents
are the same. The statement ∼ � Ï (x) is false if and only if the statement � Ï (x) is true which
x∈X x∈X
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means that we have {x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} = X. In this case we have
x∈X x∈X
� �
{x ∈ X ∶ ∼ Ï (x)} = {x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} = �,
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so the statement � ∼ Ï (x) is false too.

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x∈X
The statement ∼ � Ï (x) is true if and only if the statement � Ï (x) is false that is we have Go Back
{x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} ≠ X; then
x∈X x∈X
{x ∈ X ∶ ∼ Ï (x)} = {x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} ≠ �,
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which means that the statement � ∼ Ï (x) is true as well. Close
Let Ï (x), Â (x) be predicates of the variable x ∈ X. We will write � Ï (x) instead of the
x∈X
Â(x)
formula � (Â (x) ⇒ Ï (x)) , and � Ï (x) – instead of the formula � (Â (x) ∧ Ï (x)) .
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x∈X Â(x) x∈X

Let X ≠ �, I ≠ �. Assume that for each i ∈ I we have a set Ai ⊂ X. The set of all sets Ai is
called indexed collection of subsets of the set X, and we denote it by the symbol (Ai )i∈I .
Definition 1.8. The infinitary union of an indexed collection (Ai )i∈I of subsets of the set X
is the set Home Page
� Ai = �x ∈ X ∶ � x ∈ Ai �.
i∈I i∈I
The infinitary intersection of an indexed family (Ai )i∈I of subsets of the set X is the set
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� Ai = �x ∈ X ∶ � x ∈ Ai �.
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i∈I i∈I
��
From the above definition it follows that
� �
x ∈ � Ai ⇔ � x ∈ Ai ,
i∈I i∈I
x ∈ � Ai ⇔ � x ∈ Ai . Page 15 of 298
i∈I i∈I
Therefore, the infinitary union of the indexed collection (Ai )i∈I is the set of those elements of X,
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which belong to at least one set Ai , and the infinitary intersection of the indexed collection (Ai )i∈I
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is the set of those elements of X which belong to every set Ai .
Example 1.9. Let At = {x ∈ R ∶ tx < 1} for every real number t. We will find � At and � At . Close
t∈R t∈R
Solution. Observe that A0 = {x ∈ R ∶ 0x < 1} = R. If t > 0, then Quit
At = {x ∈ R ∶ tx < 1} = �x ∈ R ∶ x < 1t � = �−∞, 1t � .

If t < 0, then
At = {x ∈ R ∶ tx < 1} = �x ∈ R ∶ x > 1t � = � 1t , ∞� .
Therefore, � At = R, � At = {0}.
t∈R t∈R
∞ ∞
In case, where I = N, instead of � An we write � An , and instead of � An we write � An . Home Page
n∈N n=1 n∈N n=1
∞ ∞
Example 1.10. If An = �− n1 , 1 − n1 � for n ∈ N, then � An = �−1, 1) and � An = {0}.
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n=1 n=1
′
Example 1.11. We will prove that � � Ai � = � A′i (de Morgan’s law of complement of
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i∈I i∈I
an infinitary union). ��
Solution. Applying de Morgan’s law of general quantifier negation, we get

� �
′
x ∈ �� Ai � ⇔ x ∉ � Ai ⇔ ∼ �x ∈ � Ai � ⇔ ∼ � x ∈ Ai ⇔ � ∼ (x ∈ Ai ) ⇔ � x ∈ A′i ⇔ x ∈ � A′i .
i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I Page 16 of 298
Exercises Go Back
1.9. (?)Prove that

∼ � Ï (x) ⇔ � ∼ Ï (x)
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x∈X x∈X
(de Morgan’s law of existential quantifier negation). Close
′
1.10. (?) Prove that � � Ai � = � A′i (de Morgan’s law of complement of an infintary Quit
i∈I i∈I
intersection).
1.11. (?)Let At = {x ∈ R ∶ x2 < t} for every real number t. Find � At and � At .
t∈R t∈R
∞ ∞
1.12. (?)Find � An and � An , if:
n=1 n=1
a) An = �− n1 , n1 �, b) An = �− n1 , n1 �, c) An = �(−1) + n1 , 1 + n1 �.
n
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1.4. Relations Title Page
Let X ≠ �, Y ≠ �. The symbol (x, y), where x ∈ X, y ∈ Y , denotes the ordered pair with the first Contents
entry (coordinate) x and the second entry (coordinate) y.

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Definition 1.12. The Cartesian product of sets X and Y is the set:
� �
X × Y = {(x, y) ∶ x ∈ X ∧ y ∈ Y } .
Example 1.13. The Cartesian product of the sets X and Y = {a, b} is the following set
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X × Y = {(1, a) , (2, a) , (3, a) , (1, b) , (2, b) , (3, b)} .

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Definition 1.14. Let X ≠ �, Y ≠ �. Any subset fl ⊂ X × Y is called the relation defined in the
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Cartesian product of sets X and Y . If X = Y , then we say that fl ⊂ X × X is the relation in the set Close
X. If we have (x, y) ∈ fl, then we say that the relation fl holds between the elements x and y, and
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we also write xfly. The domain of a relation fl is the set
Dfl = �x ∈ X ∶ � (x, y) ∈ fl�,
y∈Y
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the range – the set
Pfl = �y ∈ Y ∶ � (x, y) ∈ fl�. Title Page
x∈X
The inverse relation of a relation fl is the relation fl−1 = {(y, x) ∈ Y × X ∶ (x, y) ∈ fl}.
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Example 1.15. Let fl = {(1, 2) , (1, 3) , (2, 3) , (3, 4) , (3, 5)} ⊂ N × N. Then
��
Dfl = {1, 2, 3} , Pfl = {2, 3, 4, 5} , fl −1
= {(2, 1) , (3, 1) , (3, 2) , (4, 3) , (5, 3)} .
� �
Definition 1.16. A relation fl ⊂ X × X is called:
a) reflexive ⇔ � (x, x) ∈ fl, Page 18 of 298
b) irreflexive ⇔ � ∼ (x, x) ∈ fl,
x∈X
c) symmetric ⇔ � [(x, y) ∈ fl ⇒ (y, x) ∈ fl] ,

x∈X Go Back
x,y∈X
d) asymmetric ⇔ � [(x, y) ∈ fl ⇒ ∼ (y, x) ∈ fl], Full Screen
x,y∈X
e) transitive ⇔ � [((x, y) ∈ fl ∧ (y, z) ∈ fl) ⇒ (x, z) ∈ fl] ,
x,y,z∈X
f) antisymmetric ⇔ � [((x, y) ∈ fl ∧ (y, x) ∈ fl) ⇒ x = y] ,
Close
x,y∈X
g) total ⇔ � [(x, y) ∈ fl ∨ (y, x) ∈ fl]. Quit
x,y∈X
Example 1.17. The relation ≤ (weak inequality) defined in the set of all real numbers R
is reflexive, transitive, antisymmetric, and total; and the relation < is irreflexive, asymmetric,
transitive, and antisymmetric.
Example 1.18. The relation in R × R defined as follows

Home Page
(x1 , x2 ) ≤ (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ x1 ≤ y1 ∧ x2 ≤ y2 ,
Title Page
is reflexive, transitive, and antisymmetric but not total.
Definition 1.19. A relation fl ⊂ X ×X is called the partial ordering if and only if fl is reflexive,
Contents
transitive, and antisymmetric. If fl is also total, then we call it the total ordering. The pair (X, fl)
��
is called respectively the partially (or totally) ordered universal set.
Definition 1.20. A relation fl ⊂ X × X is called the equivalence relation if and only if fl is � �
reflexive, transitive, and symmetric. If xfly, then we say that elements x and y are equivalent.
Page 19 of 298
Definition 1.21. The equivalence class with a representative x ∈ X under an equivalence

relationfl ⊂ X ×X is the set [x]fl = {y ∈ X ∶ xfly}. The set of equivalence classes under the equivalence Go Back
relation fl is called the quotient set, and we denote it by the symbol X�fl.
Full Screen
Definition 1.22. A family (Ai )i∈I of nonempty pairwise disjoint subsets of the universal set X,
such that � Ai = X, is called the partition of X. Close
i∈I
Theorem 1.23. If fl is an equivalence relation in the set X, then the set of equivalence classes Quit
under the relation fl is a partition of X.
Example 1.24. We define the relation
nflk ⇔ � n + k = 2p,
p∈N
Home Page
in the set N. We will prove that fl is the equivalence relation, and we will find its equivalence classes.
Solution. The relation fl is of course reflexive and symmetric. We will show that it is also
transitive. Assume that nflk and kflm, i.e. n + k = 2p and k + m = 2q, where p, q ∈ N. Then
Title Page
n + m = n + k + k + m − 2k = 2 (p + q − k)
Contents
��
and p + q − k ∈ N. This relation has two equivalence classes:
� �
[1]fl = {1, 3, 5, . . .} , [2]fl = {2, 4, 6, . . .} .
Page 20 of 298
Exercises
1.13. (?)Prove that if non-empty relation fl ⊂ X × X is irreflexive and transitive, then it is Go Back
asymmetric.
Full Screen
1.14. (?)Check the properties (reflexivity, irreflexivity, symmetry, asymmetry, transitivity, an-
tisymmetry, totality) of the relation fl ⊂ X × X : Close
a) X = N, kfln ⇔ n�k, 3
b) X = R, xfly ⇔ �x� = �y�, Quit
3
The notation n�k means that the number n is the divisor of the number k.
c) X = R, xfly ⇔ x < y,
d) X = R, xfly ⇔ x − y = 2,
e) X = R, xfly ⇔ sgn x = sgn y ,
f) X = R, xfly ⇔ x2 + y 2 = 1.
Home Page
1.15. (?)Verify, whether the relation AflB ⇔ A ⊂ B, defined in the set 2R , is:4
a) partial ordering, b) total ordering. Title Page
1.16. (?) In the set R × R we define the following relation

Contents
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y 2 ) ⇔ �x1 � + �x2 � ≤ �y1 � + �y2 � .

��
Check, whether fl is:

� �
a) partial ordering, b) total ordering.
1.17. (?) In the set R × R we define the following relation Page 21 of 298
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y 2 ) ⇔ x1 < y1 ∨ (x1 = y1 ∧ x2 < y2 ) ∨ (x1 = y1 ∧ x2 = y2 ) . Go Back
Check, whether fl is: Full Screen
a) partial ordering, b) total ordering.
1.18. (?) In the set X = {a, b, c, d, e} we define the relation

Close
fl = {(a, a) , (b, b) , (b, c) , (c, c) , (c, b) , (d, d) , (d, e) , (e, d) , (e, e)} . Quit
4
We denote by 2X the family of all subsets of a set X.
Prove thatfl is an equivalence relation, and find the partition into equivalence classes.
1.19. (?)Verify, whether fl ⊂ X × X is an equivalence relation, if :

a) X = N, kfln ⇔ � k − n = 3p,
p∈C
b) X = N, kfln ⇔ � k + n = 3p, Home Page
p∈N
c) X = R, xfly ⇔ x2 = y2,
d) X = R, xfly ⇔ sin x = sin y,
Title Page
e) X = R2 , (x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ x21 + x22 = y12 + y22 .

Contents
If fl is an equivalence relation, then give the partition into equivalence classes.
��
1.20. (?) We define in R × R the relation
� �
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ � (x1 − y1 = k ∧ x2 − y2 = k) .
k∈C
Page 22 of 298
a) Prove that fl is an equivalence relation.
b) Find equivalence class of the element (1, 2).
Go Back
1.21. (?)We define in R × R the relation

Full Screen
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ x21 − x22 = y12 − y22 .

Close

b) Give the graphical illustration of equivalence class of the element (1, 1). Quit
1.22. (?)We define in X = R − {0} the relation
xfly ⇔ (x − y) �x − y1 � = 0.
a) Prove that fl is an equivalence relation. Home Page
b) Find the equivalence class of the element 12 .

Title Page
1.23. (?)We define in R the relation
Contents
xfly ⇔ � x2 − y 2 = k.
k∈C
��
√
b) Find the equivalence class of the element 2. � �
1.24. (?)We define in W the relation Page 23 of 298
xfly ⇔ � x − y = k. Go Back
k∈C
a) Prove that fl is an equivalence relation. Full Screen
b) Find the equivalence class of the element 12 .

Close
1.25. (?)We define in R the relation
xfly ⇔ � x − y = w.
Quit
w∈W
√
b) Find the equivalence class of the element 2.
1.26. (?)We define in N × N the relation
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ x1 − y1 = x2 − y2 .
Home Page
Title Page
b) Find the equivalence class of the element (2, 1).
Contents

��
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ (x1 + x2 ) = (y1 + y2 ) .
2 2
� �
b) Find the equivalence class of the element (1, 3). Page 24 of 298

Go Back
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ sin (x1 − x2 ) = sin (y1 − y2 ) .

Full Screen

b) Find the equivalence class of the element � 12 fi, − 12 fi�. Close
1.29. (?)We define in R × R the relation Quit
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ cos (x1 − x2 ) = cos (y1 − y2 ) .

b) Find the equivalence class of the element � 14 fi, − 14 fi�.
1.5. Mappings Home Page
Definition 1.25. A relation fl ⊂ X × Y is: Title Page

a) right-unique if and only if
� (x, y1 ) ∈ fl ∧ (x, y2 ) ∈ fl ⇒ y1 = y2 ,
Contents
�
x∈X y1 ,y2 ∈Y
��
b) left-unique if and only if
� �
� � (x1 , y) ∈ fl ∧ (x2 , y) ∈ fl ⇒ x1 = x2 .
x1 ,x2 ∈X y∈Y
Page 25 of 298
Definition 1.26. The mapping of a set X into a set Y (or the function transforming X into
Y ) is a right-unique relation f ⊂ X × Y such that Df = X. Instead of f ⊂ X × Y we write then Go Back
f ∶ X → Y , and instead of (x, y) ∈ f we write y = f (x).

If f ∶ X → Y is a mapping and A ⊂ X, then by f �A we denote the following mapping f �A ∶ A → Y
Full Screen
defined by the formula f �A (x) = f (x) for x ∈ A. The mapping f �A is called the truncation of
Close
the mapping f to the set A.
Definition 1.27. Let f ∶ X → Y , A ⊂ X, B ⊂ Y . Quit

a) The image of the set A under the mapping f is the set
f (A) = �y ∈ Y ∶ � y = f (x)� = {f (x) ∶ x ∈ A} .

x∈A
Home Page
b) The preimage of the set B under the mapping f is the set
Title Page
f −1 (B) = �x ∈ X ∶ � y = f (x)� = {x ∈ X ∶ f (x) ∈ B} .
y∈B
Contents
Definition 1.28. A mapping f ∶ X → Y is called:

a) the surjection or the mapping of the set X onto the set Y if and only if ��
� � y = f (x) , � �
y∈Y x∈X
Page 26 of 298
b) the injection or the one-to-one mapping if and only if
� x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≠ f (x2 ) ,
Go Back
x1 ,x2 ∈X
Full Screen
c) the bijection or the one-to-one correspondence if and only if f is both the surjection
and the injection. Close
Remarks:
1. A mapping f ∶ X → Y is a surjection if and only if Pf = Y , i.e. f (X) = Y .
Quit
2. An equivalent condition for f to be injective is
� f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 .
x1 ,x2 ∈X
Theorem 1.29. If f ∶ X → Y is a bijection, then the inverse relation f −1 : Home Page
a) is the mapping of the set Y onto the set X,

Title Page
b) is the bijection.
The mapping f −1 ∶ Y → X is called the inverse mapping of the mapping f . The relation Contents
between the values of f and f −1 is the following

��
� � y = f (x) ⇔ x = f −1
(y) .
� �
x∈X y∈Y
Definition 1.30. The superposition or the composition of mappings

Page 27 of 298
f ∶ X → Y, g ∶ Y → Z
Go Back
is the mapping g ○ f ∶ X → Z, defined by the formula (g ○ f ) (x) = g (f (x)).
Theorem 1.31. If mappings f ∶ X → Y , g ∶ Y → Z are surjective, then g ○ f is surjective.

Full Screen
Theorem 1.32. If mappings f ∶ X → Y , g ∶ Y → Z are injective, then g ○ f is injective. Close
Theorem 1.33. If mappings f ∶ X → Y , g ∶ Y → Z are bijective, then:

a) g ○ f is the bijection,
Quit
b) (g ○ f ) = f −1 ○ g −1 .
−1
Exercises
1.30. (?)Verify, whether the relation f is a mapping:
a) f = {(n, y) ∈ N × W ∶ n + 2y − 3 = 0},
b) f = {(n, k) ∈ N × N ∶ n + k = 2}, Home Page
c) f = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ∶ x = y},
d) f = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ∶ x2 = y 2 }, Title Page
e) f = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ∶ sin x = sin y}.

1.31. (?)Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x+�x�. Find f (�−1, 1�), f (R), f (�1, 2�), f −1 ({0}), f −1 (�0, +∞)).
Contents
1.32. (?)Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x2 +x−2. Find f (�−2, 1�), f (R), f (�−2, 0�), f −1 ({0}), f −1 (R). ��
1.33. (?)Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = sin x. Find f ��− 12 fi, 12 fi��, f (R), f −1 ({0}), f −1 ��0, 1
2
��, f −1 (R).
� �
1.34. (?)Find the superposition g ○ f of functions:
a) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x − 1, g ∶ R → R, g (x) = x2 ;
√ Page 28 of 298
b) f ∶ R+ → R, f (x) = x, g ∶ R → R+ , g (x) = x2 .
1.35. (?)Find the superposition g ○ f and f ○ g of functions: f ∶ R+ − {0} → R, f (x) = log x, Go Back
g ∶ R → R+ − {0}, g (x) = 100x .

Full Screen
1.36. (?)Check whether the following functions are injective:
a) f ∶ R − {−1} → R, f (x) =
x
,
x+1 Close
b) f ∶ (0, +∞) → R, f (x) = ln x ,2
1
c) f ∶ R − {0} → R, f (x) = arc tg � �, Quit
x
d) f ∶ �−1, 1� → R, f (x) = arc sin x + arc cos x.
Home Page
Properties of functions Contents
��
� �
2.1. Domain, range and graph of a function
Page 29 of 298
The school definition of a function, as we remember, was the following: if to each element x of the
set X there corresponds exactly one element y of the set Y , then we say that we have the function
Go Back
f of the variable x, defined on the set X with the values in the set Y. More formally, a function is
a subset of the Cartesian product of sets X and Y . For the case, where X, Y ⊂ R we repeat here Full Screen
definitions concerning mappings, given in the chapter 1.
Definition 2.1. Let X, Y ⊂ R, X ≠ �,Y ≠ �. A function from the set X into the set Y is the
Close
subset f of the Cartesian product X × Y such that for each x ∈ X there exists exactly one y ∈ Y
satisfying the condition (x, y) ∈ f .
Quit
Remarks:
1. We usually write y = f (x) instead of (x, y) ∈ f .
2. Instead of the term f unction we can also use the term mapping or transformation. We
Home Page
say that the function f transforms (maps) the set X in the set Y. We use the notation:
Title Page
f ∶ X → Y, y = f (x);
y = f (x) for x ∈ X; Contents
x � f (x) for x ∈ X.
��
The set X is called the domain of the function (we denote it by the symbol Df ), and elements
� �
x of this set are arguments of the function. The number y0 = f (x0 ) is called the value of the
function f for the argument x0 . We also say that y0 is the value of the function f at the point x0 . Page 30 of 298
The set of all those y ∈ Y , for which there exists x ∈ X such that y = f (x) is called the range of
the function f , and we denote it by f (X). The function f ∶ X → Y , where X, Y ⊂ R, is called the Go Back
real-valued function of a real variable.

Often, when defining a function, we give only the formula y = f (x). We assume then that the Full Screen
domain of f is the set of all x such that the expression f (x) is well defined.
For a real-valued function of a real variable we are able to give the graphic illustration of its Close
graph which is the set of all those points (x, y) of the Cartesian plane, whose coordinates satisfy
the condition y = f (x) for x ∈ X. Considering the definition 2.1, we can identify the graph of the Quit
function with the set f .

Figures 2.1 – 2.6 recall graphs of functions which should be known from the school course of
mathematics.
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
��
Figure 2.1: f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax + b
� �
Page 31 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
(a) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x2 (b) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x3 Quit
Figure 2.2: Graphs of selected functions

Home Page
Title Page
√
(a) f ∶ R − {0} → R, f (x) = (b) f ∶ �0, ∞) → R, f (x) =
1 Contents
x
x
Figure 2.3: Graphs of selected functions ��
� �
Page 32 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
(a) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax (b) f ∶ (0, ∞) → R, f (x) = loga x

Close
Figure 2.4: Graphs of selected functions Quit

Home Page
Title Page
(a) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = sin x (b) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = cos x

Contents
Figure 2.5: Graphs of selected functions ��
� �
Page 33 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
(a) f ∶ R − { fi2 + kfi ∶ k ∈ C}, f (x) = tgx (b) f ∶ R − {kfi ∶ k ∈ C}, f (x) = ctgx
Figure 2.6: Graphs of selected functions Quit

Table 2.1: Transformations of the graph of a function
transformation v the image of the graph of f under the transformation v
line symmetry with respect to the axis Oy y = −f (x)

Home Page
line symmetry with respect to the axis Ox y = f (−x)
translation by the vector [0, q] y = f (x) + q

Title Page
translation by the vector[p, 0] y = f (x − p) Contents
��
Along with the function f ∶ X → R we can consider functions:
y = −f (x) for x ∈ X, � �
y = f (−x) for x ∈ X1 = {x ∈ R ∶ −x ∈ X},
y = f (x) + q for q ∈ R and x ∈ X, Page 34 of 298
y = f (x − p) for p ∈ R and x ∈ X2 = {x ∈ R ∶ x − p ∈ X}.

It is easy to observe that graphs of above functions are obtained by appropriate transformations Go Back
of the graph of f .
Full Screen
√
Example 2.2. We will sketch the graph of the function g ∶ (−∞, 4� → R, g(x) = � 4 − x − 2�.
Close
Solution. Successive stages of drawing the graph are presented at the figure 2.7. In the first
√
step the graph of the function f ∶ �0, ∞) → R, f (x) = x is transformed by line symmetry with
Quit
√
respect to axis 0y. In this way we get the graph of the function y = −x which is translated by
�
the vector [4, 0]. The result of this translation is the graph of the function y = −(x − 4) which is
again translated now by the vector [0, −2]. We need to notice that
�
�
�
�h(x) if h(x) ≥ 0,
�h(x)� = �
�
�
�−h(x) if h(x) < 0.
�
Home Page
Title Page
If we take the reflection with respect to the axis 0x of this part of the graph of the function
√
y = 4 − x − 2, which lies below the axis 0x, then we obtain the graph of the function g.
Contents
��
� �
Page 35 of 298
Go Back
√
(a) Transformation of the graph of √
(b) Transformation of the graph of
f (x) = x f (−(x − 4)) = 4 − x Full Screen
√
Figure 2.7: Steps of sketching the graph of y = � 4 − x − 2� from the example 2.2
Close
Quit
2.2. Injections, surjections and bijections
Definition 2.3. A function f ∶ X → Y is called the injection or the one-to-one function if
and only if
� (x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≠ f (x2 )) . Home Page
x1 ,x2 ∈X
Remark. The condition in the above definition is equivalent to the following one: Title Page
� (f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 ) .
x1 ,x2 ∈X
Contents
Example 2.4. a) The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x2 is not an injection. We have for example ��
f (−2) = f (2) = 4.
b) The function g ∶ R → R, g(x) = 3x+1 is injective. If g(x1 ) = g(x2 ), which means 3x1 +1 = 3x2 +1, � �
then of course x1 = x2 .
Page 36 of 298
We recall that if we have a graph of a function, then verifying injectivity is equivalent to finding
the points of interception of the graph with horizontal lines. If for any a ∈ R the line defined by the
equality y = a has at most one point of interception with the graph, then the considered function
Go Back
is injective. See the figure 2.8. Full Screen
Example 2.5. We will examine whether the function f ∶ R−{2} → R, f (x) =

x
is an injection.
x−2
Assume that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), that is = for some x1 , x2 ∈ R − {2}. Transforming the last
x1 x2 Close
x1 − 2 x2 − 2
equality we obtain Quit
x1 (x2 − 2) = x2 (x1 − 2) ⇔ x1 x2 − 2x1 = x1 x2 − 2x2 ⇔ x1 = x2 .

Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) Non-injective function (b) Injective function
Figure 2.8: Injective function - example 2.4 ��
So f is an injection. � �
Definition 2.6. We say that a function f ∶ X → Y transforms the set X onto the set Y if Page 37 of 298
and only if for each y ∈ Y there exists x ∈ X such that y = f (x).
Remark. A function f ∶ X → Y transforms the set X onto the set Y if and only if the range of
Go Back
the function f is equal to the set Y .

Full Screen
We shortly call a function transforming the set X onto the set Y the function “onto” or the
surjection. Close
Example 2.7. a) The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x2 is not surjective. For y = −1 there is no

x ∈ R such that y = f (x), because the equation x2 = −1 has no solution in R.
Quit
b) Consider now the function g ∶ R → �0, ∞), g(x) = x2 . Note that for any y ≥ 0 there exists
√ √
x ∈ R such that y = f (x). Fora y > 0 we have y = x2 if and only if x = y or x = − y. For y = 0 we
have x2 = 0 that is x = 0. Therefore, the function g is the surjection.
Example 2.8. The function g ∶ R → R, g(x) = 3x + 1 is the surjection. For any y ∈ R we can find
x ∈ R such that y = g(x). It is enough to notice that y = 3x + 1 if and only if x = 13 (y − 1). Home Page
Example 2.9. We will check whether the function f ∶ R − {2} → R, f (x) =

x
is “onto”.
x−2 Title Page
Take an arbitrary y ∈ R. We look for x ∈ R − {2} such that y =

x
. Performing subsequent
x−2
transformations we obtain y(x − 2) = x if and only if yx − x = 2y, that is (y − 1)x = 2y. Observe that Contents
for y = 1 the equation is contradictory (0x = 2). Therefore, f is not surjective.

Additionally, taking into account that for y ≠ 1 the equation (y − 1)x = 2y has a solution, we ��
conclude that the set R − {1} is the range of f .

� �
Definition 2.10. A function f ∶ X → Y is called the one-to-one correspondence or the
bijection if and only if f transforms the set X onto the set Y , and it is injective. Page 38 of 298
Example 2.11. In examples 2.4 and 2.8 we have shown that the function g ∶ R → R, g(x) = 3x+1 Go Back
is both injective and surjective. Therefore, it is the bijection.
Full Screen
2.3. Monotonicity of a function

Close
Definition 2.12. Let f ∶ X → Y , we say that f is:

increasing ⇔ � (x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )) ;
Quit
x1 ,x2 ∈X
decreasing ⇔ � (x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 )) ;
x1 ,x2 ∈X
non-decreasing ⇔ � (x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 )) ;
x1 ,x2 ∈X
non-increasing ⇔ � (x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ));
x1 ,x2 ∈X
constant ⇔ � f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Home Page
x1 ,x2 ∈X
We say that a function f is monotonic (monotone) if and only if it satisfies one of the above Title Page
conditions.
Contents
��
� �
Page 39 of 298
Go Back
(a) Decreasing function (b) Non-decreasing function Full Screen
Figure 2.9: Monotonic functions

Close
Remark. In case, where one of the above conditions is satisfied for any x1 i x2 belonging to an
Quit
interval included in the domain, we say that a function f is increasing (decreasing, e.t.c.) in this
interval.
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 2.10: The graph of the function in the example 2.5, 2.9, 2.13. Contents
��
� �
Example 2.13. Let f ∶ R−{2} → R, f (x) =
x
. We will show that the function f is decreasing
x−2
in the interval (2, ∞). Take arbitrary x1 , x2 ∈ (2, ∞), such that x1 < x2 . Of course
Page 40 of 298
2(x1 − x2 )
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = − =
x2 x1
x2 − 2 x1 − 2 (x2 − 2)(x1 − 2)
.
Go Back
The inequality x1 < x2 implies that x1 − x2 < 0. For x1 , x2 ∈ (2, ∞) we have x1 − 2 > 0 and x2 − 2 > 0.
2(x1 − x2 )
Full Screen
Therefore, < 0, and then f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) < 0.

(x2 − 2)(x1 − 2)
Moreover, observe that for x1 , x2 ∈ (−∞, 2) such that x1 < x2 , we have x1 − 2 < 0 and x2 − 2 < 0. Close
So f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) < 0, then the function f decreases also in the interval (−∞, 2).
Quit
We have to emphasize that the function f is not decreasing (in the whole domain). For example
f (−1) = 13 , f (4) = 2. Therefore, f (−1) < f (4) in spite that −1 < 4.
The properties of the function f were examined in 2.5 and 2.9. Of course we can easily interpret
these properties looking at the graph of this function. In order to draw the graph it is enough to
note that (see the figure 2.10)
x−2+2 2
f (x) = = = + 1.
x Home Page
x−2 x−2 x−2
Title Page
2.4. Local extrema of a function

Contents
Definition 2.14. Assume that f ∶ X → Y , x0 ∈ X.
We say that the function f has the local maximum at the point x0 ⇔ ��
� � f (x) ≤ f (x0 ). � �
r>0 x∈X∩(x0 −r,x0 +r)
We say that the function f has the local minimum at the point x0 ⇔ Page 41 of 298
� � f (x) ≥ f (x0 ). Go Back

r>0 x∈X∩(x0 −r,x0 +r)
Full Screen
Local minima and maxima of a function are called local extrema.
The illustration of the notion of local extrema is given at the figure 2.11.
Close
Remark. If for any x ∈ X ∩ (x0 − r, x0 + r) − {x0 } the inequality f (x) < f (x0 ) holds, then we
have a proper local maximum. We define the notion of a proper local minimum in an analogous Quit
way.
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
Figure 2.11: Local extrema

��
Example 2.15. The function f ∶ R→ R, f (x) = 1 − x2 has the local maximum at x0 = 0 (see the
� �
figure 2.12). Observe that at this point the value of this function is maximal in the whole domain
(i.e. f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for every x belonging to the domain of f ). Page 42 of 298
The function g ∶ R→ R, g(x) = �1 − x2 � has also local maximum at the point x0 = 0. But this time
g(x0 ) is not the maximal value of the function g. Moreover, notice that g has two local minima at Go Back
points x = −1 and x = 1.
�
�
�
�x − 1 for x > 0,
Full Screen
Example 2.16. Consider functions f ∶ R→ R, f (x) = �

�
�
�x + 1 for x ≤ 0,
� Close
�
�
�
�x − 1 for x ≥ 0,
and g ∶ R→ R, g(x) = � The function f has local maximum at x0 = 0. The function
�
�
� + <
Quit
�x 1 for x 0.
g has local minimum at x0 = 0 (see figure 2.13).
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) The function has its local maximum (b) The function has its local maximum
at x = 0, and it is its maximal value at x = 0 but it is not its maximal value
��
Figure 2.12: Local maximum versus maximal value of function (global maximum)
� �
Page 43 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
(a) The function has local maximum at (b) The function has local minimum at
x=0 x=0 Quit
Figure 2.13: Local extrema of a function

Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) The image of the set A (green) (b) The preimage of the set B (green)
Figure 2.14: Image and preimage – an example 2.19 ��
2.5. Image and preimage � �
Definition 2.17. Let f ∶ X → Y and A ⊂ X. The image of the set A under the function f is Page 44 of 298
the set
f (A) = �y ∈ Y ∶ � y = f (x)�. Go Back
x∈A
Definition 2.18. Let f ∶ X → Y and B ⊂ Y . The preimage of the set B under the function Full Screen
f is the set
f −1 (B) = �x ∈ X ∶ � y = f (x)�. Close
y∈B
Example 2.19. Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x2 . Let A = �−2, 1) and B = (1, 4�. Looking at the graph Quit
of f (see figure 2.14) we see that f (A) = �0, 4� and f −1 (B) = �−2, −1) ∪ (1, 2�.
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) The image of the set A (green) (b) The preimage of the set B (green)
Figure 2.15: Image and preimage – an example 2.20 ��
Example 2.20. Consider f ∶ R → R defined as follows: � �
�
�
�
� 3 − �x + 2� for x ∈ (−∞, −1) ,
�
�
Page 45 of 298
f (x) = � for x ∈ �−1, 1),

�
2
�
�
�
�
� 2
−x for x ∈ �1, ∞). Go Back
We will find the image of the set A = �−4, 1� and the preimage of B = (−1, 1). The graph of f is
presented at the figure 2.15. Basing on the graph of the function f we have f (A) = �1, 3� ∪ { 12 } and
Full Screen
f −1 (B) = (−6, −4) ∪ �1, ∞).

Close
1
Example 2.21. We consider the function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2 . We will find the image of
x +1
A = (−2, 1�. Notice that if x ∈ (−2, 1�, then x2 ∈ �0, 4), so x2 + 1 ∈ �1, 5). For y ∈ �1, 5) we have
Quit
y ∈ ( 5 , 1�. Finally f (A) = ( 5 , 1�.

1 1 1
Now we will find the preimage of the set B = � 14 , 1). We have to solve the inequality 1
4 ≤ f (x) < 1
for x in the domain of f (in our case for x ∈ R). After the following transformations
�
� �
� �
� �
� √ √
�
� x2 +1 ≥ 4
1 1 �
�x2 + 1 ≤ 4 �
�x2 ≤3 �
�x ∈ �− 3, 3�,
� ⇔� ⇔� ⇔�
�
� < �
� 2+1 >1 �
� >0 �
�
� � � �x ≠ 0.
�
Home Page
� x +1 � �x
1
2 1 x 2
√ √
we obtain f (B) = �− 3, 3� − {0}.
Title Page
Contents
2.6. Superposition of functions

��
Now we will deal with the situation where the value of one function becomes the argument of
another function. Z � �
Definition 2.22. Let f ∶ X → Y and g ∶ Ỹ → Z, where f (Y ) ⊂ Ỹ . The superposition of Page 46 of 298

functions f and g is the function g ○ f ∶ X → Z defined by the formula:
Go Back
(g ○ f ) (x) = g(f (x)).
Full Screen
Remark. The superposition of functions can be also called the composition of functions and
its result – the function g ○ f ∶ X → Z is called the composite function. Close
Example 2.23. Consider functions f ∶ R → R, f (x) = cos x and g ∶ R → R, g(x) = x2 . The

Quit
range of the function f is included in the domain of the function g. Therefore, we can define the
superposition of functions f and g. We have (g ○ f ) (x) = g(f (x)) = g(cos x) = (cos x)2 for x ∈ R.
Similarly g(R) is included in the domain of the function f. Therefore, we have (f ○ g) (x) =
= f (g(x)) = f (x2 ) = cos(x2 ) for x ∈ R.
√
Example 2.24. Let the function f ∶ �0, ∞) → R be defined by f (x) = x, and the function
g ∶ (−2, ∞) → R – by g(x) = log3 (x + 2). Taking into account that f (�0, ∞)) = �0, ∞) ⊂ (−2, ∞), we Home Page
have
√
(g ○ f ) (x) = g(f (x)) = log3 (f (x) + 2) = log3 ( x + 2) Title Page
for x ∈ �0, ∞). Notice that the range of g is not included in the domain of f , since (g((−2, ∞)) = R.
Therefore, we are not able to define the superposition f ○ g.
Contents
Of course, if we took (instead of the function g) for example the function g̃ ∶ �−1, ∞) → R, ��
g̃(x) = log3 (x + 2), then we would have
� � �
(f ○ g̃) (x) = f (g̃(x)) = f (log3 (x + 2)) = log3 (x + 2)
Page 47 of 298
for x ∈ �−1, ∞).
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2.7. Inverse function Full Screen
We will start with an example.

Close
Example 2.25. Consider the function f ∶ {1, 2, 3} → {−1, 3, 5} defined as follows: f (1) =
= 5, f (2) = 3 and f (3) = −1. This function is obviously injective. Now consider the function Quit
g ∶ {−1, 3, 5} → {1, 2, 3} defined as follows: g(−1) = 3, g(3) = 2 and g(5) = 1. Observe that f (x) = y
if and only if g(y) = x for x ∈ {1, 2, 3} and y ∈ {−1, 3, 5}. Now let z(x) = g(f (x)) for x ∈ {1, 2, 3}.
Obviously z(1) = g(5) = 1, and in general z(x) = x for x ∈ {1, 2, 3}. It is easy to check that
f (g(y)) = y for y ∈ {−1, 3, 5}.
Definition 2.26. Let f ∶ X → Y . The inverse function of a function f is the function Home Page
g ∶ Y → X satisfying the following condition:
Title Page
� � (f (x) = y ⇔ g(y) = x) .
x∈X y∈Y
Contents
Remark. We denote the inverse function of f by f −1 .

��
Example 2.27. a) Consider the function f ∶ �0, ∞)→�0, ∞), f (x) = x2 . Note that for all x ≥ 0
√
and y ≥ 0 we have: y = x2 if and only if x = y. Therefore, the inverse function of f is the function
√ � �
transforming the set�0, ∞) onto the set �0, ∞) given by the formula f −1 (y) = y.
b) Consider now the function g ∶(−∞, 0�→�0, ∞), g(x) = x2 . For all x ≤ 0 and y ≥ 0 we have:
√ √
Page 48 of 298
y = x2 if and only if x = − y. In this case g −1 ∶ �0, ∞) → (−∞, 0� , g −1 (y) = − y.
Theorem 2.28. A function f ∶ X → Y has its inverse function (is invertible) if and only if f is Go Back
the bijection.
Full Screen
Example 2.29. The function f ∶ R → �0, ∞), f (x) = x2 is not injective so f −1 does not exist.
Example 2.30. The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x − 2 is the bijection. We will find the inverse
Close
function of f . We want to find for any y a value of x such that y = f (x). Therefore, we look for
such x, that y = 2x − 2. Solving this equation with respect to x we obtain x = 12 y + 1. Therefore, we
Quit
have f −1 ∶ R → R, f −1 (y) = 12 y + 1.
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 2.16: Graphs of functions f and f −1 Contents
��
Example 2.31. The function f ∶ (0, ∞) → R, f (x) = log2 x is a bijection. Note that y = log2 x if
and only if x = 2y . So f −1 ∶ R → (0, ∞), f −1 (y) = 2y .
� �
We will discuss now the relation between the graphs of a function f and its inverse function
If the point with coordinates (a, b) belongs to the graph of the function f , then the point with
f −1 . Page 49 of 298
coordinates (b, a) belongs to the graph of the function f −1 and conversely. Therefore, graphs of
functions f and f −1 are symmetric with respect to the line y = x (see the figure 2.16). Go Back
Main properties of the inverse function are given below.
Theorem 2.32. If a function f ∶ X → Y is invertible, and its inverse function is f −1 ∶ Y → X,

Full Screen
then: Close
a) f −1 (f (x)) = x for x ∈ X.
b) f (f −1 (y)) = y for y ∈ Y . Quit
c) The function f −1 is invertible, and its inverse function is f .

Exercises
�
�
�
�(x − 2)3 + 1 for x > 1
2.1. (?) Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = �√
�
�
� 1−x
� for x ≤ 1.
a) Check, whether f (−1) < f (2). Home Page
b) Draw the graph of the function f .

c) Find the range of f . Title Page
d) Verify, whether f is surjective?

e) Find the intervals where f is decreasing. Contents
f) Find local extrema of the function f .

�
�
��
�
��log2 (x − 2) � for x ≥ 2
2.2. (?) Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = �
�
�
�−x − 2x + 1 for x < 2.
� � �
2
a) Draw the graph of the function f .

b) Find the range of the function f . Page 50 of 298
c) Find the set of all arguments x ∈ R such that the value of the function f is positive.
d) Find the set of all arguments x ∈ R such that f (x) ≥ 2. Go Back
e) Find the intervals where the function f is increasing.

Full Screen
f) Find local extrema of the function f .
2.3. (?) Find the domain of the function:

� Close
√ 1 x−1
a) f (x) = x − 1 + √ ; b) f (x) = ;
x+2 x+2
log2 (4 − x2 )
Quit
c)f (x) = log3 (2x+1 − 1) ; d)f (x) = .

(log2 x) − log2 x
3
2.4. (?) Verify whether the function f is injective, surjective or a one-to-one correspondence.
a)f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x3 + 2;
x+3
b) f ∶ R − {2} → R, f (x) = ;
�x−2
c)f ∶ R → �0, ∞), f (x) = �x + 1�.
Home Page
2.5. (?) Let f ∶ X → Y , f (x) = cos x. Find examples of such sets X and Y that:
Title Page
a) the function f is injective, and is surjective;
b) the function f is not injective, and is surjective;
Contents
c) the function f is injective, and is not surjective;.
d) the function f is not injective nor surjective.
��
2.6. (?) Verify whether the function f is monotonic. Justify the answer.
� �
a)f ∶ R → R, f (x) = −2x + 5;
b) f ∶ (− 13 , ∞)→ R, f (x) = log0,5 (3x + 1);
√
c) f ∶ (−∞, −1� ∪ �0, ∞)→ R, f (x) = x2 + x.
Page 51 of 298
2.7. (?) Let f ∶ X → R and g ∶ X → R. Check, whether the function f + g ∶ X → R,where Go Back
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) is:

Full Screen
a) an injection, if functions f and g are injections?
b) a surjection, if functions f and g are surjections?
Close
c) increasing, if functions f and g are increasing?
2.8. (?) Find the image of the set A and the preimage of the set B under the function f. Quit
a) f ∶ {1, 2, ..., 10} → N, f (n) = 3n, A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {6n ∶ n ∈ N} .

b) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = −x2 + 4x − 5, A = �0, 3), B = (−∞, −2�.
�x−1�
c) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = � 13 � , A = (−∞, 2), B = � 19 , 13 �.
√
d) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = �x2 − 9�, A = �−4, 1) ∪ (3, 3 2), B = (5, 7�.
e) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = �x − 1� + �x�, A = �−3, −2) ∪ �3, 4), B = {1, 2}. Home Page
�
�
�
�tgx for x ∈ (0, 2 ) ∪ ( 2 , fi)
fi fi
√
f) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = � A = (−1, 23 fi�, B = � 3, ∞).
�
�
� for x ∈� (0, fi2 ) ∪ ( fi2 , fi),
Title Page
�x
�
�
�
�3x for x ∈ (−2, 2�,
Contents
g) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = � A = (−6, 6), B = (0, 1).

�
�
� �x − ∈
� (−2,
� 2
log 2� for x 2�, ��
h)*f ∶ (0, fi) → R, f (x) = log2 (sin x), A = � 14 fi, 34 fi�, B = �−1, 1�.
� �
2.9. (?) Find, if possible, functions f ○ g and g ○ f, for:
a) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x + 1, g ∶ R → R, g(x) = sin x + cos x; Page 52 of 298
1
b) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = , g ∶ (−∞, 0) → R, g(x) = log3 (−x);
1 + x2
�
�
�
�3x − 1 for x < 1
Go Back
2
c) f ∶ R → R, f (x) = , ∶ R → R, = �
1 + x2 �
g g(x)
�
� for x ≥ 1.
�x
2
Full Screen
2.10. (?) Let f ∶ X → Y and g ∶ Y → Z. Check, whether the function g ○ f is:

Close
a) an injection, if functions f and g are injections?
b) a surjection, if functions f and g are surjections?
Quit
c) increasing, if functions f and g are increasing?
d) decreasing, if functions f and g are decreasing?
e) decreasing, if f is decreasing, and g is increasing?
2.11. (?) Let f ∶ X → Y and g ∶ Y → Z. The function g ○ f is injective. Does it imply that:
a) f is injective?
b) g is injective? Home Page
2.12. (?) Let f ∶ X → Y and g ∶ Y → Z. The function g ○ f is surjective. Does it imply that:
Title Page
a) f is surjective?
b) g is surjective? Contents
2.13. (?) Let f ∶ X → Y . Find the set Y for f to be a bijection, and then find the inverse
��
function of f if:.
a) f ∶ R → Y , f (x) = 3x + 1;
√ � �
b)f ∶ �−1, ∞) → Y , f (x) = x + 1;
c) f ∶ R → Y , f (x) = 5x+2 ; Page 53 of 298
d) f ∶ (− 32 , ∞) → Y , f (x) = log3 (2x + 3);
e) f ∶ �1, ∞) → Y , f (x) = x2 − 2x + 3; Go Back
f) f ∶ (−∞, 1� → Y , f (x) = x2 − 2x + 3;
x+4
g) f ∶ R − {2} → Y , f (x) = .
x−2
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Sequences Contents
��
� �
3.1. Sequences and their properties
Definition 3.1. The sequence is a function a ∶ N → R, where N is the set of natural numbers,
Page 54 of 298
and R is the set of real numbers. The value a(n) = an is called the n-th term of the sequence.
We denote a sequence by the symbol (an ), and the set of all its elements – by the symbol {an }.
Go Back
Example 3.2. The sequence with initial terms 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... is defined by the formula an = 2n−1, Full Screen
and it is the sequence of odd numbers. Similarly the sequence of even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ... is
given by the formula an = 2n. Sequences can also be defined in the recursive way. It means that the
Close
formula for the n-th term of the sequence involves the values of some preceding terms. In this case
we also need to give explicit values of some initial terms, e.g. a1 = 1, a2 = −2, an+2 = 2an + an+1 for
Quit
n ≥ 3. Therefore, the subsequent terms of the sequence an are: a3 = 2 ⋅ 1 − 2 = 0, a4 = 2 ⋅ (−2) + 0 = −4

and so on. An important example is the sequence an = n! for n ∈ N ∪ {0} (this is the factorial
of natural numbers). Its terms are respectively equal to: a0 = 0! = 1, a1 = 1! = 1, a2 = 2! = 1 ⋅ 2 = 2,
a3 = 3! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 = 6, and generally an = n! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ � ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ n. Note that we can specify this sequence
recursively in the following way : a0 = 1, and an = an−1 ⋅ n for n ∈ N.
Home Page
Definition 3.3. We say that a sequence (an ) is:
a) increasing ⇔ � an+1 > an ,

Title Page
n∈N
b) non-decreasing ⇔ � an+1 ≥ an ,
Contents
n∈N
c) decreasing ⇔ � an+1 < an , ��

n∈N
d) non-increasing ⇔ � an+1 ≤ an , � �
n∈N
e) constant ⇔ � an+1 = an . Page 55 of 298

n∈N
Any sequence which has one of the above properties is called monotonic (monotone). Observe Go Back
that a monotonic sequence has the property that the diÄerence between two subsequent terms has
the constant sign (is nonnegative or nonpositive). Full Screen
Example 3.4. We check, whether the sequence with the general term equal to an = n2 − 3n is
Close
monotonic. We examine the sign of the diÄerence
an+1 − an = (n + 1)2 − 3(n + 1) − n2 + 3n = 2n − 2 ≥ 0

Quit
for n ∈ N. The diÄerence an+1 − an is then positive for all natural n greater than 1, and for n = 1
is equal to 0 which means that an is non-decreasing. Moreover, we can conclude that the sequence
an for n = 2, 3, 4, ... is increasing.
Example 3.5. The sequence an = (−1)n n4n+2 is not monotonic, because its terms are negative Home Page
and positive alternately.
Definition 3.6. A sequence (an ) is called

Title Page
a) arithmetic ⇔ � � an+1 − an = r, Contents
r∈Rn∈N
b) geometric ⇔ � � an+1
an = q. ��
q∈R−{0}n∈N
The number r in the definition of arithmetic sequence is called the common diÄerence � �
of arithmetic sequence , and the number q in the definition of geometric sequence is called the
common ratio of geometric sequence. By the definition of arithmetic sequence we have its Page 56 of 298
monotonicity – it is increasing for r > 0, decreasing for r < 0, and constant for r = 0. The value of
Go Back
the n-th term of arithmetic sequence depends on the value of its first term and on the common
diÄerence, and is given by
an = a1 + (n − 1)r for n ∈ N.
Full Screen
Terms of any arithmetic sequence satisfy the equation Close
an = 12 (an+1 + an−1 ) Quit

for n > 1 that is the n-th term is the arithmetic mean of its neighbors – the preceding term an−1
and the subsequent term an+1 . The sum of n initial terms of an arithmetic sequence is given by the
formula
a1 + an
S n = � ai = n
n
.
i=1 2 Home Page
The formula combining the value of the n-th term of a geometric sequence, its first term, and
the common ratio q is the following: Title Page
an = a1 q n−1 for n ∈ N. Contents
√
Terms of a geometric sequence such that a1 > 0 and q > 0 satisfy the equality an = an−1 ⋅ an+1 ��
for n > 1, so, starting from n = 2, each term of a geometric sequence is the geometric mean of the
preceding and subsequent terms. The sum of n initial terms of a geometric sequence is given by � �
the formula
1 − qn
Sn = � ai = a1
n
Page 57 of 298
1−q
.
i=1
Example 3.7. Verify, whether the sequence (an ) is an arithmetic or geometric sequence, if Go Back
a) an = 3n + 2, Full Screen
b) bn = 2 ⋅ 3n+1 Close
The diÄerence of two terms of the sequence (an ) is equal to an+1 − an = 3(n + 1) + 2 − (3n + 2) = 3, Quit
so it is the arithmetic sequence with the common diÄerence r equal to 3. The ratio of two terms of
the sequence (bn ) equals: aan+1 = 2⋅3
2⋅3n+1 = 3, so it is the geometric sequence with the common ratio q
n+2
equal to 3. Note that both sequences are increasing.
Definition 3.8. We say that a sequence (an ) is:
a) bounded from above ⇔ � � an ≤ M ,

Home Page
M ∈R n∈N
b) bounded from below ⇔ � � an ≥ m, Title Page
m∈R n∈N
c) bounded ⇔ � � m ≤ an ≤ M . Contents
m,M ∈R n∈N
The interpretation of these conditions is the following: a sequence is bounded from above if all ��
its terms are not greater than some real number M , a sequence is bounded from below if all its
terms are not less than some real number m, and a sequence is bounded if it is bounded from above � �
and from below, that is all its terms belong to an interval �m, M �, for real numbers m,M such that
m < M. Page 58 of 298
n+6
Example 3.9. The sequence an = is bounded. Observe that the terms of this sequence can
n+3
Go Back
n+3+3 3 3
be written as: an = =1+ . Since the sequence bn = is decreasing, and its first
n+3 n+3 n+3
term is equal to 34 , the sequence (an ) is bounded from above by the number 74 . All terms of the
Full Screen
sequence (an ) are greater than 1, so the sequence (an ) is bounded from below by the number 1. Close
Example 3.10. Each non-decreasing sequence is bounded from below by its first term, and
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each non-increasing sequence is bounded from above by its first term.
Exercises
3.1. (?) An arithmetic sequence (an ) satisfies the conditions a1 = 2 and a6 − a3 = −6. Find the
formula for the n-th term of (an ), and calculate the sum of its first ten terms.
3.2. (?) A geometric sequence (an ) satisfies the conditions a1 = 2 and = 9. Find the formula
a4 Home Page
a2
for the n-th term of (an ), and verify whether it is a monotonic sequence.
Title Page
3.3. (?) Find the fifth term of the sequence 3x1 , 3x2 , 3x3 , . . .
knowing that it is a geometric
sequence, x1 + x2 + � + x9 = −9, and x1 = −x8 . Is it a bounded sequence? Contents
3.4. (?) Check, whether the following sequences are monotone and bounded.
(−1)n+1 5n − 1 ��
a) an = −3n − 4, b) bn = n , c) cn = , d) dn = n − n2 , e) en = 2n! + 3.
2 +3 n n+2
3.5. (?) Verify, whether the following sequences are geometric. � �
(−1)n+1
a) an = � 45 � , b) bn = c) cn =
n n!
, .
3n n2 Page 59 of 298
52n − 32n
3.6. (?) Let an = n . Prove that an = 5n + 3n . Check whether (an ) is an arithmetic
5 − 3n Go Back
sequence, and whether it is monotone.
Full Screen
3.2. Convergence of sequences

Close
Definition 3.11. We say that a number g ∈ R is the limit of a sequence (an ) if and only if
the following condition holds Quit
� � � �an − g� < Á.
Á>0 NÁ ∈N n>NÁ
The condition describing the convergence says that every neighborhood of the limit of the sequence
includes almost all (that is all except a finite number) terms of the sequence. If the sequence (an )
has the limit g ∈ R, then we say that it is convergent (to g), and we write lim an = g, or an → g.
n→∞
If the sequence does not have any limit, i.e. there is no number g, satisfying the condition in the
Home Page
definition 3.11, then we say that the sequence is divergent.
Example 3.12. We will show that the sequence in the example 3.9 converges to 1. Take any Title Page
Á > 0. We have
3 3 3
�an − 1� = � �= < Á ⇔ n > − 3.
n+3 n+3
Contents
Á
If we take NÁ = � 3Á − 3� + 1, where [x] denotes the floor (entier) of the real number x, then for all ��
n > NÁ the condition�an − 1� < Á holds, for any Á > 0. It means that the number 1 is the limit of the
sequence (an ). � �
Example 3.13. Let us consider the sequence an = (−1)n . It is quite easy to show that it is Page 60 of 298
divergent. Its terms are alternately equal to −1 and 1, so any neighborhood of the number −1
includes all terms an such that n is odd while any neighborhood of the number 1 includes all terms Go Back
an such that n is even. In neither of these neighborhoods we have almost all terms of the sequence,
so the sequence (an ) is divergent. Full Screen
Example 3.14. If the common ratio q of a geometric sequence (an ) satisfies �q� < 1, then the Close
sequence of its partial sums Sn = ∑ni=1 ai converges to S = ∑∞i=1 ai = 1−q . The condition �q� < 1 is
a1
necessary and suÖcient for the convergence of the sequence of partial sums of a geometric sequence. Quit
Theorem 3.15 (arithmetic of limits). If an → a and bn → b, where a, b ∈ R, then

a) an ± bn → a ± b,
b) an ⋅ bn → a ⋅ b,
→ , if b ≠ 0,
an a
c)
bn b Home Page
d) �an � → �a�.
Title Page
Theorem 3.16 (selected properties of limits).
→ 0,
Contents
1
a) n
b) an → 0 ⇔ �a� < 1, ��
√
c) n
n→1 � �
d) an → a ∧ b > 0 ⇒ ban → ba ,
Page 61 of 298
e) �an → a ∧ a > 0 ∧ � � an > 0�� ⇒ � apn → ap .

n∈N p∈R Go Back
Theorem 3.17 (squeeze theorem). If the following conditions hold cn ≤ an ≤ bn for n ∈ N and
cn → g, bn → g then an → g.
Full Screen
(−1)
n
Example 3.18. We will prove that the sequence, an = converges to 0. Observe that all Close
3n
terms satisfy the inequality
1 1
− ≤ an ≤
Quit
.
3n 3n
1 1
Sequences − and converge to zero then, by the squeeze theorem, the sequence (an ) also
3n 3n
converges to 0.
Theorem 3.19. Any convergent sequence is bounded.

Home Page
Theorem 3.20. If a sequence (an ) is monotone and bounded, then it is convergent.
Example 3.21. Consider the sequence an = �1 + n1 � . We will prove that this sequence is
n Title Page
non-decreasing and bounded. Therefore, (an ) is convergent. Its limit is the Euler number e =
= 2.7182818 . . .. Observe that (using Newton binomial) we have
Contents
1 n 1 0 1 1 n(n − 1) 1 2 n! 1 n ��
an = �1 + � = 1 � � + n � � + � � +�+ � � =
n n n 2! n n! n
1− n1 �1 − n � � �1 − n �
1 n−1 � �
=1+1+ +�+ .
2! n!
Page 62 of 298
Similarly,
1 1 (n + 1)n
Go Back
1 n+1 1 0 1 2
an+1 = �1 + � = 1� � + (n + 1) � � + � � +�
n+1 n+1 n+1 2! n+1
(n + 1)! 1 − n+1 �1 − n+1 � � �1 − n−1 � �1 − n+1 � � �1 − n+1 �
Full Screen
1 1 1 n
1 n+1
+ � � =1+1+ +�+ n+1
+
(n + 1)! n + 1 (n + 1)!
.
2! n!
Close
Comparing subsequent terms of these sums we see that an ≤ an+1 . Therefore, (an ) is non-
Quit
decreasing. Now we will prove that it is bounded from above (it is bounded from below by its first
term as a non-decreasing sequence). Note that
1 − n1 �1 − n1 � � �1 − n−1 � 1 1 1
an = 1 + 1 + +�+ n
≤1+1+ + +�+
2! n! 2! 3! n!
1 1 1 1 − �2�
1 n
1
≤1+1+ 2 + 3 +�+ n =1+ ≤1+ = 3.
Home Page
2 2 2 1− 21
1 − 12
Therefore, the sequence (an ) is monotone and bounded, so it is convergent.

Title Page
Definition 3.22. We say that a sequence (an ) has the improper limit +∞ (−∞ respectively) Contents
if and only if
��
� � � an > M (respectively an < M ).
M ∈R NM ∈N n>NM
� �
If a sequence has the improper limit +∞ (−∞), then we say that it is divergent to +∞, (divergent
to −∞), and we write lim an = +∞ or an → ∞ ( lim an = −∞ or an → −∞ respectively).
n→∞ n→∞ Page 63 of 298
Example 3.23. We will show that the sequence an = 3n + 2n diverges to +∞. Take any positive
number M . Then an > M ⇔ 3n + 2n > M . Observe that if we find n, such that 3n > M , then we will Go Back
also have 3n + 2n > M. The inequality 3n > M implies that n > log3 M . Then, for n > NM , where
NM = [log3 M ] + 1, we have an > M , so the sequence (an ) diverges to +∞. Full Screen
Example 3.24. Each arithmetic sequence with positive common diÄerence diverges to +∞, and Close
each arithmetic sequence with negative common diÄerence diverges to−∞. Each geometric sequence
with the common ratio greater than 1 diverges to +∞, if its first term is positive or diverges to −∞ Quit
if its first term is negative.

Theorem 3.25 (arithmetic of improper limits). Let (an ), (bn ) be sequences.
a) if an → +∞ and bn → +∞, then an + bn → +∞ and an ⋅ bn → +∞;
b) if an → −∞ and bn → −∞, then an + bn → −∞ and an ⋅ bn → +∞;

Home Page
c) if an → +∞ and bn → −∞, then an − bn → +∞, bn − an → −∞ and an ⋅ bn → −∞;

Title Page
d) if an → a, where a ∈ R, and bn → ±∞, then an + bn → ±∞ and → 0;
an
bn
e) if an → a, where a > 0, and bn → ±∞, then an ⋅ bn → ±∞ ;
Contents
f ) if an → a, where a < 0, and bn → ±∞, then an ⋅ bn → ∓∞. ��
There are also some sequences (composed of other sequences), for which we are not able to � �
determine their limits, basing on limits of composing sequences. For example, if (an ) and (bn )
diverge to ±∞, then we are not able to determine, in general, what is the limit of the ratio of Page 64 of 298
these sequences abnn which can be written as ∞

∞ . Limits of this kind are called the indeterminate
forms. The value of such indeterminate form depends on the considered case. We give the list of Go Back
indeterminate forms below (we treat them as symbols, describing limits of considered sequences,
Full Screen
not as algebraic operations).
• +∞ − ∞ or −∞ + ∞ Close
• 0
0 Quit
∞
• ∞
• 0⋅∞
• 1∞
• ∞0
Home Page
• 00
Title Page
Example 3.26. We will calculate the limit of the sequence an = nn2 +3n+1
2
+3n+1 . The limit of the
numerator is +∞, and the limit of the denominator is −∞, so it is a case of indeterminate form. Contents
1+ n + n2
3 1
If we divide the numerator and denominator of this fraction by n2 , we obtain an = . Now
−1+ n + n2
7 3
��
we see that the limit of the numerator is equal to 1, and the denominator converges to −1, so
lim an = −1.
n→∞ � �
1 an
Theorem 3.27. If a sequence (an ) diverges to +∞ or to −∞, then lim �1 + � = e.
n→∞ an Page 65 of 298
Exercises Go Back
3.7. (?) Calculate limits of the following sequences:

n3 + 1 −2n3 + 3n2 + 2 n2 + 2 (n + 1) − (n + 2)4
4 Full Screen
a) 3n − 5n2 , b) , c) , d) , e) ,
2n3 − 1 n2 − 3n + 2 n4 + 1 (n + + (n +
√
4
1) 2)4
n(n + 1)(n2 + 3) √ √ � √ � √ n2 + 2n + 5
√ , g) n2 + 1 − n2 + 3, h) n + n − n − n, i) n 2
Close
f) ,
n2 n3 + 2) 2 (n − 3)
3n + 5n 1 n n+3 n 1 n+3 n + 6 2n−1
� � � �1 − � � �
Quit
j) , k) l) m) n)
1 + 5n+1 n+2 n+4
k, , , ,
n2 k=1 n
1
n+1
√ sin n √
o*)�1 − � p*) n
2n + 3 ⋅ 4n + 7n , q) , r*) an+1 = 2 + an , a1 = 1.
(n + 1)2 n+1
,
1 1 2 1 3
3.8. (?) Solve the equation +� � +� � + � = −1 − 2x.
1−x 1−x 1−x
Home Page
3.9. (?) For the sequence an = 2 + 22 + 23 + � + 2n calculate lim

an
.
n→∞ an+1
Title Page
5 + 10 + 15 + � + 5n n
3.10. (?) Find the limit of the sequence an = − .
n+5 5 Contents
3.11. (?) Find all values of the parameter p ∈ R such that the limit of the sequence
��
log2 (p2 + 1)n + 2
an =
n+1
� �
is greater than 1?
Page 66 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Limit and continuity of a function Contents
��
� �
4.1. Limit of a function
Definition 4.1. We say that a point x0 ∈ R is a limit point of a set X ⊂ R if and only if
Page 67 of 298
there exists a sequence (xn ) convergent to x0 such that its terms belong to the set X − {x0 }. We
call x0 ∈ X ⊂ R an isolated point of a set X ⊂ R if and only if it is not a limit point of X.
Go Back
Example 4.2. Let X = (−2, 1� ∪ {2, 8}. Then the set of limit points of X is �−2, 1�, and the set
Full Screen
of isolated points is {2, 8}.

Close
Definition 4.3 (Heine definition of the convergence of a function at a point). Let

x0 ∈ R be a limit point of X ⊂ R, and f be a function with the domain X, so f ∶ X → R. We say Quit
that f has the limit g at the point x0 if and only if for every sequence (xn ) convergent to x0
with terms belonging to the set X − {x0 } we have lim f (xn ) = g.
If g is the limit of a functionf at a point x0 , then we write lim f (x) = g.
n→∞
If the set X contains an interval (a, +∞) ((−∞, a) respectively) for some a ∈ R, and for every
x→x0
sequence (xn ) divergent to +∞ (−∞ respectively) with terms belonging to X we have

Home Page
lim f (xn ) = g,
n→∞
Title Page
then we say that a function f has the limit in +∞ (in −∞ respectively) and we write lim f (x) = g
( lim f (x) = g respectively).
x→+∞
Contents
If for any sequence (xn ) convergent to x0 with terms belonging to X − {x0 } we have
x→−∞
��
lim f (xn ) = +∞ or lim f (xn ) = −∞,

n→∞ n→∞ � �
then we say that a function f has an improper limit at a point x0 , and we write lim f (x) = +∞
( lim f (x) = −∞ respectively).
x→x0
Page 68 of 298
x→x0
Remark. If in the Heine definition we consider only such sequences (xn ) convergent to x0 that Go Back
all terms belong to X, and are less than x0 (are greater than x0 respectively), then we obtain the
definition of a left-hand limit (right-hand limit respectively) w x0 which is denoted in the Full Screen
following way lim− f (x) ( lim+ f (x) respectively). We also call these limits one-sided limits.
x→x0 x→x0 Close
2x − 1
Example 4.4. Let f (x) = . We calculate limf (x). Take any sequence (xn ) converging
4x2 + 3
2xn − 1
x→1 Quit
to 1 with terms diÄerent than 1. We have bn = f (xn ) = 2 . The sequence bn is the ratio of two
4xn + 3
converging sequences, where the sequence in the nominator converges to 1, and in the denominator
converges to 7. Therefore, lim bn = 17 , then limf (x) = 17 .
n→∞ x→1
+1 x2
Example 4.5. We will find lim . Take any sequence g (xn ) divergent to −∞. We have
−2 x→−∞ x2
x +1
2
then bn = f (xn ) = n2
Home Page
. If we divide the nominator and the denominator of bn by x2n , we obtain
xn − 2
1
bn = converge to 0, since (x2n ) diverges to +∞. Therefore, lim bn = 1, then

1+
x2 1 2 Title Page
n
1− 22
. Expressions x2n i x2n n→∞
x2 + 1
xn
lim = 1.
x→−∞ x2 − 2
Contents
Example 4.6. We will compute lim− x−3 x

. Observe that denominator of this expression converges
x→3 ��
to 0, and is negative (we consider only sequences converging to 3 with terms less than 3). The limit
of the denominator can be written as 0− . The numerator converges to 3, so the limit of the form � �
” 03− ”. Therefore, we divide a positive number by a negative approaching 0 which is in the limit
equal to −∞. Similarly, the right-hand limit is equal to +∞. Page 69 of 298
Theorem 4.7. If lim f (x) = a and lim f (x) = b, where a, b ∈ R, then

x→x0 x→x0
Go Back
a) lim(f (x) ± g(x)) = a ± b;
x→x0
b) lim(f (x) ⋅ g(x)) = a ⋅ b;

Full Screen
x→x0
f (x) a
Close
c) lim = , if g(x) =� 0 in some neighborhood of the point x0 and b ≠ 0.

x→x0 g(x) b
Quit
Above formulae are also true for one-sided limits, and in case where we replace the limit at a
point x0 by the limit in +∞ or in −∞.
4.2. Continuity of a function
Definition 4.8. A function f ∶ X → R, where X ⊂ R is continuous at the point x0 ∈ X if
and only if for any sequence (xn ) converging to x0 with terms in the set X we have
Home Page
lim f (xn ) = f (x0 ).

n→∞
Title Page
We say that a function f ∶ X → R is continuous in the set X, if it is continuous at all points of

this set. Contents
If x0 is a limit point of X, then the continuity condition at the point x0 is equivalent to the
condition lim f (x) = f (x0 ). If x0 is an isolated point of X, then the convergence of the sequence ��
(xn ) ⊂ X to this point means that the sequence has to be (starting from some n) constant, and
x→x0
equal to x0 . Therefore, any function is continuous at an isolated point of its domain. � �
Example 4.9. Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x2 + 3. We will prove that f is continuous in its domain. Page 70 of 298
Take any sequence (xn ) convergent to x0 . Then we have

Go Back
lim f (x) = lim �x2n + 3� = � lim x2n � + 3 = x20 + 3 = f (x0 ).

x→x0 n→∞ n→∞
Full Screen
It follows that the limit of the function f at any point of its domain is equal to its value at this
point, so f is continuous in its domain. Close
Quit
Example 4.10. Let f ∶ R → R be given by
� �
�
� �x + 3� for x ≠ −3,
f (x) = �
�
� for x = −3.
� 1
Home Page
We check whether f is continuous at the point x0 = −3. First we find one-sided limits of f at x0 .
We have Title Page
� �
lim− f (x) = lim− �x + 3� = lim− −(x + 3) = 0.
� √
Contents
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3
lim+ f (x) = lim+ �x + 3� = lim+ x + 3 = 0.

x→−3 x→−3 x→−3 ��
It follows that lim f (x) = 0. Note that the function f is not continuous at the point x0 , because
� �
the equality lim f (x) = f (−3) does not hold, since f (−3) = 1.
x→−3
x→−3
Example 4.11. Polynomials, power functions, exponential functions, logarithmic functions, and Page 71 of 298
trigonometric functions are continuous in their domains.

Go Back
Remark. If, when calculating the limit of a function, we obtain one of indeterminate forms,
describe at the page 3.2, then we have to transform such expression in order to obtain one, for Full Screen
which we are able to calculate its limit (similarly as we have done for sequences).
Close
Theorem 4.12 (operations on continuous functions).
a) If functions f ∶ X → R, g ∶ X → R are continuous in the set X ⊂ R, then functions f + g, Quit
f − g, f ⋅ g are continuous in the set X.

b) If functions f ∶ X → R, g ∶ X → R are continuous in the set X ⊂ R, then the function
f
is
g
defined, and continuous in the set X ′ = {x ∈ R ∶ g(x) ≠ 0}.
c) If a function f ∶ X → Y is continuous in the set X ⊂ R, and a function g ∶ Y → Z is continuous

in the set Y ⊂ R, then the superposition of these functions g ○ f ∶ X → Z is continuous in the Home Page
set X.
Title Page
Example 4.13. The function h ∶ (0, +∞) → R, h(x) = (log3 x) + 3 is continuous as the super-
2
position of continuous functions f ∶ (0, +∞) → R, f (x) = log3 x and g ∶ R → R, g(y) = y 2 + 3. Contents
Definition 4.14. If at least one of one-sided limits lim+ f (x), lim− f (x) is improper, then the line ��
x→x0 x→x0
defined by the equation x = x0 is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function f ∶ X →
R. If both one-sided limits are improper, then we call this asymptote both-sided, otherwise we say � �
that it is one-sided (left-hand vertical asymptote or right-hand vertical asymptote). If lim f (x) = c
( lim f (x) = c respectively), where c ∈ R, then the line defined by the equation y = c is called a
x→+∞
Page 72 of 298
horizontal asymptote of the graph of the function f ∶ X → R in +∞ (in −∞ respectively). If the

x→−∞
Go Back
condition
lim (f (x) − (ax + b)) = 0
x→+∞ Full Screen
or
lim (f (x) − (ax + b)) = 0, Close
x→−∞
holds, where a, b ∈ R, a ≠ 0, then the line defined by the equation y = ax + b is called slant Quit
asymptote of the graph of the function f ∶ X → R in +∞ or in −∞ respectively.
Theorem 4.15. The line y = ax + b is the slant asymptote of the graph of a function f in +∞
(in −∞ respectively) if and only if the limits:
f (x)
a = lim , b = lim (f (x) − ax)
x→+∞ x x→+∞
Home Page
(respectively:
f (x)
a = lim , b = lim (f (x) − ax))
Title Page
x→−∞ x x→−∞
exist, and are real numbers. Contents
x2
Example 4.16. We will find all asymptotes of the graph of the function f (x) = for x ≠ −1. ��
x+1
First we check, if the line x = −1 is a vertical asymptote. Calculating one-sided limits of f at this
point we obtain: � �
x2
lim− f (x) = lim− = −∞,
x→−1 x→−1 x + 1
Page 73 of 298
and
x2
lim+ f (x) = lim+ = +∞,
x→−1 x + 1
Go Back
x→−1
similarly as in 4.6. Since both limits at x = −1 are improper, the line x = −1 is the horizontal
asymptote (both-sided) of the graph of f. Now we calculate the limits of f in +∞and in −∞. We
Full Screen
have
x2 +∞
= lim = = +∞.
Close
x
lim
x→+∞ x + 1 x→+∞ 1 + 1
1
x
Quit
x2
Similarly we obtain that lim = −∞. We do not have horizontal asymptote in +∞, nor in −∞.
x→−∞ x + 1
In this case we should check whether there exists a slant asymptote of the graph of f. First we
calculate the limit
f (x) x2 1
lim = lim 2 = lim = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x + x x→+∞ 1 + 12
x
f (x)
in−∞. Therefore, we have a = 1.
Home Page
The same result is obtained when calculating the limit of
x
Now we calculate
Title Page
x2 x2 − x2 − x −x −1
lim − x = lim = lim = lim = −1.
x→+∞ x + 1 x→+∞ x+1 x→+∞ x+1 x→+∞ 1 + x1 Contents
We obtain the same result for −∞. Therefore, the line y = x − 1 is the slant asymptote of the graph ��
of the function f in +∞ and in −∞.
� �
Exercises
Page 74 of 298
4.1. (?) Find the limits
x−3 x2 − 9 x2 − 2x + 1 x2 + 2x 2 x2 + 2x − 2
3
a) lim
x→−1 x + 2
, b) lim
x→−3 x + 3
, c) lim , d) lim √ , e) lim ,
x3 − x x−2
Go Back
x→0+ 3x 2 + 5x2 x x→2+
3
x→1
x3 + 3 −x3 + 2x2 + 4x − 2 2x2 + 5 4x4 + 3x2 + 2x + 3

f) lim− 2 , g) lim , h) lim , i) lim ,
x→3 x − x − 6 x2 + 4x + 3 x→−∞ 3x3 + 6x + 8 2x4 − 6x + 11
Full Screen
x→+∞ x→+∞
√ √ √ √
j) lim � x2 − 5x − x2 − 8x − 14�, k) lim � x3 − 4x2 + 8 − x3 − x + 2�,
Close
x→+∞ x→+∞
sin 3x sin 2x sin 5x 1 1
l) lim , m) lim , n) lim , o) lim− e x , p) lim+ e x , Quit
x→0 x x→0 8x x→0 sin 9x x→0 x→0
1 1
q) lim e−x r) lim ln(x2 + 2), t*) limx sin � �.
2 +1
, s) lim ,
x→+∞ x→−∞ x→+∞ ln (x + 1) + 3 x→0 x
4.2. (?) Show that the following limits do not exist:
1 �x − 1�
a) lim sin x, b) lim cos x, c) limfi sin , d) lim .
x→+∞ x→−∞ x→− 4 x+ 4
fi x→1 x − 1 Home Page
4.3. (?) Verify the continuity of :

�
�
� x2 − 2 for x ≤ 0,
Title Page
a) f (x) = �
�
� 2x + 1 for x > 0;
�
�
�
� x2 − 1 for x ≤ 0,
Contents
�
�
�
b) g(x) = � 0 for 0 < x < 1,
�
�
�
��
�
� ln x for x ≥ 1;
�
�
�
� ln �(x + 4) � for x ∉ �−5; 5� , � �
2
c) h(x) = �
�
� x − 25 for x ∈ �−5; 5� .
� 2
4.4. (?) Find all values of parameters a, b ∈ R for which the function f is continuous.
Page 75 of 298
�
�
�
� −3x+3 for x ≤ −2, � √
�
�
� ax + b for −2 < x < 3, �
� ax + 3 for x ≤ 3, Go Back
a) f (x) = � b) f (x) = � 3−x
�
�
� �
� for x > 3.
�
�
1
− ≥ � e
�
� x−2
2 for x 3; Full Screen
4.5. (?) Find the domains and the�limits of given functions at the ends of their domains.
x2 − 1
Close
a) f (x) = ln(x2 − 4), b) g(x) = c) h(x) = e x4 −32 , d) k(x) = ln �2x + 4�.

1
,
x+3
Quit
4.6. (?) Find all asymptotes of the graph of the following functions:
�
3x + 5 3 4
a) f (x) = b) g(x) = e−x +1 − 1, c) h(x) = d) k(x) = 3x +
4
, , ,
2x − 6 �x3 + 1� x2 −4
sin x
e*) p(x) = .
x
4.7. (?) We know that, lim f (x) = 3, lim g(x) = 0, lim h(x) = +∞, lim p(x) = −∞. Find the Home Page
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
following limits (if they exist):
f (x) f (x) + h(x) g(x)
a) lim , b) lim , c) lim , d) lim ef (x)⋅g(x) , Title Page
x→x0 f (x) + g(x) x→x0 g(x) + p(x) x→x0 f (x) ⋅ p(x)
�
x→x0
� h(x)
f) lim ��
2
�,
Contents
e) lim eh(x)⋅p(x) , g) lim ln 2 .
x→x0 x→x0 p(x) x→x0 f (x) + p2 (x)
��
� �
Page 76 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
DiÄerential calculus of one variable Contents
��
functions
� �
Page 77 of 298
5.1. Derivative of the first order

Go Back
Definition 5.1. Let X ⊂ R. We say that x0 ∈ X is the interior point of X if and only if there
exists r > 0 such that (x0 − r, x0 + r) ⊂ X. Full Screen
Definition 5.2. Let X ⊂ R and x0 ∈ X be an interior point of X. We say that a function

f ∶ X → R is diÄerentiable at the point x0 if and only if there exists the limit
Close
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim
Quit
.
h→0 h
The number f ′ (x0 ) is called the derivative of the function f at the point x0 . The function
f ′ defined at all the points x ∈ X at which there exists f ′ (x) is called the derivative of the first
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
order or the first derivative of f . The expression is called diÄerence
h
quotient of the function f at the point x0 . If the function f ∶ X → R has the derivative at every
point x ∈ X, then we say that f is diÄerentiable in the set X.
Home Page
Theorem 5.3. If a function f ∶ X → R is diÄerentiable at a point x0 ∈ X, then f is continuous Title Page
at x0 .
Example 5.4. We compute the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 at an arbitrary point x ∈ R. Contents
Solution.
��
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − x2 (x + h)2 − x2
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h � �
x2 + 2xh + h2 − x2 2xh + h2
= lim = lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
Page 78 of 298
We denote the result by (x2 )′ = 2x.

Go Back
Analogously to the definition of the derivative of a function f at a point x0 , we define one-sided
derivatives of a function f at a point x0 . The left derivative of a function f ∶ X → R at a
point x0 ∈ X is the limit
Full Screen
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f−′ (x0 ) = lim− , Close
h→0 h
and the right derivative is the limit
Quit
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f+′ (x0 ) = lim+ .
h→0 h
Remark. In case of left derivative at x0 ∈ X it is enough to assume that (x0 − r, x0 � ⊂ X for
some r > 0. Similarly, in case of right derivative at x0 ∈ X we can assume that �x0 , x0 + r) ⊂ X for
some r > 0.
Theorem 5.5. A function f ∶ X → R is diÄerentiable at a point x0 ∈ X if and only if both Home Page
one-sided derivatives exist, and are equal.
Example 5.6. We will show that the function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = �x� is not diÄerentiable at the Title Page
point x0 = 0.
Contents
Solution. Computing one-sided limits we obtain the following
f (0 + h) − f (0) �h� f (0 + h) − f (0) �h� ��

f−′ (0) = lim− = lim− = −1, f+′ (0) = lim+ = lim+ = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
� �
Therefore, f ′ (0) does not exist.
We compute the derivatives applying formulae for derivatives of elementary functions and dif- Page 79 of 298
ferentiation rules. In the table below we show the derivatives of some elementary functions:
Go Back
Table 5.1: Derivatives of some elementary functions
(C) = 0
′
derivative of constant function Full Screen
(x ) = –x–−1
– derivative of power function
(ex ) = ex derivative of exponential function Close
1
(ln x) =
′
derivative of logarithmic function
x
(sin x)′ = cos x
Quit
derivative of sine function
(cos x)′ = − sin x derivative of cosine function
√
Example 5.7. We compute the derivative of f (x) = x.
√ 1 ′
Solution. f ′ (x) = ( x)′ = �x 2 � = 12 x 2 −1 = 12 x− 2 = 2√1 x .
1 1
Theorem 5.8 (diÄerentiation rules). If f and g are diÄerentiable, then:

a) (cf (x)) = cf ′ (x),
′
Home Page
b) (f (x) ± g(x)) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x),

′
c) (f (x)g(x)) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x) – product rule,

′
Title Page
′
f (x) f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
d) � � = – quotient rule,
g(x) g 2 (x) Contents
e) (g(f (x))) = g ′ (f (x))f ′ (x) – chain rule.
′
��
Example 5.9. Applying the formulae for derivatives of elementary functions and diÄerentiation
rules we compute derivatives of the following functions:
� �
a) (3x2 + 2 sin x) = 3(x2 )′ + 2(sin x)′ = 6x + 2 cos x,
′
b) (4x5 cos x) = (4x5 ) cos x + 4x5 (cos x) = 20x4 − 4x5 sin x,

′ ′ ′
12x2 ′ (12x2 ) (x − 1) − 12x2 (x − 1)′ 24x(x − 1) − 12x2 12x2 − 24x

′ Page 80 of 298
c) � � = = = ,
x−1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
sin x ′ (sin x)′ cos x − sin x(cos x)′ cos x cos x − sin x(− sin x) Go Back
d) (tg x) = � � = = =
′
cos x cos2 x cos2 x
cos2 x + sin2 x 1
= =
Full Screen
,
cos x
2 cos 2x
cos x ′
(cos x)′ sin x − cos x(sin x)′ (− sin x) sin x − cos x cos x
e) (ctg x) = � � = = =
′
Close
sin x sin2 x cos2 x
− sin2 x − cos2 x 1
= 2 =− 2 ,
√
Quit
sin x sin x
′ 1
f) � x − 4� = √ 2x = √
x
2 .
2 x2 − 4 x2 − 4
5.2. Interpretation of the first derivative
5.2.1. Geometric interpretation
The line passing through two points A (x0 , f (x0 )) , B (x0 + h, f (x0 + h)) , belonging to the graph Home Page
of the function y = f (x) (see the figure 5.1) has the equation
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
Title Page
y − f (x0 ) = (x − x0 ).
h
Contents
y ��
y = f ( x)
� �
f ( x0 + h )
Page 81 of 298
f (x0 )
Go Back
x0 x0 + h x Full Screen
Close
Figure 5.1: Geometric interpretation of the derivative
Quit
The diÄerence quotient of f at the point x0 is the slope of the line passing through the points
A and B. If h tends to 0, then the point B tends to the point A, and we get the line tangent to the
graph of f at the point (x0 , f (x0 )). Therefore, the diÄerentiability of a function f at the point x0 is
equivalent to the condition that there exists the line tangent to the graph at the point (x0 , f (x0 )).
The equation of the tangent line is the following
y − f (x0 ) = f ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ), Home Page
so f ′ (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line, i.e. f ′ (x0 ) = tg –, where – is the measure of the angle Title Page
between the tangent line and the axis 0x.

Contents
Example 5.10. We will determine the equation of the line tangent to the graph of the function
f (x) = 2x5 − 3x2 at the point with abscissa x0 = 1. ��
Solution. We have f (1) = −1, f ′ (x) = 10x4 − 6x and f ′ (1) = 4. Applying the formula for tangent
line we get y − (−1) = 4(x − 1) ⇔ y = 4x − 5. � �
5.2.2. Physical interpretation Page 82 of 298
If we assume that f (t), where t ≥ 0, denotes the length of the road passed by an object from Go Back
the moment 0 till the moment t, then the diÄerence f (t0 + h) − f (t0 ) is equal to the length of
the road passed by this object from the moment t0 till t0 + h. Therefore, the diÄerence quotient Full Screen
f (t0 + h) − f (t0 )
is equal to the average speed of this object in the time between the moments
h
t0 and t0 + h, while the limit of this quotient (with h → 0) f ′ (t0 ) is equal to the speed of the
Close
considered object at the moment t0 . Extending this interpretation to other diÄerentiable functions
we can assume that the value of the derivative f ′ (x0 ) describes the speed of changes of the function
Quit
f in some neighborhood of the point x0 .

5.2.3. Economic interpretation
The definition of derivative implies that for h ≠ 0, h close to 0 we have:
f (x̄ + h) − f (x̄) f (x̄ + h) − f (x̄)

f ′ (x̄) = lim � , Home Page
h→0 h h
that is Title Page

f ′ (x̄)h � f (x̄ + h) − f (x̄).
If we take h = 1, then we get Contents
f ′ (x̄) � f (x̄ + 1) − f (x̄),

��
(assuming that values of f do not change “too rapidly”).
Therefore, the number f ′ (x̄) is the approximation of the increment of the function value in case � �
where the argument increment is equal to 1.
Page 83 of 298
Example 5.11. Let x denote the production size, and K(x) denotes the total cost of production.
The function K(x), for x ≥ 0, is called total cost function, the function kp (x) =
K(x)
, defined Go Back
x
for x > 0, is called average cost function, and the function K (x),x > 0, (if it exists) is called
′
marginal cost function. Full Screen
Example 5.12. Assume that total cost function is K(x) = 0, 2x2 + 6x + 200, x > 0. Then K ′ (x) = Close
= 0, 4x + 6 and K ′ (10) = 10 is the approximate cost increase in case where the production increases
from 10 to 11 units. The exact value of the cost increase is K(11) − K(10) = 10, 2. Quit
Definition 5.13. The elasticity coeÖcient of a function f at a point x̄ is the number (if it
exists)
x̄f ′ (x̄)
Ex̄ f =
f (x̄)
.
Elasticity coeÖcient of a diÄerentiable positive function at a point x̄ > 0 is the approximate Home Page
relative change of the function value while the argument increases by 1%. It means that if we
Title Page
increase x̄ by 1%, then the function value changes approximately by Ex0 f %.
Example 5.14. The elasticity coeÖcient of the cost function in the example 5.12 at the point Contents
x̄ = 10 equals approximately 0, 36. If we increase the production x by 1% (from x̄ = 10 to 10,1 ),

then the cost increases approximately by 0, 36%. ��
Analogously we can define average and marginal income functions or average and marginal � �
production functions.
Page 84 of 298
5.3. First derivative applications Go Back
5.3.1. Computation of limits Full Screen
Theorem 5.15 (de l’Hospital’s rule). If functions f i g are diÄerentiable in the interval
(x0 − Á, x0 + Á), where Á > 0, g(x) =� 0, g ′ (x) =� 0 for x ∈ (x0 − Á, x0 + Á), x =� x0 ,
Close
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0, Quit

x→x0 x→x0
f ′ (x)
and there exists the limit lim = a, then
x→x0 g ′ (x)
f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ = a.
x→x0 g(x) x→x0 g (x)
Home Page
Remark. The theorem is also true in the following special cases:

a) x0 = ±∞, Title Page
b) limx→x0 f (x) = limx→x0 g(x) = ±∞,

c) a = ±∞.
Contents
ln x ��
Example 5.16. We compute lim .
x→∞ x
Solution. For f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x we have limx→∞ ln x = ∞, limx→∞ x = ∞; moreover,
� �
(ln x)
′ 1
1
lim = lim = lim = 0,
x
x→∞ (x) ′ x→∞ 1 x→∞ x Page 85 of 298
ln x
then lim = 0. Go Back
x→∞ x
Remark. The assumption that the limit of the quotient f ′ �g ′ exists is essential. As the following Full Screen
example shows, there are cases where the limit of the quotient f �g exists, while the limit of f ′ �g ′
does not. Close
Example 5.17. Consider the limit

Quit
x2 sin x1
lim .
x→0 sin x
After transformations we get
x2 sin x1 1
= lim � � �x sin � = 1 ⋅ 0 = 0.
x
lim
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x x
The limit of the derivatives quotient Home Page
′
�x2 sin x1 � 2x sin x1 − cos x1
= lim
Title Page
lim
(sin x)′
,
x→0 x→0 cos x
Contents
1
does not exist since the function cos does not converge at the point 0.
x ��
5.3.2. Monotonicity
� �
Theorem 5.18. Let f ∶ (a, b) → R be a diÄerentiable function.
a) f is non-decreasing (non-increasing respectively) in the interval (a, b) if and only if f ′ (x) ≥ 0 Page 86 of 298
(f ′ (x) ≤ 0 respectively) for all x ∈ (a, b).

b) f is constant in the interval (a, b) if and only if f ′ (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). Go Back
c) If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing in the interval (a, b).
d) If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is decreasing in the interval (a, b).
Full Screen
Example 5.19. We will find monotonicity intervals of the function f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 2. Close
Solution. The domain of f is the set R, f is continuous and diÄerentiable in its domain, and
Quit
the derivative is
′ ′ ′
f ′ (x) = �x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 2� = �x3 � − 5 �x2 � + 3 (x) + (2) = 3x2 − 10x + 3.
′ ′
Therefore, we get Home Page
f ′ (x) = 0 ⇔ x = 31 ∨ x = 3, Title Page
f ′ (x) > 0 ⇔ x ∈ �−∞, 13 � ∪ (3, ∞) ,

f ′ (x) < 0 ⇔ x ∈ � 13 , 3� .
Contents
��
f increases in the intervals �−∞, 13 � and (3, ∞), and decreases in the interval � 13 , 3�.
� �
5.3.3. Local extrema
Theorem 5.20 (necessary condition for extremum). If a function f ∶ X → R is diÄeren- Page 87 of 298
tiable, and has a local extremum at a point x0 ∈ X, then f ′ (x0 ) = 0.

Go Back
The points x, at which f ′ (x) = 0, are called the stationary points.
Theorem 5.21 (suÖcient condition for extremum). Let f ∶ X → R be diÄerentiable, x0 ∈ X Full Screen
and f ′ (x0 ) = 0. If there exists r > 0 such that:

a) f ′ (x) > 0 for x ∈ (x0 − r, x0 ), and f ′ (x) < 0 for x ∈ (x0 , x0 + r), then f has a local maximum
Close
at x0 ;
b) f ′ (x) < 0 for x ∈ (x0 − r, x0 ), and f ′ (x) > 0 for x ∈ (x0 , x0 + r), then f has a local minimum
Quit
at x0 ;
c) f ′ (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ (x0 − r, x0 + r) or f ′ (x) ≤ 0 for x ∈ (x0 − r, x0 + r), then f has no local
extremum at x0 .
Example 5.22. We will find local extrema of the function f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 .
Solution. f is defined for all reals, and its derivative is f ′ (x) = 15x4 − 15x2 . We examine the sign
Home Page
of the derivative by factorizing it.

Title Page
15x4 − 15x2 = 15x2 (x2 − 1) = 15x2 (x + 1)(x − 1).

Contents
Stationary points are x1 = −1, x2 = 0, x3 = 1, x1 , x3 are single roots, and x2 is a double root. We
��
examine the sign of the derivative using the graph (see the figure 5.2).
� �
Page 88 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Figure 5.2: The graph of the derivative f ′ (x) = 15x4 − 15x2 Close
We put the results in the table. Quit

x (−∞, −1) −1 (−1, 0) 0 (0, 1) 1 (1, ∞)
f ′ (x) + 0 − 0 − 0 +
f (x) ↗ 2 ↘ 0 ↘ −2 ↗
Now we can state that f has local maximum at the point −1, local minimum at the point 1, and Home Page
there is no extremum at the stationary point 0.

Title Page
5.3.4. Global extrema Contents
A diÄerentiable function f can attain extreme (maximal or minimal) values in the closed interval ��
�a, b� either at its local extrema inside the interval or at the ends of the interval. Therefore, we
find stationary points in the interior of the interval, we calculate the value of the function at these � �
points, and we calculate the value of the function at the points a and b (interval ends). Finally we
choose the maximal and minimal value. Page 89 of 298
Example 5.23. We will find global extrema of the function Go Back
f (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 − 24x Full Screen
in the interval �−1, 2�. Close
Solution. We have f ′ (x) = 6x2 + 18x − 24 and

Quit
f (x) = 0 ⇔ x = 1 ∨ x = −4.
′
Calculating values of f at the points −1, 1, 2 (−4 ∈� �−1, 2�) we obtain f (−1) = 31, f (1) = −13,
f (2) = 4. So the global maximum is equal to 31, it is attained at the point −1, the global minimum
equals −13, and is attained at the point 1. We write down the answer:
fmax = max f (x) = f (−1) = 31, fmin = min f (x) = f (1) = −13. Home Page
x∈�−1,3� x∈�−1,3�
Title Page
Exercises
5.1. (?) Compute derivatives:
√
Contents
x2
a) f (x) = x2 + 3x, b) f (x) = x2 , c) g(x) = 3x2 sin x, d) f (x) = 2x4 + x cos x, e) f (x) =
3
,
√ x−3 ��
1 3−x 2
f) h(x) = , g) f (t) = 1 − (x) = , i ) h(x) = ctg x, j) f (t) = t3 sin t,
x
, h)
2x − 5 1 + t2
f
2x2
z+3 1 + sin t 2 sin y x sin x � �
k) g(z) = 3 , l) h(t) = , m) f (y) = , n) f (x) = .
z − 4z 2 − cos t 1 − cos y x + cos x
5.2. (?) Compute derivatives of composite functions:
√
Page 90 of 298
1 (t + 3)5
a) f (x) = x2 + 1, b) f (x) = sin2 x, c) f (x) = sin x2 , d) g(x) = √ , e) h(t) = ,
√ x2 − 4 t4 Go Back
x+1
f) h(v) = cos(1 + v 2 ), g) f (x) = .
x2 Full Screen
1
5.3. (?) Determine the domain of the function f (x) = x + . Check whether the equation
x
2
f (x) = has a solution.
Close
′
x
5.4. (?) Show that the derivative of f (x) = x sin x, x ∈ R is an odd function. Quit
5.5. (?) Find the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = x2 − 3x at the point with abscissa x0 = 2.
x−1
5.6. (?) Find the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = at the point with abscissa x0 = −1.
x+4
5.7. (?) At which point the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 13 x3 − 2x − 1 has the equation
6x − 3y + 11 = 0? Home Page
5.8. (?) Find the equation of the line passing through the point (0,0), and tangent to the graph Title Page
of the function f (x) = x2 + x.

Contents
5.9. (?) Find the limits:
3x4 − 2x xex 2x − 1 ex − e−x ln 3x
a) lim , b) lim x , c) lim , d) lim , e) lim+ , f) lim+ xx , ��
x→∞ (x2 + 3x)2 x→0 e − 1 x→0 x x→0 sin x x→0 ctg x x→0
1 1
� fi2 − x� tg x, i) lim � −
x
�, j) lim �1 + � .
√1 a
g) lim x x , h) lim
x→∞ 1 x→0 x tg x x→∞ x � �
x→ 2 fi
5.10. (?) Find the monotonicity intervals of functions:

3x2 − 1 6 − x2
Page 91 of 298
1
a) f (x) = x2 − 2x + 5, b) f (t) = 2t4 − t2 , c) f (x) = x + , d) f (x) = 2 , e) f (x) = 2
x +2 2x + 1
,
x+3
x
f) f (x) = 2
Go Back
.
x −5
5.11. (?) Find b such that the function f (x) = cos2 x − bx, x ∈ R is decreasing. Full Screen
x2 − a
5.12. (?) Let f (x) = . For what a ∈ R the function f :
x+1
Close
a) is increasing in intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, +∞),

b) has a local extremum at x = −2? Quit
5.13. (?) Find local extrema of functions:
1 1
a) f (x) = 4x − x2 , b) f (x) = x2 − 6x + 5, c) f (x) = 3x (x − 2) , d) f (x) = x + , e) f (x) =
2
,
x 1 + x2
f) f (x) =
x
.
1 + x2
5.14. (?) The unit price p depends on the volume of supply x according to the formula Home Page
100
p= 2 . At what volume of supply the income is maximal?
x + 100 Title Page
5.15. (?) The total cost of the production of x units of some commodity is given by the formula
K(x) = 2x3 +50x +32, for x ≥ 0. At volume of production the average cost of one unit of commodity Contents
is minimal?
��
5.16. (?) Find a such that the function f (x) = −2x3
+ 3ax + 4 has local extremum at the point
x = 1. Examine whether it is a minimum or a maximum. � �
5.17. (?) Let f (x) = ax3 − 3x2 + 2, x ∈ R. Find the values of the parameter a ∈ R such that the Page 92 of 298
function f : a) has a local extremum at the point x = 5, b) has exactly one local extremum?
5.18. (?) Find global extrema of the function f (x) = x(x − 2)2 in the interval �−1, 2�.
Go Back
5.19. (?) Find global extrema of the function f (x) = x3 − 6x − 2 in the interval �−2, 3�. Full Screen
5.20. (?) Find global extrema of the function f (x) = x + x2 − 2 in the interval �1; 4�. Close
5.21. (?) The productivity of a worker changes during the 8-hour work day, and after t hours
is equal to w = 100 + 12t + 9t2 − 4t3 . At what time his productivity is maximal, assuming that he
Quit
starts working at 7 AM?

5.4. Derivative of the second order
Definition 5.24. The function f ′′ = (f ′ )′ (if it exists) is called the derivative of the second
order or the second derivative of a function f ∶ X → R. A function, which has the second
derivative at every point of the set X, is called the twice diÄerentiable function, and if Home Page
f ′′ ∶ X → R is continuous, then we say that f is twice continuously diÄerentiable.

Example 5.25. We will compute the second derivative of the function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x3 cos x.
Title Page
Solution. f ′ (x) = 3x2 cos x − x3 sin x and f ′′ (x) = 6x cos x − 6x2 sin x − x3 cos x.
Contents
Example 5.26. We will prove that f ′′ (0)

does not exist for f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x�x�.
Solution. For x > 0 f is equal f (x) = x2 , then f (x) = 2x; for x < 0 we have f (x) = −x2 , and ��
f ′ (x) = −2x. We compute the derivative at the point 0 applying the definition:
� �
f (h) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim = lim = lim �h� = 0.
h�h�
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
Page 93 of 298
Finally, we have f ′ (x) = 2�x�, and this function is not diÄerentiable at the point x = 0 (see example
5.6). Go Back
Full Screen
5.5. Second derivative applications

Close
5.5.1. Finding local extrema

Theorem 5.27 (suÖcient condition for extremum). Let f ∶ X → R be a twice continuously
Quit
diÄerentiable function, and let x0 ∈ X be a stationary point of f .

a) If f ′′ (x0 ) > 0, then f has the local minimum at x0 .
b) If f ′′ (x0 ) < 0, then f has the local maximum at x0 .
4
Example 5.28. We will find local extrema of the function f (x) = x + .
x
Solution. The set Df = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) is the domain of the considered function. The first Home Page
8
derivative is f ′ (x) = 1 − x42 , and f ′ (x) = 0 ⇔ x = −2 ∨ x = 2. The second derivative is f ′′ (x) = 3 .
x
Moreoverf ′′ (−2) = −1 < 0, f ′′ (2) = 1 > 0. Therefore, f has a local maximum at the point x = −2, Title Page
and a local minimum at the point x = 2.

Contents
5.5.2. Concavity and convexity ��
Definition 5.29. We say that a function f ∶ (a, b) → R is convex if and only if the condition:
� �
f ((1 − t) x1 + tx2 ) ≤ (1 − t) f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )

Page 94 of 298
holds for any x1 , x2 ∈ (a, b), t ∈ �0, 1�. If additionally f ((1 − t) x1 + tx2 ) < (1 − t) f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) for
x1 =� x2 , t ∈ (0, 1), then we say that f is strictly convex . We say that a function f ∶ (a, b) → R is Go Back
concave if and only if the condition:

Full Screen
f ((1 − t) x1 + tx2 ) ≥ (1 − t) f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )

Close
holds for any x1 , x2 ∈ (a, b), t ∈ �0, 1�. If additionally f ((1 − t) x1 + tx2 ) > (1 − t) f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) for
x1 =� x2 , t ∈ (0, 1), then we say that f is strictly concave. Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
Figure 5.3: The graph of a convex function

��
The condition given in the definition 5.29 means that for any x1 , x2 ∈ (a, b) the segment connec-
ting the points (x1 , f (x1 )), (x2 , f (x2 )) belonging to the graph of a convex (concave respectively) � �
function, is placed above or on (below or on respectively) the graph of f (see fig. 5.3). The definition
implies also that if a function f is convex (strictly convex), then −f is concave (strictly concave),
Page 95 of 298
and conversely.
Go Back
Definition 5.30. Let f ∶ (a, b) → R be a continuous function. We call a point (x0 , f (x0 )), where
x0 ∈ (a, b), the inflection point of the graph of the function f if and only if there exists Full Screen
r > 0 such that in one of the intervals (x0 − r, x0 ), (x0 , x0 + r) the function is convex, and in the
Close
other it is concave.
Theorem 5.31. Let f ∶ (a, b) → R be a twice continuously diÄerentiable function. Then: Quit
a) f is convex in (a, b) if and only if f ′′ (x) ≥ 0 for every x ∈ (a, b);

b) f is concave in (a, b) if and only if f ′′ (x) ≤ 0 for every x ∈ (a, b);
c) if f ′′ (x) > 0 (respectively f ′′ (x) < 0) for every x ∈ (a, b), then f is strictly convex (strictly
concave respectively) in (a, b).
Theorem 5.32. Let f ∶ (a, b) → R be a twice continuously diÄerentiable function, x0 ∈ (a, b). If Home Page
(x0 , f (x0 )) is an inflection point of the graph of f , then f ′′ (x0 ) = 0.
Theorem 5.33. Let f ∶ (a, b) → R be a twice continuously diÄerentiable function, x0 ∈ (a, b), Title Page
f ′′ (x0 ) = 0. If there exists r > 0 such that in one of the intervals (x0 − r, x0 ), (x0 , x0 + r) we have
f ′′ (x) ≤ 0, and in the other we have f ′′ (x) ≥ 0, then (x0 , f (x0 )) is the inflection point of the graph
Contents
of f .
��
Example 5.34. Let f (x) = xe−x .
We compute intervals of convexity, concavity, and inflection
points of the function f . � �
Solution. The domain of f is R. First and second derivatives are respectively:

Page 96 of 298
f ′ (x) = e−x − xe−x , f ′′ (x) = −2e−x + xe−x .

Go Back
We have:
Full Screen
f (x) = 0 ⇔ x = 2,
′′
f ′′ (x) > 0 ⇔ x > 2,

Close
f ′′ (x) < 0 ⇔ x < 2. Quit
Therefore, f is convex in (2, ∞), concave in (−∞, 2) , and the inflection point is (2, 2e−2 ).
5.5.3. Rate of change
We discuss here how to apply derivatives of the first and second order to determine the rate of
change of a given function. Consider first the linear function f (x) = ax + b which is convex and
concave simultaneously. If a = 0, then f is constant. If a > 0, then f is increasing with a constant Home Page
rate (the same increments of the argument result in the same increments of the function value). If
a < 0, then f is decreasing with a constant rate. Title Page
In the sequel we consider nonlinear functions.
Definition 5.35. Let f ∶ (a, b) → R.

Contents
a) If f is increasing and strictly convex, then we say that f increases with increasing rate ��
in the interval (a, b).
b) If f is increasing and strictly concave, then we say that f increases with decreasing rate � �
c) If f is decreasing and strictly convex, then we say that f decreases with decreasing rate Page 97 of 298

d) If f is decreasing and strictly concave, then we say that f decreases with increasing Go Back
rate in the interval (a, b).

Full Screen
Theorem 5.36. Let f ∶ (a, b) → R be a twice continuously diÄerentiable function.

a) If f ′ (x) > 0 and f ′′ (x) > 0 for every x ∈ (a, b), then f increases with increasing rate in the
Close
interval (a, b).

b) If f ′ (x) > 0 and f ′′ (x) < 0 for every x ∈ (a, b), then f increases with decreasing rate in the
Quit
interval (a, b).

Home Page
Title Page
(a) Examplary graph of a function incre- (b) Examplary graph of a function incre- Contents
asing with increasing rate asing with decreasing rate
Figure 5.4: Rate of change of an increasing function ��
� �
Page 98 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
(a) Examplary graph of a function decre- (b) Examplary graph of a function decre-
asing with decreasing rate asing with increasing rate
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Figure 5.5: Rate of change of a decreasing function

c) If f ′ (x) < 0 and f ′′ (x) > 0 for every x ∈ (a, b), then f decreases with decreasing rate in the
interval (a, b).
d) If f ′ (x) < 0 and f ′′ (x) < 0 for every x ∈ (a, b), then f decreases with increasing rate in the
interval (a, b).
Example 5.37. We examine the rate of change of the function f ∶ (0, 2fi) → R, f (x) = sin x.
Home Page
Solution. We have f ′ (x) = cos x, f ′′ (x) = − sin x, and Title Page
f ′ (x) = 0 ⇔ cos x = 0 ∧ x ∈ Df ⇔ x = 12 fi ∨ x = 32 fi, Contents
f ′′ (x) = 0 ⇔ − sin x = 0 ∧ x ∈ Df ⇔ x = fi.
��
Moreover,
� �
f ′ (x) > 0 ⇔ cos x > 0 ⇔ x ∈ �0, 12 fi� ∨ � 32 fi, 2fi� ,

f ′ (x) < 0 ⇔ cos x < 0 ⇔ x ∈ � 12 fi, 32 fi� ,
Page 99 of 298
f ′′ (x) > 0 ⇔ − sin x > 0 ⇔ x ∈ (fi, 2fi), Go Back
f ′′ (x) < 0 ⇔ − sin x < 0 ⇔ x ∈ (0, fi).

Full Screen
We present the results in the table.

x �0, 12 fi� 1
2fi
� 12 fi, fi� fi �fi, 32 fi� 3
2fi
� 32 fi, 2fi� Close
f ′ (x) + 0 − − − 0 +
f ′′ (x) − − − + + +
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0
f (x) � 1 � 0 � −1 �
Therefore, f increases with decreasing rate in the interval �0, 12 fi�, decreases with increasing
rate in the interval � 12 fi, fi�, decreases with decreasing rate in the interval �fi, 32 fi� , and increases
with increasing rate in the interval � 32 fi, 2fi�.
Home Page
5.5.4. Sketching the graph of a function
In order to sketch the graph of a twice continuously diÄerentiable function f we need to complete Title Page
the following tasks:

Contents
• find the domain of the function and the points of intersection of the graph of f with the axes,
i.e. f (0) and all solutions of the equation f (x) = 0 (if they exist); ��
• compute the limits of f at all ends of the domain, and find the equations of asymptotes;
� �
• compute the first derivative, and examine its sign;

Page 100 of 298
• compute the second derivative, and examine its sign;

Go Back
• present the results in the table, and determine the rate of change in respective intervals;
• sketch the graph. Full Screen
x2 − 1
Example 5.38. We sketch the graph of the function f (x) = .
2x + 4
Close
Solution. Df = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞) is the domain of f ; f (0) = − 4 , f (x) = 0 ⇔ x = −1 ∨ x = 1.

1
Therefore, intersection points with axes are �0, − 14 �, (−1, 0), (1, 0). Quit
Then we calculate the limits:
x2 − 1 x2 − 1 x2 �1 − x12 � x �1 − x12 �
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim = −∞,
x→−∞ x→−∞ 2x + 4 x→−∞ 2x + 4 x→−∞ x �2 + 4 � x→−∞ �2 + 4 �
x x
similarly lim f (x) = ∞. These results imply that there is no horizontal asymptote. We’ll find out
Home Page
whether there exists a slant asymptote y = ax + b. In −∞ we have

x→∞
Title Page
f (x) 1 x2 − 1 1
a = lim = lim = ,
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x 2x + 4 2 Contents
x −1 1
2
b = lim (f (x) − ax) = lim � − x� = −1.
x→−∞ x→−∞ 2x + 4 2 ��
The values of parameters a and b are the same in +∞. The line y = 12 x−1 is then the slant asymptote
� �
of the graph of f in −∞ and in +∞.
Now we compute one-sided limits in the point x = −2 . Page 101 of 298
lim f (x) = −∞, lim+ f (x) = ∞.

x→−2− x→−2 Go Back
Therefore, the line x = −2 is the vertical asymptote of the graph of f . Full Screen
First derivative is equal to
1 x2 + 4x + 1
f ′ (x) = .
2 (x + 2)2
Close
Quit
We have
√ √
f ′ (x) = 0 ⇔ x = −2 − 3 ∨ x = −2 + 3,
√ √
f ′ (x) > 0 ⇔ x ∈ �−∞, −2 − 3� ∪ �−2 + 3, ∞� ,
√ √ Home Page
f ′ (x) < 0 ⇔ x ∈ �−2 − 3, −2� ∪ �−2, −2 + 3� .
Title Page
Second derivative equals to
3
f ′′ (x) = 3.
(x + 2)
Contents
Second derivative is diÄerent from zero in its domain, moreover ��
f ′′ (x) > 0 ⇔ x ∈ (−2, ∞) . � �

f (x) < 0 ⇔ x ∈ (−∞, −2) .
′′
Page 102 of 298
The table.
√ √
−∞ −2 − −2 −2 + ∞
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x ... 3 ... ... 3 ...
f ′ (x) + 0 − − 0 + Full Screen
f ′′ (x) − − − + + +
√ √
f (x) −∞ � −2 − 3 � −∞ ∞ � −2 + 3 � ∞ Close
max min
The graph of the function f is shown at the figure 5.6. Quit

Home Page
Title Page
Figure 5.6: The graph of f (x) = x2 −1

2x+4
Contents
��
Exercises
5.22. (?) Compute the second derivative of f , and calculate its value at the point x0 : � �
√ ln x
a) f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 4x x − x14 + 3, x0 = 1, b) f (x) = , x0 = 1e , c)f (x) = ex +2x , x0 = 0,
2
x
x2 + 1
Page 103 of 298
d) f (x) = , x0 = 0.
ex
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3 x
5.23. (?) Find the interval in which the function f (x) = − :
x 3
a) decreases with increasing rate, b) increases with decreasing rate. Full Screen
√
5.24. (?) Find the interval in which the function f (x) = 4 − x2 : Close
a) increases with increasing rate, b) increases with decreasing rate, c) decreases with
increasing rate, d) decreases with decreasing rate. Quit
5.25. (?) Find convexity intervals, concavity intervals, and inflection points of the following
functions:: √
x2 + 1
a) f (x) = x e , b) f (x) = c) f (x) = x ln x , d) f (x) =
x
2 2−x , 2 .
x ln x
5.26. (?) Examine the rate of change of the following functions:
√
Home Page
1
3
a) f (x) = , b) g(x) = 2x2 + 3 , c) h(x) = x + d) p(x) = cos x.
ex
,
x x−2 Title Page
5.27. * (?) Check for what values of parameters –, —, “ ∈ R the function f (x) = + —x + “ is
x–
concave, and for what values it is convex in the interval (0, +∞). Does there exist such values of Contents
parameters that f increases with decreasing rate in (0, +∞)?

��
5.28. * (?) Examine the rate of change of the function f (x) = eax + e−ax depending on the value
of the parameter a ∈ R − {0}. � �
5.29. (?) Sketch the graph of f :

(x + 1)2
Page 104 of 298
1
a) f (x) = b) f (x) = c) f (x) = d) f (x) =
x
xe−x .
2
, , ,
2x 1 − ex ln x
5.30. * (?) Find the sets f ((1, +∞)), f −1 ((−∞, 0)), f (Df ) for all functions in the exercise 5.29.
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Close
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Home Page
Integrals Contents
��
� �
6.1. Indefinite integral
Page 105 of 298
In the previous chapter we dealt with computing derivatives of a given function f . Now we will
consider the operation which is opposite in some sense. For a given function f we will try to find
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its primitive, i.e. a function whose derivative is equal to f.
Definition 6.1. A function F is called the primitive function or the antiderivative of a Full Screen
function f in a nonempty open interval I = (a, b) if and only if F (x) = f (x) for every x ∈ I.
′
Close
Remark. We can also define the primitive function of f in a closed interval �a, b� assuming
that F+ (a) = f (a) and F− (b) = f (b).
′ ′
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Example 6.2. The antiderivative of the function f (x) = 3x2 in any interval I is for example
the function F (x) = x3 , but also the function F (x) = x3 + 5. In general, any function of the form
F (x) = x3 + C, where C is a real constant, is the primitive function of f in any interval I. It follows
from the fact that for any x ∈ R we have F (x) = (x3 + C) = (x3 ) + 0 = 3x2 .
′ ′ ′
Example 6.3. The function F (x) = − cos x + 3x + C, where C ∈ R, is the primitive function of Home Page
f (x) = sin x + 3 in an arbitrary interval I.

1
Example 6.4. F (x) = lnx + C, for C ∈ R, is the antiderivative of f (x) =
Title Page
in any interval
x
1 1
I ⊂ (0, ∞). Observe that (ln(−x)) = − � � = . Therefore, F (x) = ln(−x) + C is also the antide-
′
−x
Contents
x
1
rivative of f (x) = in any interval I ⊂ (−∞, 0). ��
x
We already know that if a function F is the primitive function of a function f, then F + C, for
� �
C ∈ R, is also the primitive function of f . There arises the question whether all primitive functions
of f are of this form.
Page 106 of 298
Theorem 6.5. Let F be the primitive function of f in an interval I. Then:

a) for any C ∈ R the function G = F + C is the primitive function of f in I. Go Back
b) if G is the primitive function of f in I, then there exists a constant C ∈ R such that G = F +C.
Full Screen
Therefore, finding one antiderivative of a given function is equivalent to finding all of them. The
operation of computing the antiderivative is called the integration, and the family of all primitive Close
functions of a given function f is called the indefinite integral.

Quit
Definition 6.6. The indefinite integral of a function f in an interval I is the family of all
primitive functions of f in I.
Remark. The indefinite integral of a function f is denoted by the symbol � f (x)dx.
Therefore, we have
� f (x)dx = F (x) + C ⇔ F (x) = f (x).
′
We present in the table below indefinite integrals of selected elementary functions. Home Page
1 a+1
� x dx = a + 1 x + C, a =� −1
a
Title Page
1
� x dx = ln �x� + C Contents
1 x
� a dx = ln a a + C ��
x
� e dx = e + C � �
x x
� cos xdx = sin x + C Page 107 of 298
� sin xdx = − cos x + C Go Back
Example 6.7. � 3x2 dx = x3 + C, since (x3 ) = 3x2 .

′ Full Screen
Example 6.8. � x2 dx = 13 x2 + C, since ( 13 x3 ) = 13 (x3 ) = x2 .

′ ′
Close
1 1
Example 6.9. � dx = ln�x� + C in any interval not involving 0, since (ln�x�) = (lnx) = for
′ ′
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x x
1
x > 0, and (ln�x�) = (ln(−x)) = for x < 0.
′ ′
x
sin2 x sin2 x + cos2 x 1
Example 6.10. � (tg2 x + 1)dx = � � 2 + 1� dx = � dx = � dx = tgx + C.
cos x cos x
2 cos2 x
Theorem 6.11. If functions f and g have antiderivatives in an interval I, then functions f + g,
af , where a ∈ R, have antiderivatives in this interval, and:
a) � af (x)dx = a � f (x)dx;
Home Page
b) � (f (x) + g(x))dx = � f (x)dx + � g(x)dx. Title Page
Example 6.12. � 5xdx = 5 � xdx = 5 ⋅ 12 x2 + C = 52 x2 + C. Contents
3 1 √
Example 6.13. � √ dx = 3 � x− 2 dx = 3 � 1 x− 2 +1 �+C = 6 x + C. ��
1 1
x −2 + 1
� �
Example 6.14. � (x4 + sin x)dx = � x4 dx + � sin xdx = 15 x5 − cos x + C.
x3 + 1 (x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)
Example 6.15. � dx = � = � (x2 − x + 1)dx =
Page 108 of 298
x+1 x+1
= � x2 dx − � xdx + � 1dx = 13 x3 − 12 x2 + x + C. Go Back
Theorem 6.16. If a function f is continuous in an interval I (open or closed), then f has the
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primitive function in this interval.
Close
Remark. Integration is in general much more diÖcult than diÄerentiation. Moreover, there exist
continuous functions whose primitives are not elementary functions, e.g. the function f (x) = ex .
2
Quit
In the sequel we present two theorems which describe useful and eÄective methods of integration.
Theorem 6.17 (integration by parts). If functions f and g have continuous derivatives f ′
and g ′ in an interval I, then
� f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − � f (x)g(x)dx.

′ ′
Home Page
Remark. The thesis of the theorem above follows from the formula for the derivative of the
product of functions. Title Page
Example 6.18. � xex dx = � x(ex ) dx = xex − � (x) ex dx = xex − � ex dx = xex − ex + C.

′ ′
Contents
We can write down all transformations in the way given below.
�
� �
� f (x) = x f ′ (x) = 1 �
� ��
� xe dx = �
� g (x) = e g(x) = e �
� = xex − � 1ex dx = xex − ex + C.
x
�
�
′ x x
�
�
� �
Example 6.19. � x sin xdx = � x(− cos x) dx = −x cos x − � −(x) cos xdx =
′ ′
= −x cos x + � cos xdx = −x cos x + sin x + C. Page 109 of 298
lnx √ √ √
Example 6.20. � √ dx = � lnx(2 x)′ dx = 2 xlnx − � 2 x(lnx) dx =
′
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x
√ √ 1 √ 1 √ √
= 2 xlnx − � 2 x ⋅ dx = 2 xlnx − 2 � √ dx = 2 xlnx − 4 x + C. Full Screen
x x
1
Example 6.21. � lnxdx = � (x) lnxdx = xlnx − � x(lnx) dx = xlnx − � x ⋅ dx =
′ ′
Close
x
= xlnx − � 1dx = xlnx − x + C.
Quit
Theorem 6.22 (integration by substitution). ) If a function g has the continuous derivative
g ′ in an interval I, while a function f has its antiderivative F in the interval g(I), then
� f (g(x))g (x)dx = F (g(x)) + C in I.

′
Home Page
Observe that � f (t)dt = F (t) + C, so we can write the formula in the following way:
Title Page
� f (g(x))g (x)dx = � f (t)dt, where t = g(x).

′
Contents
In other words we substitute t = g(x), and we compute the indefinite integral � f (t)dt. ��
Example 6.23. We will compute the indefinite integral of the function h(x) = 2x(x2 + 1)10 .
� �
Observe that in the h−function formula the function g(x) = x2 +1 with its derivativeg ′ (x) = 2x occur.
Moreover, if f (x) = x10 , then we have f (g(x)) = (x2 + 1)10 . Therefore, h(x) = f (g(x))g ′ (x). The Page 110 of 298
function F (x) = 11 x is the antiderivative of f in any interval I. We have then F (g(x)) = 11

1 11 1
(x2 +1)11
and � 2x(x2 + 1)10 dx = 11
1
(x2 + 1)11 + C. Go Back
We can write down all transformations in the way given below, applying the notation t = g(x)
and dt = g ′ (x)dx. Full Screen
�
� �
� t= x2 + 1 �
�
� 2x(x + 1) dx = � � = � t10 dt = +C = 11 (x + 1)11 + C.
2 10 1 11 1
� �
2 Close
11 t
� dt = 2xdx �
� �
Quit
�
� �
�
� t = 5x + 2 �
�
�
�
� �
�
Example 6.24. � cos(5x + 2)dx = � dt = 5dx � = � 15 cos tdt = 15 sin t + C = 15 sin(5x + 2) + C.
�
�
� �
�
�
�
� = �
�
� �
1
5 dt dx
�
� �
�
� t = x3 � �
�
�
� �
�
Home Page
Example 6.25. � x e dx = � dt = 3x dx � = � 13 et dt = 13 et + C = 13 ex + C.
2 x3 3
� �
2
�
�
� �
2 dx �
�
�
�3
1
dt = x �
�
Title Page
�
� �
�
� t = cos x � �
�
�
� �
�
Contents
sin x 1
Example 6.26. � tgxdx = � dx = � dt = − sin xdx � = � − dt =−ln�t�+C = −ln� cos x�+C.
cos x �
�
� �
�
�
� �
t
�
� −dt = sin xdx �
�
��
� �
6.2. Definite integral
Definition 6.27. Let f be a continuous function defined in an interval�a, b�. The definite Page 111 of 298
integral of the function f over the interval �a, b� is the number

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�a f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a),

b
Full Screen
where F is any antiderivative of f in �a, b�.

Close
Remark. We call the number a the lower limit of integration, and the number b – the upper
limit of integration. In the sequel we will use the notation: [F (x)]a = F (b) − F (a).
b
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Example 6.28. � (x2 + 4)dx = � 13 x3 + 4x�−2 = � 13 ⋅ 13 + 4 ⋅ 1� − � 13 (−2) + 4 (−2)� = 15.

1 1 3
−2
Example 6.29. We will compute the definite integral ∫0 xex dx. Applying integration by parts
1
(see example 6.18) we obtain � xex dx = xex − ex + C. Therefore, � xex dx = [xex − ex ]0 =

1
1
= (1 ⋅ e1 − e1 ) − (0 ⋅ e0 − e0 ) = 1.
0
We can easily justify that the definite integral has the following properties. Home Page
Theorem 6.30. If functions f and g are continuous in an interval �a, b�, then: Title Page
a) � –f (x)dx = – � f (x)dx for any – ∈ R ;

b b
a a
b) � (f (x) + g(x))dx = � f (x)dx + � g(x)dx;

b b b Contents
a a a
f (x)dx = � f (x)dx + � f (x)dx for any c ∈ (a, b). ��

b c b
c)�
a a c
� �
6.3. Geometric interpretation of the definite integral
Page 112 of 298
We will present in the sequel a very important application of the definite integral.
Let’s consider a function f , continuous in the interval �a, b�, such that f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ �a, b�. Go Back
Consider the set A = {(x, y) ∶ x ∈ R ∧ y ∈ R ∧ x ∈ �a, b� ∧ 0 ≤ y ≤ f (x)}. The geometric interpreta-
tion of the set A is given in the figure 6.1a. It is proven that the area of the set A (denoted by�A�) Full Screen
is equal to� f (x)dx.

b
Using this fact, we can compute the area of the set B which is bounded by the lines x = a, x = b,
a
Close
the axis 0x, and the graph of the continuous nonpositive in �a, b� function f . Consider the function
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) (b)
Figure 6.1: Geometric interpretation of the definite integral ��
g = −f which is continuous and nonnegative in �a, b� (see the figure 6.1b). We have then � �
�B� = � g(x)dx = � (−f (x))dx = − � f (x)dx.

b b b
Page 113 of 298
a a a
Example 6.31. We will compute the area of the set A, bounded by the graph of the function Go Back
f (x) = x2 − 2x + 2, the axis 0x, and the lines x = −1 i x = 2 (see the figure 6.2). Observe that f is
nonnegative and continuous in �−1, 2�. We have then Full Screen
�A� = � (x2 − 2x + 2)dx = � 13 x3 − x2 + 2x�−1 = 6.

2 2 Close
−1
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 6.2: Geometric interpretation of the definite integral. Example 6.31 Contents
Example 6.32. We compute the area of the set A, bounded by the graph of the function ��
f (x) = cos x, the axis 0x, and the lines x = 12 fi i x = 54 fi. The set A is shown at the figure 6.3.
� �
Page 114 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Figure 6.3: Geometric interpretation of the definite integral. Example 6.32

Quit
Observe that f (x) ≤ 0 for x ∈ � 12 fi, 54 fi�. We have then
5 √ √
�A� = −� 1 cos xdx = − [sin x] 41 fi = − �sin 54 fi − sin 12 fi� = − �− − 1� = + 1.
4
fi 5
fi 2 2
2 2
2
fi 2
Home Page
Example 6.33. We will compute the area of the set A, bounded by the graphs of functions
f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = 12 x2 − 12 x − 3, and the lines x = −3, x = 3. The set A is shown at the figure 6.4a.
Title Page
We can compute the area of A by computing the area of each of the following sets (see the
figure 6.4a): Contents
A1 = �(x, y) ∶ x ∈ R ∧ y ≥ 0 ∧ x ∈ �−3, −1� ∧ 12 x2 − 12 x − 3 ≤ y ≤ x2 − 1� , ��

A2 = �(x, y) ∶ x ∈ R ∧ y ≤ 0 ∧ x ∈ �−2, 3� ∧ 1 2
2x − 2x − 3
1
≤ y ≤ x − 1� ,
2
A3 = �(x, y) ∶ x ∈ R ∧ y ≥ 0 ∧ x ∈ �1, 3� ∧ y ≤ x2 − 1� . � �
We have: Page 115 of 298
Go Back
−1 −2
�A1 � = � �x2 − 1� dx − � � 12 x2 − 12 x − 3� dx,
−3 −1
Full Screen
�A2 � = − � � 12 x2 − − − �− �−1 �x − 1� dx� ,

3 1
1 2
x 3� dx
−2
2
Close
�A3 � = � �x2 − 1� dx.
3
Finally �A� = �A1 � + �A2 � + �A3 �.

Quit
We can also apply another method of solution of this problem. Observe that if we translate the
graphs of both functions by the vector v = [0, m] , then we obtain the set, whose area is equal to
�A� (see the figure 6.4). The ordinate of the vertex of the parabola with the equation
y = 12 x2 − 12 x − 3 Home Page
is equal to − 25
8 . If we take m ≥
25
8 , then we have Title Page
1 2
2x − 12 x − 3 + m ≥ 0 Contents
for all x ∈ R. In particular if we take x ∈ �−3, 3�, then we have f (x) + m ≥ 0 and g(x) + m ≥ 0. It is ��
enough to calculate the area of the set B (see the figure 6.4b), bounded by the graphs of functions
y = f (x) + m, y = g(x) + m, and the lines x = −3, x = 3. � �
We have
Page 116 of 298
�B� = � (f (x) + m) dx − � (f (x) + m) dx = � ((f (x) + m) − (g(x) + m)) dx =

3 3 3
−3 −3 −3 Go Back
=� (f (x) − g(x)) dx = � ��x − 1� − � 12 x2 − 2 x − 3�� dx =� � 12 x2 + 2 x + 2� =

3 3 3
2 1 1
−3 −3 −3
= � 16 x3 + 14 x2 + 2x�−3 = 21.
3 Full Screen
Close
It turns out that the method of solution presented in the example 6.33 can be generalized.
One can show that for a function f , which is continuous in �a, b�, there exists m ∈ R such that
f (x) + m ≥ 0 for x ∈ �a, b�. This observation implies the following theorem.
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Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) The set A (b) The set B
Figure 6.4: Geometric interpretation of the definite integral. Example 6.33 ��
Theorem 6.34. If functions f and g are continuous in an interval �a, b�, and f (x) ≥ g(x) for � �
x ∈ �a, b�, then the area of the set A bounded by the graphs of the functions y = f (x), y = g(x), and
the lines x = a, x = b is equal to Page 117 of 298
�A� = � (f (x) − g(x)) dx.

b
a Go Back
The figure 6.5 presents the geometric interpretation of the set A.
Example 6.35. We will compute the area of the set A, bounded by the graphs of f (x) =
Full Screen
= 2 sin x + 1, g(x) = sin x − 12 , and the lines x = −fi, x = fi. Of course 2 sin x + 1 ≥ sin x − 12 if and only Close
if sin x ≥ − 32 . Therefore, for any x ∈ R, particularly for x ∈ �−fi, fi�, we have f (x) ≥ g(x). So
Quit
�A� = � �(2 sin x + 1) − �sin x − �� dx =� �sin x + � = �− cos x + = 3fi.

fi fi fi
1 3 3
2 dx 2 x�−fi
−fi −fi
2
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 6.5: Geometric interpretation of the definite integral. Theorem 6.34 Contents
��
The geometric interpretation of the set A is given in the figure 6.6.
� �
Page 118 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Figure 6.7: Geometric interpretation of the definite integral. Example 6.36

Quit
Example 6.36. We will compute the area of the set A, bounded by the parabola y = x2 − 2x − 5,
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 6.6: Geometric interpretation of the definite integral. Example 6.35 Contents
��
and the lines y = −2x − 1, y = x − 1 (see figure 6.7).
� �
�A� = � �(−2x − 1) − �x2 − 2x − 5�� dx + � �(x − 1) − �x2 − 2x − 5�� dx =
0 4
−2 0
=� �−x2 + 4� dx − � �−x2 + 3x + 4� dx = + 56
3 = 24.
0 4
16 Page 119 of 298
−2
3
0
Go Back
Exercises
6.1. (?) Verify whether F is the antiderivative of f in an arbitrary interval (a, b), if: Full Screen
a) f (x) = 4x3 + x + 5, F (x) = x4 + 12 x2 + 5x − 5, (a, b) ⊂ R;

x3 x3
b) f (x) = x2 lnx, F (x) = lnx − + 2, (a, b) ⊂ (0, ∞);
Close
3 9
c) f (x) = e−x , F (x) = e−x + 1, (a, b) ⊂ R;
√ �
d) f (x) = 2x5 + 4 x + 1, F (x) = 13 x6 + 45 4 (x + 1)5 − 3, (a, b) ⊂ (−1, ∞).
Quit
6.2. (?) Find the primitive function of f such that its graph passes through the point (x0 , y0 ).
a) f (x) = 3x2 + x, (x0 , y0 ) = (−1, 0);
b) f (x) = 2 sin x + 1, (x0 , y0 ) = (fi, 2).
6.3. (?) Compute indefinite integrals:

√
Home Page
a) � (2x + 1)dx; b)� (x5 + 2 x − 5)dx; c)� (sin x + cos x)dx; d)� (x − 2)(x + 3)dx;
√
x −1
4 √ x +4 x+1
3
f) � 4 x(x + 3)dx; √ h)*� (2ctg2 x + 3)dx;
3 Title Page
e) � 2 g)�
x +1
dx; dx;
x
e2x − 1
i)� dx; j)� 2 (1 + 4 )dx.
x −x Contents
ex
6.4. (?) Compute indefinite integrals applying integration by parts: ��
a)� x cos xdx; b) � xe−x dx; c) � xlnxdx; d) � x2 sin xdx;
lnx √ � �
e) � dx; f) � ( x + 3)lnxdx; g) � x2 ex dx; h)* � ex cos xdx.
x2
6.5. (?) Compute indefinite integrals applying integration by substitution: Page 120 of 298
√ ln2 x
3x + 5dx;
x
a) � 2 b) � c) � xex dx; d) �
2
x +1
dx; dx;
√ x Go Back
sin x ex − e−x
e) � (xlnx)−1 dx; f) � ctgxdx; g) � √ dx; h) � x −x dx;
x e +e
2+4
Full Screen
6x
i) � sin3 xdx; j) � √ dx.
x3 + 2x
Close
6.6. * (?) Compute ∫ f (x)dx by two methods: integration by parts and integration by substi-
tution. Quit
a) f (x) = sin x cos x;

b) f (x) = cos2 x;
lnx
c) f (x) = .
x
6.7. (?) Compute indefinite integrals:
√ x+3 3
a) � x 2x + 5dx; b) � √ dx; c) � (x + 1)e3x dx; d) �
x+1
dx; Home Page
x
x−1 1 1
e) � f) � 3 e x dx; g)� sin2 x cos3 xdx; h) � x cos(3x + 2)dx;
x+1
dx;
√
x
tg4 x + 4
Title Page
i) � xlnxdx; j) � dx; k)* � log3 (x + 1)dx.

cos2 x Contents
6.8. (?) Compute:
3
x2
fi
a) � (2x + 1)dx;
2 0
b) � sin 2xdx; c) � ��
�−1 xe dx;
4
d) x
0 x3 + 1
dx;
−fi
−1
�
�
�
�x + 1 for x ≤ 0 � �
e) � �2x − 1�dx; f) � f (x)dx, where f (x) = �
1 fi
�
�
�cos x for x > 0;
�
−1 −3
Page 121 of 298
g) � �1 − x2 �dx;
3 e
h)* � 1 x� ln x�dx.
−2 e
Go Back
6.9. (?) Find the function g ∶ (−1, ∞) → R, g(t) = � f (x)dx, for f (x) = �x − 1�.
t
−1
6.10. (?) Compute the area of the set bounded by: Full Screen
a) the parabola y = x2 + 3x − 4 and the line y = 2x + 2;

b) the parabolas y = x2 and y 2 = x;
Close
c) the parabolas y = 3x2 − 2x − 2 and y = −x2 + 2x + 6;

d) the graph of y = lnx, the line tangent to this graph at the point with abscissa x0 = e, and the
Quit
line y = 0.
6.11. (?) Compute the area of the set A, if:
a) A = {(x, y) ∶ x ∈ R ∧ y ∈ R ∧ x ∈ �−1, 2� ∧ 0 ≤ y ≤ e�x� } ;
√
b) A = �(x, y) ∶ x ∈ �0, ∞) ∧ y ∈ R ∧ x2 ≤ y ≤ x ∧ xy ≤ 1� ;
2
√
c) A = �(x, y) ∶ x ∈ �0, ∞) ∧ y ∈ R ∧ x2 ≤ y ≤ x ∧ xy ≥ 1� ;
2
d)∗ A = �(x, y) ∶ y ∈ R ∧ x ∈ � fi6 , fi3 � ∧ 0 ≤ y ≤ tgx ∧ y ≤ ctgx� .

Home Page
Title Page
Contents
��
� �
Page 122 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Vector space Rn Contents
��
� �
7.1. Points and vectors in R2 and in R3
Page 123 of 298
If we draw two perpendicular lines with the same unit intervals, intersecting at the point 0, then
we obtain the Cartesian coordinate system. Each point a on the plane has the unique repre-
Go Back
sentation as a pair of numbers xa and ya , where xa is the orthogonal projection of the point a onto
the first axis, denoted by 0x, and ya is the orthogonal projection onto the second axis, denoted Full Screen
by 0y. The numbers xa and ya are called the coordinates of the point a. In the sequel we will
� �
� xa �
use the notation a = �� 1 . The plane with the Cartesian coordinate system can be identified Close
� ya �
� �
with all pairs of real numbers x and y. The set of those pairs is denoted by R2 and is called the Quit
1
Elements of the space Rn will be denoted by vertical columns.
two-dimensional space.
The distance of two points a, b ∈ R2 is the number defined as follows2
�
d (a, b) = (xa − xb ) + (ya − yb ) .
2 2
Home Page
� �
�x�
Definition 7.1. The line in R is the set of points �� ∈ R2 such that ax + by = c, where at
2
�y�
� �
Title Page
least one of the numbers a, b is diÄerent from 0.

Contents
An equation ax + by = c is called the equation of a line in general form. If the line is not
perpendicular to the 0x axis, then its equation can be written in the slope-intercept form ��
y = mx + c, where the number m is the slope coeÖcient of a line. A line perpendicular to the
axis 0x is defined by the equation x = x0 . � �
Two diÄerent points a, b ∈ R2 define in the unique way the line passing through them. The set
of all points of this line lying between a and b is called the segment connecting points a and Page 124 of 298
b. Points a and b are called endpoints of the segment. If the line segment is given an orientation
Go Back
(direction), where a is taken as the initial point and b – as the terminal point, then we call it the
��→
bound vector with the initial point a and terminal point b. We denote it by the symbol a, b. The
Full Screen
number �
��→
�a, b� = (xa − xb ) + (ya − yb )
2 2
Close
equal to the distance of the points a and b is called the length of a vector . Coordinates (first
Quit
2
It follows from the Pythagoras theorem.
� � � �
��→ � xa � � �
and second respectively) of the bound vector a, b, where a = � �, b = � xb �, are the numbers
� � � �
� ya � � yb �
� � � �
� �
� xb − xa �
xb − xa i yb − ya . We write the vector coordinates in the form �� . The two-terms sequence,
�
� yb − ya �
� �
��→ Home Page
written in this way is called the free vector defined by the bound vector a, b. Each bound vector
� �
�x�
defines the unique free vector. Conversely – an arbitrary free vector v = �� and a given point Title Page
�y�
� �
� � � �
� xa � ��→ � xa + x �
a = �� define the unique bound vector a, b, where b = �� . We say that we obtain the
�
Contents
� ya � � ya + y �
� � � �
��→ ��
bound vector a, b by attaching the free vector v to the point a.
� � � �
�x� �0�
If we attach a free vector v = � � to the origin, that is to the point 0 = �� , then we obtain the
� �
� �
�y� �0�
� � � �
��→
position vector 0, b, where the point b has the coordinates the same as the free vector v. Therefore
Page 125 of 298
we can identify points in R2 with free vectors. In the sequel by the notion vector in R2 we will
� �
�x�
mean the two-terms sequence of real numbers, written in the column form �� . We can interpret
�y�
Go Back
� �
this sequence as the point in the space or as a free vector, so we will also use the notion point.
Full Screen
We define two operations on vectors in R2 : scalar multiplication and vector addition.
� � � �
�x� � –x �
Definition 7.2. The product of a vector v = �� and a number – is the vector –v = �� .
Close
�
�y� � –y �
� � � �
� � � � � �
� x1 � � x2 � � x1 + x2 �
Quit
The sum of vectors v = �� and w = �� is the vector v + w = �� .

�
� y1 � � y2 � � y1 + y2 �
� � � � � �
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) Scalar multiplication (b) Vector addition

��
Figure 7.1: Operations on vectors
� �
The operations just defined have a simple geometric interpretation (see figure 7.1).
� � � �
� xa � � xv �
If the pair a = � � is interpreted as the point and the pair v = �� as the free vector, then
� �
� ya � � yv �
Page 126 of 298
� � � �
� �
� xa + txv �
the sum a + tv = �� , for t ∈ R, can be interpreted as the point obtained by the translation
�
Go Back
� ya + tyv �
� �
of the point a by the vector tv. For a given value of the parameter t we obtain in this way the Full Screen
point lying on the line parallel to the vector v and passing through the point a. (see figure 7.2).
�
�
� x = xa + txv,
The system � t ∈ R, is called the parametric equation of the line passing
Close
�
� = +
� y y a ty v ,
through the point a and parallel to the vector v. Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 7.2: The line passing through the point a and parallel to the vector v Contents
� � � � ��
� xa � � xb �
Now let us consider the line passing through two diÄerent points a = � �, b = �� . The
� �
� ya � � yb �
� � � � � �
� �
��→ � xb − xa �
bound vector a, b belongs to this line; therefore, it is parallel to the free vector b − a = � � �,
�
� yb − ya �
� �
�
Page 127 of 298
�
� x = xa + t (xb − xa ) ,
so its parametric equation can be written � t ∈ R, or w = a + t (b − a), t ∈ R, for
�
� = + (y − )
� y y t y , Go Back
� �
a b a
�x�
w = �� , or w = (1 − t) a+tb, t ∈ R. If we restrict the range of the parameter t to the closed interval
�y�
� �
Full Screen
�0, 1�, then we obtain the segment with endpoints a and b. The equation w = (1 − t) a + tb, t ∈ �0, 1�
Close
is called the parametric equation of the segment with endpoints a and b.
Each line divides the plane into two parts, called half-planes. Half-planes (including the border
Quit
or not) are defined by inequalities obtained by replacing in the line equation the sign of equality
by inequality (sharp or not respectively).
One can introduce the Cartesian system of coordinates in three-dimentional space, obtaining
�x�
� �
� �
the space R of vectors �� y �� , for x, y, z ∈ R. We will not repeat these definitions, since we are going
3
� �
�z�
� �
to formulate them generally for the space Rn . Here we will only pay attention to the diÄerences Home Page
between definitions of the line in R2 and in R3 .

�x�
� �
Title Page
� �
Definition 7.3. The plane in R is the set of all points �� y �� ∈ R3 such that ax + by + cz = d,
3
� �
�z�
Contents
� �
where at least one of the numbers a, b, c is diÄerent from 0. The equation ax + by + cz = d is called
��
the equation of a plane in R3 .
A line in R3 can be defined as the intersection of two non-parallel planes or by the parametric � �
equation.
Page 128 of 298
Example 7.4. We will determine the parametric equation of the line, which is an intersection
of two planes: 2x + 3y − z = 2 and −x − 2y + z = 1. Go Back
We should solve the system of two equations
�
�
Full Screen
� 2x + 3y − z = 2,
�
�
� −x − 2y + z = 1.
� Close
Adding the equations we obtain x + y = 3, and then y = 3 − x. We transform the first equation Quit
2x + 3(3 − x) − z = 2 ⇔ z = 7 − x.
�
�
� y = 3 − x,
The solution can be written as �
�
where y and z depend on x, and x can take any real
� z = 7 − x,
�
value. Let us substitute x = t , where t ∈ R. Then we have y = 3 − t, z = 7 − t. The system
�
�
�
� x = t,
�
�
� y = 3 − t, t ∈ R is the parametric equation of the line we looked for.
�
�
Home Page
�
�
� z = 7 − t,
�
Title Page
Exercises
� 1� �2� �0�
� � � � � �
Contents
� � � � � �
7.1. (?) Check whether the points a = � −1 � , b = �1� , c = ��1�� belong to the same line.
� � � �
� � � � � � ��
� 3� �0� �3�
� � � � � �
7.2. (?) Find the parametric equation of the line in R3 , which is the intersection of the planes � �
2x + y − z = 2, x + 3y + z = 1.
Page 129 of 298
7.3. (?) Find the parametric equation of the line in R3 , which is the intersection of the planes
�2�
� �
� �
2x − 3y − z = 1, 2x − y + z = 3. Check whether the point a = �� 1 �� belongs to this line.
Go Back
� �
�0�
� � Full Screen
7.4. (?) Check the mutual position of the line passing through the points a, b ∈ R3 and the
plane 3x + y − z = 3 if:
Close
�1� � 2� �0� �2� �2� � 2�

� � � � � � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � � �
a) a = � 0 � , b = � 1 �; b) a = � 5 � , b = � 1 �; c) a = � 1 � , b = �� −1 �� .
� � � � � � � � � � Quit
� � � � � � � � � � � �
�2� � −1 � �2� �4� �1� � −1 �
� � � � � � � � � � � �
7.5. (?) The point c belongs to the segment [a, b] whose length is 9. Find the coordinates of
� −1 � � 0�
� � � �
� � � �
the point b, if a = � 3 � , c = �� 1 ��.
� �
� � � �
� 1� � −1 �
� � � �
Home Page
7.2. Linear structure in Rn

Title Page
In this paragraph we will deal with vectors in Rn . Elements of Rn , i.e. n-terms sequences of real
numbers will be denoted by columns and will be called vectors or points. Vectors will be denoted Contents
by bold lower case letters and they coordinates – by regular lower case letters as follows
��
�a � �b � �x �
� 1� � 1� � 1�
� � � � � �
� a2 � � b2 � � x2 � � �
� � � � � �
a = � �,b = � �,...,x = � �.
� ⋮ � � ⋮ � � ⋮ �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� an � � bn � � xn �
� � � � � �
Page 130 of 298
The set Rn will be called n-dimensional vector space. Go Back
Definition 7.5. A set H = {x ∈ Rn ∶ a1 x1 + a2 x2 + � + an xn = b} , where at least one of the num- Full Screen
bers a1 , a2 , . . . , an is diÄerent from 0, is called the hyperplane. The equation a1 x1 + a2 x2 + �+
+an xn = b is called the equation of a hyperplane. Close
Observe that for n = 1 the hyperplane equation has the form ax = b, where a =� 0, therefore it
is the point x = ab on the number line. For n = 2 any hyperplane is a line in R2 . For n = 3 any
Quit
hyperplane is a plane in R3 .
Each hyperplane divides the space Rn into two half-spaces.
Definition 7.6. The distance of two points a, b ∈ Rn is the number

�
d(a, b) = (a1 − b1 ) + (a1 − b1 ) + � + (an − bn ) .
2 2 2
Home Page
We define two operations on the vectors in Rn , analogously to the definition for R2 : scalar Title Page
multiplication and vector addition.

�x �
� 1�
Contents
� �
� x2 �
� �
Definition 7.7. The product of a vector x = � � and a number – is the vector –x = ��
� ⋮ �
� �
� �
� xn �
� � � �
� –x � �x � �y � �x +y �
� 1� � 1� � 1� � 1 1�
� � � � � � � �
� –x2 � � x2 � � y2 � � x2 + y2 �
� � � � � � � �
=� �. The sum of vectors x = � � and y = � � is the vector x + y = � � . The
� ⋮ � � ⋮ � � ⋮ � � �
Page 131 of 298
� � � � � � � ⋮ �
� � � � � � � �
� –xn � � xn � � yn � � xn + yn �
� � � � � � � � Go Back
space Rn with operations on vectors defined above is called the vector space.
� −x � �0�
� 1� � �
� � � �
� −x2 � �0�
Full Screen
� � � �
The vector −x = � � is called the opposite vector to the vector x. The vector 0 = � � is
� ⋮ � �⋮�
� � � �
� � � �
Close
� −xn � �0�
� � � �
called the zero vector . Quit
Let a, b ∈ Rn , a =� b. The line in Rn is the set
L = {(1 − t) a + tb ∶ t ∈ R} .
An equation x = (1 − t) a + tb, t ∈ R is the parametric equation of the line passing through the Home Page
points a and b.
Title Page
Definition 7.8. The segment with endpoints a and b is the set
Contents
[a, b] = {(1 − t) a + tb ∶ t ∈ �0, 1�} .
��
The equation x = (1 − t) a+tb, t ∈ �0, 1� is the parametric equation of a segment with endpoints
a and b. � �
Exercises Page 132 of 298
7.6. (?) Calculate:

� −1 � � 1� � 1� � 2� � 1� �1� � 1�
Go Back
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
a) 2 � 0 � + 3 � 2 �; b) −2 � 2 � + 4 � −1 �; c) � −2 � − 2 � 0 � + 2 �� 4 ��;
� � � � � � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� 2� � −2 � � −3 � � 1� � 1� �1� � −1 �
Full Screen
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� −3 � � −2 � � 5� � −2 �
� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
Close
d) 5 �� 2 �� + 3 �� 1 �� + 2 �� 0 �� − 6 �� 1 ��.
� � � � � � � �
� −2 � � 1� � −5 � � −4 �
� � � � � � � � Quit
7.7. (?) Calculate:
� −1 � � 1 � � 0� � −2 �
� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
� 0� � 2� � 1� � 0�
� � � � � � � �
a) 3 � � − � �; b) −2 � � + 3 � �.
� −3 � � −1 � � 1� � 2�
� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
� 1� � 2� � −2 � � −2 �
� � � � � � � �
Home Page
7.8. (?) Find the parametric equation of the line passing through the points a, b. Check Title Page
whether x belongs to this line if:

� 1� �0� � −1 �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� −1 � �2� � 5�
Contents
� � � � � �
a) a = � � , b = � �, x = � �;
� 2� �2� � 2�
� � � � � � ��
� � � � � �
� 0� �1� � 2�
� � � � � �
� 2� � −1 � �1� � �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� 1� � 2� �1�
� � � � � �
b) a = � � , b = � �, x = � �.
� 1� � 3� �0�
� � � � � �
Page 133 of 298
� � � � � �
� −1 � � 1� �1�
� � � � � � Go Back
7.9. (?) Find the parametric equation of the segment with endpoints a, b and check whether
x belongs to this segment if: Full Screen
� 2� � −1 � �1� � 1� � 2� � 3�
� � � � � � � � � � � �
� � � � �1� � � � � � �
� 0� � 1� � � � 2� � −1 � � −4 �
� � � � �3� � � � � � �
a) a = � � , b = � �, x = � 4 �; b) a = � � , b = � �, x = � �.
Close
� 2� � 0� � � � −4 � � 1� � 6�
� � � � �3� � � � � � �
� � � � �1� � � � � � �
� −1 � � 3� � � � 0� � −1 � � −2 �
� � � � �3� � � � � � �
Quit
7.10. (?) Prove that if the point c ∈ Rn belongs to the segment [a, b] ⊂ Rn , then
d (a, c) + d (c, b) = d (a, b) .
Home Page
7.3. Linear independence, basis of a vector space
Definition 7.9. Let v1 , v2 , ..., vk ∈ Rn , –1 , –2 , ..., –k ∈ R. The vector
Title Page
x = –1 v1 + –2 v2 + ... + –k vk
Contents
��
is called the linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vk . Numbers –1 , –2 , ..., –k are coeÖcients
of the linear combination.
� �
Example 7.10. The vector

Page 134 of 298
� 1� � 2� �1� � 7�
� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
x = 2 � −2 � + 3 � −3 � − � 2 � = � −15 ��
� � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
Go Back
� 3� � 0� �1� � 5�
� � � � � � � �
Full Screen
� 1� � 2� �1�
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
is the linear combination of vectors �� −2 �� , �� −3 �� , �� 2 �� with coeÖcients 2, 3, −1 respectively. Close
� � � � � �
� 3� � 0� �1�
� � � � � �
Quit
Definition 7.11. We say that vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ∈ Rn form the linearly independent

system or that they are linearly independent if and only if the equality
–1 v1 + –2 v2 + ... + –k vk = 0
implies that each number –1 , –2 , ..., –k equals 0. Otherwise, we say that vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vk ∈ Rn Home Page
form the linearly dependent system or that they are linearly dependent.
Example 7.12. We will check the linear independence of the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 ∈ R3 , where:
Title Page
� −1 � �1� �0�
� � � � � �
Contents
� � � � � �
v1 = � 2 � , v2 = � 1 � , v3 = �� 3 �� .
� � � �
� � � � � � ��
� 0� �1� �2�
� � � � � �
� �
Solution. The condition –1 v1 + –2 v2 + –3 v3 = 0 is fulfilled if and only if –1 , –2 , –3 solve the
system of equations
�
�
� −–1 + –2 = 0,
Page 135 of 298
�
�
�
� 2–1 + –2 + 3–3 = 0,
�
�
�
�
� –2 + 2–3 = 0.
Go Back
�
The only solution is –1 = –2 = –3 = 0 hence the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly independent. Full Screen
Example 7.13. We will check the linear independence of the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 ∈ R3 , where: Close
� −1 � �1� �0�
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
v1 = � 1 � , v2 = � 1 � , v3 = �� 2 �� .
� � � � Quit
� � � � � �
� 2� �1� �3�
� � � � � �
Solution. Similarly to the example 7.12, the condition –1 v1 + –2 v2 + –3 v3 = 0 is fulfilled if and
only if –1 , –2 , –3 solve the system
�
�
�
� −–1 + –2 = 0,
�
�
� –1 + –2 + 2–3 = 0,
�
�
�
�
� 2–1 + –2 + 3–3 = 0.
� Home Page
The first equation implies that –1 = –2 . Substituting –2 for –1 in the second and third equations Title Page
we get
�
�
�
� –1 = –2 �
�
� �
� –1 = –2 , Contents
� 2–2 + 2–3 = 0 ⇔ �
� �
�
�
�
� + = � –3 = −–2 .
�
� 3– 2 3– 3 0 ��
Therefore, the condition –1 v1 + –2 v2 + –3 v3 = 0 is satisfied for all numbers –1 , –2 , –3 such that

� �
–1 = –2 , –3 = −–2 , where –2 can be any real number. In particular for –2 = 1 we have –1 = 1 and
–3 = −1. There exist then numbers –1 , –2 , –3 diÄerent from 0 such that –1 v1 + –2 v2 + –3 v3 = 0. The
Page 136 of 298
conclusion is that the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly dependent. Moreover, observe that we have
v1 + v2 − v3 = 0, equivalently v3 = v1 + v2 , so the vector v3 is the linear combination of the vectors
Go Back
v1 ,v2 .
Theorem 7.14. Let A be a subset of the vector space Rn having at least two elements. Vectors Full Screen
in A are linearly dependent if and only if one of them is the linear combination of the others.
Close
Theorem 7.15. If A = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } ⊂ Rn , where k > n, then vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vk are linearly

dependent. Quit
The theorem 7.15 implies that at most n vectors can form a linearly independent system in Rn .
Definition 7.16. A set B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }, where vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are linearly indepen-
dent, is the basis of the vector space Rn .
Theorem 7.17. If the set B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is the basis of the vector space Rn , then each
vector x ∈ Rn has the unique representation as the linear combination Home Page
x = –1 v1 + –2 v2 + ... + –n vn . Title Page
� −1 � �1� �0�
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
Example 7.18. Vectors v1 = �� 2 �� , v2 = �� 1 �� , v3 = �� 3 �� in the example 7.12 are linearly inde-
Contents
� � � � � �
� 0� �1� �2�
� � � � � � ��
pendent, then the set B = {v1 , v2 , v3 } is the basis of R3 . We will determine the coeÖcients of the
�1�
� � � �
� �
linear combination –1 v1 + –v2 + –3 v3 = x for x = �� 4 �� .
� �
�1�
� � Page 137 of 298
� −1 � �1� �0� �1�

� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
Solution. The equation –1 �� 2 �� + –2 �� 1 �� + –3 �� 3 �� = �� 4 �� can be written as the system of
Go Back
� � � � � � � �
� 0� �1� �2� �1�
� � � � � � � � Full Screen
equations
�
�
�
� −–1 + –2 = 1,
�
�
� 2–1 + –2 + 3–3 = 4,
Close
�
�
�
�
� –2 + 2–3 = 1,
� Quit
with three unknown variables –1 , –2 , –3 . After some transformations:
�
� �
� �
�
� 2 (−1 + –2 ) + –2 + 3–3 = 4 � 3–2 + 3–3 = 6 � –2 + –3 = 2,
� ⇔� ⇔�
� –2 + 2–3 = 1 � �
�
� � –2 + 2–3 = 1
� � –2 + 2–3 = 1.
�
Home Page
we get –3 = −1, –2 = 3, –1 = 2.
�1� �0� �0�
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
Title Page
�0� �1� �0�

� � � � � �
Definition 7.19. Vectors e1 = � � , e1 = � � , . . . , en = � � are called unit vectors or versors
�⋮� �⋮� �⋮�
� � � � � �
Contents
� � � � � �
�0� �0� �1�
� � � � � �
of the Cartesian coordinate system. ��
Versors are linearly independent, hence the set B = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } is the basis (called the � �
standard basis) of the vector space Rn , and each vector x ∈ Rn has the unique representation:
�x � �1� �0� �0�

Page 138 of 298
� 1� � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
� x2 � �0� �1� �0�
� � � � � � � �
� � = x1 � � + x2 � � + � + xn � � .
� ⋮ � �⋮� �⋮� �⋮�
Go Back
� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
� xn � �0� �0� �1�
� � � � � � � � Full Screen
Exercises Close
7.11. (?) Verify the linear independence:

� � � � � � � � � � � �
�1� � 1� � −2 � � 2 � �1� �0�
Quit
a) � � , � �; b) � � , � �; c) �� , �� ;
� � � � � � � �
� 2 � � −1 � � 1 � � −1 � �3� �0�
� � � � � � � � � � � �
�1� � 1� � −1 � � 0 � � 2 � � 1� � 2� � 3� �1�
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �
d) � 1 � , � −1 � ; e) � 2 � , � 1 � , � 1 �; f) �� −2 �� , �� −1 �� , �� −3 �� , �� 1 ��;
� � � � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� 2 � � −2 � � 3� �2� �0� � 1� � 2� � 3� �1�
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� −1 � � 0 � � −1 � �1� �1� �1� �1�
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� 0� � 1� � 1� �0� �1� �1� �1�
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
Home Page
g) � � , � � , � �; h) � � , � � , � � , � �.
� 2 � � −1 � � 1 � �0� �0� �1� �1�
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
� 1� � 2� � 3� �0� �0� �0� �1�
Title Page
� � � � � � � � � � � � � �
7.12. (?) Prove that if vectors a, b, c ∈ Rn are linearly independent, then vectors x = 2a + b + c, Contents
y = a − b + c, z = a + c are also linearly independent.

�1� �1� �1� ��
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
7.13. (?) Prove that vectors v1 = � 0 � , v2 = � 1 � , v3 = �� 1 �� form the basis of the vector space
� � � �
� � � � � � � �
�0� �0� �1�
� � � � � �
� −1 �
� �
� �
R3 . Represent the vector x = �� 2 �� as the linear combination of these vectors.
Page 139 of 298
� �
� 2�
� � Go Back
� 1� � 1� �1�
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
7.14. (?) Prove that vectors v1 = � 0 � , v2 = � 2 � , v3 = �� 1 �� form the basis of the vector
� � � � Full Screen
� � � � � �
� −1 � � −1 � �0�
� � � � � �
� 1�
Close
� �
� �
space R . Represent the vector x = �� −2 �� as the linear combination of these vectors.
3
� �
� 1�
Quit
� �
Home Page
Matrices Contents
��
� �
8.1. Definition of a matrix, operations on matrices
Definition 8.1. A double indexed finite sequence (aij ) of real numbers, where i = 1, 2, ..., m,
Page 140 of 298
j = 1, 2, ..., n, written in a rectangular array

Go Back
� a a ... a �
� 11 12 1n �
� �
� a21 a22 . . . a2n �
� �
� �,
Full Screen
� ⋮ ⋮ � ⋮ ��
�
� �
� am1 am2 . . . amn �
� �
Close
is called the matrix of dimensions m × n. Numbers aij ∈ R are called matrix elements or Quit
entries. The row vector [ai1 , . . . , ain ] is called the i-th row of the matrix, the column vector
�a �
� 1j �
� �
� ⋮ � is called the j-th column of the matrix.
� �
� �
� amj �
� �
Matrices of dimensions m × n are denoted by capital bold letters Am×n , Bm×n , Cm×n ,... or A, Home Page
B, C,... skipping the dimensions. If A is a matrix composed of entries aij , then we can write also
A = [aij ]. In case where m = n a matrix A is called the square matrix of order n. The sequence Title Page
of entries a11 , a22 , ..., ann is called the main diagonal of the matrix A.
A square matrix A = [aij ] of order n is called the diagonal matrix, if aij = 0 for i ≠ j, i.e. all Contents
oÄ-diagonal entries are zero1 . The diagonal matrix such that aii = 1 for i = 1, 2, ..., n is called the
identity matrix of size n. The identity matrix of size n is denoted by the symbol In (or just I). ��
A square matrix A is called the upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0 for i > j, i.e. all elements
� �
below the main diagonal are zero. A square matrix A is called the lower triangular matrix, if
aij = 0 for i < j, i.e. all elements above the main diagonal are zero.
Page 141 of 298
Definition 8.2. Two matrices A = [aij ], B = [bij ], where aij , bij ∈ R, are equal if and only if
A, B have the same dimensions m × n and aij = bij for i = 1, 2, ..., m, j = 1, 2, ..., n. We write then Go Back
A = B.
Full Screen
We define the operations of scalar multiplication and matrix addition similarly to the case of
vectors in the vector space Rn . Close
1
Entries on the main diagonal can be zero too. Quit
Definition 8.3. The sum of matrices A = [aij ], B = [bij ] of the same dimensions m × n is
the matrix A + B = [aij + bij ]. The product of a matrix A = [aij ] and a real number – ∈ R is
the matrix –A = [–aij ].
� � � �
� −1 3 2 � � �
Example 8.4. The sum of the matrices A = �� and B = � 2 −3 1 � is the matrix
� � �
Home Page
� 2 0 4� � −1 2 7 �
� � � �
� � � �
�1 0 3� � 1 −3 −2 �
A+B = � � � � �.
�. The product of the matrix A and the number −1 is the matrix −A = � �
Title Page
� 1 2 11 � � −2 0 −4 �
� � � �
Definition 8.5. The transpose matrix of a matrix A = [aij ] of dimensions m×n is the matrix
Contents
AT = [–ji ] of dimensions n × m, where –ji = aij for i = 1, 2, ..., m, j = 1, 2, ..., n. The operation of
��
transforming a matrix A to AT is called the transposition of the matrix A. We say that a matrix
A is symmetric (skew-symmetric respectively), if AT = A (AT = −A). � �
The transposition is in fact the transformation of rows of a matrix A into columns of its
transpose matrix AT (or the transformation of columns of A into rows of AT ). Page 142 of 298
� 2 −1 �
� � � �
� 2 0 −4 � � �
Example 8.6. If A = �� , then A = � 0 6 �.
Go Back
� � �
T
� −1 6 1 � � �
� � � −4 1 �
� � Full Screen
We define also the operation of matrix multiplication.
Definition 8.7. The matrix product of matrices Am×n = [aij ] and Bn×p = [bjk ] is the matrix
Close
C = AB = [cik ] of dimensions m × p, where Quit
cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + � + ain bnk .

The matrix product AB is well defined if and only if the number of columns of the matrix A
is equal to the number of rows of the matrix B. Observe that the number of rows of the matrix
product C = AB is equal to the number of rows of A, and the number of its columns is equal to the
number of columns of B. The relation of dimensions of A, B, AB can be written in the following
Home Page
way
Am×n ⋅ Bn×p = (AB)m×p .

Title Page
� 2 −2 0 �
� � � �
� 1 2 −3 � � �
Contents
�
Example 8.8. We will calculate the product AB, for A = � � � �
�,B = �1 3 4�.
�2 0 4� � �
� � � 0 −1 1 � ��
� �
Solution.
� �
� �
� � � 2 −2 0 �
� 1 2 −3 � � �
AB = �� 1 3 4� =
��
Page 143 of 298
�2 0 4��
� � � 0 −1 1 �
� �
� �
Go Back
� 1 ⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅ 1 + (−3) ⋅ 0 1 ⋅ (−2) + 2 ⋅ 3 + (−3) ⋅ (−1) 1 ⋅ 0 + 2 ⋅ 4 + (−3) ⋅ 1 �
=�� =
�
� 2⋅2+0⋅1+4⋅0 2 ⋅ (−2) + 0 ⋅ 3 + 4 ⋅ (−1) 2 ⋅ 0 + 0 ⋅ 4 + 4 ⋅ 1 ��
� Full Screen
� �
�4 7 5�
= �� .
�
� 4 −8 4 �
Close
� �
Theorem 8.9 (Properties of matrix operations). If the dimensions of matrices A,B,C,I Quit
are proper to perform the following operations, then:

a) A + B = B + A, g) A(B + C) = AB + AC,
b) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C), h) (A + B)C = AC + BC,
c) (AT )T = A, i) (AB)C = A(BC),
d) (A + B)T = AT + BT , j) (AB)T = BT AT ,
Home Page
e) (–A)T = –AT , k) AI = A, Title Page
f) A(–B) = –AB, l) IA = A.
Contents
� �
� −1 2 ��
Example 8.10. We will show that matrix product is not commutative. Let A = �� , B = ��
� 1 3 ��
�
� � � � � �
�2 1� � −2 −3 � � −1 7 �
= �� . We have AB = �
� �
� and BA = �
� �
�.
�
� �
� 0 −1 � � 2 −2 � � −1 −3 �
� � � � � �
Definition 8.11. If square matrices A , B of the same order n satisfy the condition AB = BA, Page 144 of 298
then we say that they are commuting .

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A matrix A of dimensions m × n can be written in the column form

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A = [a1 , a2 , ..., an ],
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where aj (j = 1, 2, ..., n) are vectors from the vector space For example the identity matrix I has
Rm .
the column form I = [e1 , e2 , ..., en ]. If we write a matrix B in its column form B = [b1 , b2 , ..., bp ], Quit
then the matrix product of A and B can be written as
AB = [Ab1 , Ab2 , ..., Abp ],
where Abk (k = 1, 2, ..., p) is the product of the matrix A and the vector (one-column matrix) bk . Home Page
Definition 8.12. The rank of a matrix A = [a1 , a2 , ..., an ] is the maximal number of its
Title Page
linearly independent columns. The rank of a matrix A is denoted by rk A.
Theorem 8.13. If a matrix A has dimensions m × n, then rk A ≤ min(m, n). Contents
� �
� −1 0 3 �
Example 8.14. The matrix A = � � � has the rank equal to 2 because its first and second ��
�
� 2 1 4�
� �
column are linearly independent, and all three columns are linearly dependent as the vectors in the
� �
two-dimensional space.
Theorem 8.15 (Properties of the matrix rank). For any matrices Am×n , Bn×p we have: Page 145 of 298
a) rk AT = rk A,
b) rk A = rk (AT A) = rk (AAT ), Go Back
c) rk (AB) ≤ min(rk A, rk B).

Full Screen
Definition 8.16. A square matrix A of order n is called non-singular if and only if rk A = n.

Otherwise, A is called singular. Close
Definition 8.17. Let A be a square matrix of order n. A matrix B is called the inverse
Quit
matrix of A if and only if
AB = BA = I.
The inverse matrix of A is denoted by A−1 .
Theorem 8.18. A square matrix A is non-singular if and only if there exists A−1 .
Theorem 8.19. If a matrix A is non-singular (invertible), then there exist the unique inverse
matrix A−1 which is also non-singular, and (A−1 )−1 = A. Home Page
Theorem 8.20. If a matrix A is non-singular, then the matrix AT is non-singular, and (AT )−1 =
= (A−1 )T .
Title Page
Theorem 8.21. If matrices A and B are non-singular, then their product AB is non-singular, Contents
and (AB)−1 = B−1 A−1 .

��
Exercise
� �
8.1. (?) We have the following matrices:
� 1 −3 2 �
Page 146 of 298
� � � � � �
� −1 2 2 � � � � −3 2 0 1 �
�
A=� � � � � �.
� , B = � −2 1 4 � , C = � �
� 0 −1 4 � � � � 2 4 1 3�
Go Back
� � � 0 2 −2 � � �
� �
Full Screen
Perform each operation below or explain why the operation cannot be performed.
a) AB − A, b) 2B − AT A, c) BAT + 3A, d) AT A − CT C. Close
8.2. (?) Prove that if matrices A and B are commuting (see definition 8.11), then:
a) (A − B)(A + B) = A2 − B2 ; b) (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2 ,
Quit
where A2 = A ⋅ A.
8.3. (?) Define the dimensions of matrices A,B,C such that the operation 5AB − ACB can
be performed, and factorize this expression.
8.4. (?) Prove that for any matrix A there exist matrices AT A and AAT . Prove that matrices
AT A i AAT are symmetric. Home Page
8.5. (?) Find the rank of matrices:

� �
� −1 2 2 �
Title Page
�
a) � �,
�
� 2 1 1�
� �
� −2 1 −1 �
Contents
� �
� �
b) � 1 2 3 ��,
� ��
� �
� −1 3 2 �
� �
� 2 1 3 −1 � � �
� �
� �
c) � −2 −3 −5 −1 ��.
�
� �
� 0 2 2 2�
� �
Page 147 of 298
8.2. Elementary row operations Go Back
Definition 8.22. Let A be a matrix of dimensions m × n for m ≥ 2. Full Screen
a) The elementary row operation of the first type on the matrix A is the interchange of
Close
two rows of A.
b) The elementary row operation of the second type on the matrixA is the multiplication
Quit
of a row of A by a nonzero real number.
c) The elementary row operation of the third type on the matrix A is the addition of a
row multiplied by a nonzero real number to another row of A.
Similarly, we can define elementary column operations, but we will apply them only when
computing the matrix determinant. Home Page
Definition 8.23. A matrix B is called equivalent to a matrix A if and only if B is obtained

Title Page
by performing a finite number of row elementary operations on the matrix A. We denote matrix
equivalence by A ∼ B. Contents
Theorem 8.24. If A ∼ B, then rk B = rk A.

��
In order to find the rank of a given matrix we transform its columns into versors. Maximal
number of diÄerent versors obtained this way is equal to the rank of this matrix. � �
� −1 2 2 4 �
� �
� �
Example 8.25. We compute the rank of the matrix A = �� 3 −1 1 −3 �� .
Page 148 of 298
� �
� 2 1 3 1�
� � Go Back
Solution. Applying elementary row operations we first choose a column to be transformed to a

Full Screen
versor. Then we choose a row, in which there will be 1. In the following example we start with the
third column and then we transform the second. The operation performed is denoted before the
Close
Quit
matrix obtained, at the level of the row transformed in this step.
� −1 2 2 4 � r − 2r � −7 4 0 10 � � −7 4 0 10 �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
1 2
A = �� 3 −1 1 −3 �� ∼ � 3 −1 1 −3 � ∼
� �
� 3 −1 1 −3 � ∼
� �
� � � � � �
� 2 1 3 1 � r3 − 3r2 � −7 4 0 10 � r3 − r1 � 0 0 0 0�
� � � � � � Home Page
� 7 1 0 10 � � − 7 1 0 10 �
4 r1 � − 4 4 �
� 4 4 �
� �
1
� �
∼ � 3 −1 1 −3 � ∼ r2 + r1 � 5 0 1 − 1 �� = B.
� Title Page
� � � 4 2 �
� � � �
� 0 0 0 0� � �
� � � 0 0 0 0� Contents
Since the rank of the matrix is B is equal to 2, the rank of A is also equal to 2. Moreover, observe ��
that the columns of the matrix B = [b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ] satisfy the conditions
� �
b1 = − 74 b2 + 5
4 b3 and b4 = 10
4 b2 − 1
2 b3 .
Page 149 of 298
The same occurs for the columns of the matrix A = [a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ], that is
Go Back
a1 = − 74 a2 + 54 a3 i a4 = 10
4 a2 − 12 a3 .
Full Screen
Theorem 8.26. If the columns aj1 , aj2 , ..., ajk of a matrix A = [a1 , a2 , ..., an ] form the maximal
set of linearly independent vectors, then there exists a matrix B = [b1 , b2 , ..., bn ] equivalent to A Close
such that the columns bj1 , bj2 , ..., bjk are diÄerent unit vectors.
Quit
Definition 8.27. Let the matrix B be equivalent to a matrix A such that the columns aj1 , aj2 , ...,
ajk of A, forming the maximal linearly independent set, are transformed into unit vectors. The
matrix B is called row basic form of a matrixA with respect to columns j1 , j2 , ..., jk .
Remark. Usually in the literature the row echelon form or the reduced row echelon form of a
Home Page
matrix is considered. In the echelon form case the order of unit columns (columns which are unit
vectors) is important. In the row basic form the order of unit columns does not matter.
Title Page
In the example 8.25 the matrix A is transformed to the row basic form with respect to the
second and third columns. This matrix can also be transformed into the row basic form with Contents
respect to the first and second columns or with respect to the first and third columns.
��
Elementary operations are also applied to compute the inverse matrix. We use the following
theorem.
� �
Theorem 8.28. A square matrix A of order n is non-singular if and only if A ∼ I where I is
the identity matrix of order n. Moreover, the elementary row operations transforming A into I Page 150 of 298
transform I into A−1 .

Go Back
Example 8.29. We will compute the inverse of
� 1 −1 2 �
Full Screen
� �
� �
A = � −2 3 1 �� .
�
� �
Close
� 2 −3 1 �
� �
Quit
Solution. We will transform the matrix [A�I] in order to obtain the identity matrix instead of A.
� 1 −1 2 �� 1 0 0 �� 1 −1 2 �� 1 0 0 � r + r � 1 0 7 �� 3 1 0 �
� ��
� � � � � �
[A�I] = � −2 3 1 �� 0 � � 0 1 5 �� 2 1 0 � ∼
1 2
� � �
1 0 � ∼ r2 + 2r1 � 0 1 5 �� 2 1 0 � ∼ � �
� ��
� � � � ��
� 2 −3 1 �� 0 0 1 �� r3 − 2r1 �� 0 −1 −3 �� −2 0 1 �� r3 + r2
�
�
� 0 0 2 �� 0 1 1 �
� � � � � Home Page
� 1 0 7 �� 7 �
� �� 3 1 0 �� r1 − 7r3 �� 1 0 0 �� 3 − 2 − 2 ��
5
� � � � ��
� 2 1 0 �� ∼ r2 − 5r3 �� 0 1 0 �� 2 − 32 − 52 �� .
∼ � 0 1 5 ��
Title Page
� � � ��
� 0 0 1 �� 0 12 12 ��
�
� 0 0 1 �� 0 1 1 �
�
� � � �
1
�
2 r 3
2 2 Contents
� 3 −5 −7 �
� 2 � ��
� �
� �
2
Therefore, we obtain A−1 = � 2 − 32 − 52 �.

� �
� �
�0 1 1 � � �
� 2 2 �
8.6. (?) Find the rank using elementary row operations:

� 1 0 ��
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� −1 1 � � 1 1 −1 � � −1 2 1 3 0 � � −2
� � � � � � � � � �
�1 2 �� 0 3 ��
�
a) �� 2
�, b) � 2 0 � , c) � 2 1 1 �, d) � 2 1 1 −2 1 �, e) �� .
Full Screen
�2
� −1 ��
� 3 1�
� �
�3 0 2�
� �
� 1 3 2 1 1�
� � −1 2 0 ��
� � � � � � � �
� 1 2 ��
� 0 Close
8.7. (?) Compute the inverse matrix A−1 if:

Quit
�1 2 ��
� −1 2 0 � �2 1 1� � 2 1 0� � 1 2
� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � �0 3 ��
�
a) A = �� 1 3 0 ��, b) A = �� 1 3 −2 �� c) A = �� −1 2 2 �� , d) A = �
1 1
�.
� � � � � � �0 4 ��
� 1 2 1� � 3 4 −1 � � 0 −1 0 � � 0 1
� � � � � � � �
�0 5 ��
� 0 0
Home Page
8.8. (?) Prove that the matrix A is non-singular and solve the matrix equation:
� 1 −1 2 � � 1 2 −1 3 �
� � � �
� � � �
a) AX = B, where A = � 1 1 −2 �, B = � 0 1 2 0 ��;
� � �
Title Page
� � � �
�2 0 1� � −2 1 3 1 �
� � � � Contents
� 2 1 0�
� �
� �
b) AX + A = I, where A = �� 0 1 2 ��; ��
� �
� −3 1 0 �
� �
� −1 2 4 � � 2 1 5� � �
� � � �
� � � �
c) (AXA + A) = B − A , where A = � 0 2 7 �, B = � −2 0 3 ��.
−1 T T � � �
� � � �
� 1 −1 0 � � 1 4 2�
Page 152 of 298
� � � �
Go Back
8.3. Determinant of a matrix
Full Screen
The definition of the determinant is recursive, that is we define the determinant of a square matrix
of order 1, and the determinant of a square matrix of order n for n > 1 will be defined using the
determinants of matrices of order n − 1.
Close
Let A = [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, for n > 1. We denote the matrix obtained from A Quit
by deletion of the i−th row and j−th column by the symbol Aij .
Definition 8.30. The determinant of a matrix is the function (denoted by the symbol det)
defined on the set of all square matrices such that:
a) if A is a matrix of order 1, i.e. A = [a], then det A = a;
b) if A = [aij ] is a matrix of order n, for n > 1, then
Home Page
det A = (−1) a11 det A11 + (−1) a21 det A21 + � + (−1)
1+1 2+1 n+1
an1 det An1 .
Title Page
We denote the determinant of a matrix (of order n > 1) also by the symbol �A�.
Contents
Example 8.31. We calculate the determinant of a matrix of order two

��
� �
� a11 a12 �
�
A=� �.
�
� a21 a22 � � �
� �
Solution. From the definition 8.30 we obtain Page 153 of 298
� �
� a11 a12 �
�
det � � = (−1)1+1 a11 detA11 + (−1)2+1 a21 det A21 = a11 a22 − a21 a12 .
�
� a21 a22 �
Go Back
� �
Full Screen
Hence, we calculate the determinant of a matrix of second order by subtracting from the product
of the entries on the main diagonal the product of the entries on the other diagonal.
Close
Quit
Example 8.32. We calculate the determinant of a matrix of order three
�a a a �
� 11 12 13 �
� �
A = �� a21 a22 a23 �� .
� �
� a31 a32 a33 �
� � Home Page
Solution. According to the definition 8.30 we have Title Page
�a a a �
� 11 12 13 �
� �
det �� a21 a22 a23 �� = (−1) a11 detA11 + (−1) a21 det A21 + (−1) a31 det A31 =
Contents
1+1 1+2 1+3
� �
� a31 a32 a33 �
� � ��
� � � � � �
� a22 a23 � � a12 a13 � � a12 a13 �
�
= a11 det � � � � � �=
� − a21 det � � + a31 det � � � �
� a32 a33 � � a32 a33 � � a22 a23 �
� � � � � �
= a11 (a22 a33 − a32 a23 ) − a21 (a12 a33 − a32 a13 ) + a31 (a12 a23 − a22 a13 ) =
Page 154 of 298
= a11 a22 a33 − a11 a32 a23 − a21 a12 a33 + a21 a32 a13 + a31 a12 a23 − a31 a22 a13 .
Go Back
The formula is very complicated but there is a simple rule of calculating the third order deter-
minant which is called the Sarrus’ scheme. We add the first and second columns on the right Full Screen
side of the matrix and we calculate products with appropriate sign according to the scheme below.
Adding these products we obtain the determinant. Close
Quit
��
�� a11 a12 a13 �� a11 a12
�� a21 ��
�� a22 a23 �� a21 a22
�� a31 ��
� a32 a33 �� a31 a32
− − − + + + Home Page
��
�� 2 −1 3 ��
Example 8.33. We will calculate the third order determinant �� 0 2 −4 �� .
Title Page
��
�� −1 5 3 ��
Contents
Solution. Applying the Sarrus’ scheme we obtain
��
�� 2 −1 3 �� 2 −1
��
��
�� 0 2 −4 �� 0 2 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 + (−1) ⋅ (−4) ⋅ (−1)+
��
�� −1 5 3 �� −1 5
+ 3 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 5 − 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ (−1) − 2 ⋅ (−4) ⋅ 5 − (−1) ⋅ 0 ⋅ 3 = 12 − 4 + 6 + 40 = 54. Page 155 of 298
The Sarrus’ scheme can be applied only for matrices of the order three. The determinants of Go Back
higher orders are calculated applying the Laplace expansion (cofactor expansion).
Theorem 8.34 (Laplace expansion). If A is a matrix of order n ≥ 2, then:

Full Screen
a) det A = (−1) a1j det A1j + (−1) a2j det A2j + � + (−1) anj det Anj (expansion along the
1+j 2+j n+j
Close
j-th column),
b) det A = (−1) ai1 det Ai1 + (−1) ai2 det A12 + � + (−1) ain det Ain (expansion along the
i+1 i+2 i+n
Quit
i-th row).
Observe that the formula in the definition 8.30 is the Laplace expansion along the first column.
Example 8.35. We will calculate the determinant of the matrix A of order four where
� −1 2 ��
� 0 3
� �
� 2 −3 4 ��
Home Page
� 0
A=� �.
� 3 −2 1 ��
� 0
� �
� 0 −1 ��
Title Page
� 3 −2
Contents
Solution. Applying the Laplace expansion we choose the row or the column of the matrix A
which has maximal number of zero entries and we expand the determinant along this row or column. ��
In the considered example we expand the determinant along the second column.
� �
Following the point a) of the theorem 8.34 we have
��
�� 2 0 4 �� −1 3 2 ��
Page 156 of 298
det A = (−1)1+2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ �� 3 −2 1 �� + (−1)2+2 ⋅ (−3) ⋅ �� 3 −2 1 �� +

��
�� 0 −2 −1 �� 0 −2 −1 ��
Go Back
��
�� −1 3 2 �� −1 3 2 ��
+ (−1)3+2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ �� 2 0 4 �� + (−1)4+2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ �� 2 0 4 �� .
Full Screen
��
�� 0 −2 −1 �� 3 −2 1 �� Close
Observe that the first and third terms are equal to 0 so we have to calculate two third order Quit
determinants. Applying the Sarrus’ scheme we get
��
�� −1 3 2 �� −1 3
��
�� 3 −2 1 �� 3 −2 = −2 − 12 − 2 + 9 = −7,
��
�� 0 −2 −1 �� 0 −2 Home Page
��
�� −1 3 2 �� −1 3
��
�� 2 0 4 �� 2 0 = 36 − 8 − 8 − 6 = 14.
Title Page
��
�� 3 −2 1 �� 3 −2
Contents
Therefore, we obtain det A = (−3) ⋅ (−7) + 3 ⋅ 14 = 63.

��
We present below the most important properties of determinants.
Theorem 8.36. Let A = [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. � �
a) det AT = det A.
b) If A has a column (a row) composed of only zero entries, then det A = 0. Page 157 of 298
c) If A is an upper triangular, lower triangular or a diagonal matrix, then det A = a11 a22 ...ann .
�1 0 � 0�
� �
Go Back
� �
�0 1 � 0�
� �
d) det � � = 1.
�⋮ ⋮ � ⋮�
� �
Full Screen
� �
�0 0 � 1�
� �
e) If Ã is the matrix obtained from A by interchanging two columns (two rows), then det Ã =
Close
= − det A. Quit
f ) If A has two identical columns (two identical rows), then det A = 0.
Theorem 8.37 (Cauchy). If A and B are square matrices of order n, then
det(AB) = det A det B.
Theorem 8.38. Let be a square matrix of order n, and j be an integer such that 1 ≤ j ≤ n. Home Page
a) If A = [a1 , ..., –aj , ..., an ], then det A = – det [a1 , ..., aj , ..., an ].
b) If A = [a1 , ..., a′j + a′′j , ..., an ], then det A = det[a1 , ..., a′j , ..., an ] + det[a1 , ..., a′′j , ..., an ]. Title Page
Analogous theorem is true also for matrix rows (see the part a) of the theorem 8.36). Basing on Contents
the part f) of the theorem 8.36 we can state that elementary row operations of the third type do
not change the determinant of a given matrix. We obtain an additional rule, allowing to simplify ��
calculation of the determinant by Laplace expansion. Applying elementary row operations of the
third type we can transform a matrix A to the form where one of columns (or rows) has only one � �
non-zero entry. The Laplace expansion along this column (row) then has only one non-zero term.
Page 158 of 298
Example 8.39. We will calculate the determinant of the matrix A in the example 8.35.
Solution. Adding the fourth row to the second row and expanding the determinant along the Go Back
second column we obtain

��
�� −1 0 3 2 �� 2 ��
Full Screen
�� −1 0 3 ��
�� −1 3 2 ��
� 2 −3 0 4 �� r2 + r4 �� 2 0 −2 3 ��
det A = �� = �� = (−1)4+2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ �� 2 −2 3 �� =
�� 3 0 −2 1 ��
Close
�� 3 0 −2 1 ��

�� 3 −2 1 ��
�� 0 3 −2 −1 �� 0 3 −2 −1 �� Quit
= 3 ⋅ (2 + 27 − 8 + 12 − 6 − 6) = 63.
We can apply the determinant to compute the rank of a matrix and to compute the inverse
matrix.
Definition 8.40. Let A be a matrix of dimensions m × n, and B a square matrix of order k

cut down from A by removing m − k rows and n − k columns. The determinant det B is called the Home Page
minor of order k of the matrix A. If A is a square matrix of order n, then each minor obtained
by removing n − k rows and n − k columns which have the same numbers (e.g. first and third row Title Page
and first and third column), where k = 1, 2, ..., n, is called the principal minor of order k of A.
Contents
Theorem 8.41. The rank of a matrix A of dimensions m × n is equal to k if and only if there
exists a non-zero minor of order k of A and each minor of the order higher than k is equal to zero. ��
� −1 2 2 2 �
� �
� � � �
Example 8.42. The rank of the matrix A = � 1 2 2 2 �� is 2 because after removing the third
�
� �
� 1 1 1 1�
� � Page 159 of 298
row and third and fourth column we get the non-zero minor of order 2, and all minors of order 3
are zero.
Go Back
Theorem 8.43. A square matrix A of order n is non-singular if and only if det A ≠ 0.

Full Screen
Definition 8.44. Let A = [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, where n ≥ 2. The cofactor of
the entry aij is the real number Close
dij = (−1)i+j det Aij .
The matrix AD = [dij ] is called the cofactor matrix or comatrix of A. The transpose of the
Quit
comatrix is called the adjugate matrix of A.

Theorem 8.45. If A is non-singular, then A−1 = (AD ) .
1 T
det A
Example 8.46. We compute the inverse matrix of
� −1 2 0 �
� �
� �
A = � 2 4 1 �� .
�
Home Page
� �
� −3 −2 0 �
� � Title Page
Solution. We have det A = −8 which implies that A is non-singular. We compute all cofactors
Contents
of A.
��
1 ��
��
(−1)1+1 ��
4
d11 = �� = 2,
�� −2 0 ��
� �
��
1 ��
d12 = (−1) ��
2
�� = −3,
0 ��
1+2
�� −3 Page 160 of 298
��
4 ��
d13 = (−1) ��
2
�� = 8,
−2 ��
1+3
�� −3 Go Back
��
0 ��
d21 = (−1) ��
2
�� = 0,
0 ��
2+1
�� −2
Full Screen
��
−1 0 ��
d22 = (−1) �� = 0,
Close
0 ��
2+2
�� −3
��
−1 2 ��
d23 = (−1) ��
Quit
�� = −8,
−2 ��
2+3
�� −3
��
2 0 ��
d31 = (−1)3+1 ��
�� = 2,
�� 4 1 ��
��
−1 0 ��
d32 = (−1)3+2 �� = 1,
�� 2 1 ��
�� −1 2 ��
Home Page
d33 = (−1)3+3 �� = −8.

�� 2 4 �� Title Page
Th comatrix of A is equal to
� 2 −3 8 �
� �
� �
Contents
A = � 0 0 −8 �� .
D �
� �
� 2 1 −8 � ��
� �
therefore, we have � �
� 2 0 2 � �� − 14 0 − 14 ��
� � � �
� � � �
A = − 8 � −3 0 1 �� = � 38 0 − 18 � .
−1 1�
� � � �
� 8 −8 −8 � ��
Page 161 of 298
� � � −1 1 1 ��
Go Back
The method of calculating the inverse matrix by the adjugate matrix is not very eÄective.
For example to invert a square matrix of order 4 we have to calculate 17 determinants (one of
Full Screen
the fourth order and 16 of the third order). Comparing this method with the method basing on
elementary row operations we can state that for matrices of order 3 both methods need more or Close
less the same number of algebraic operations. In case of matrices of higher orders elementary row
operations method is much quicker. However, for matrices of the second order the theorem 8.45 Quit
� �
� a11 a12 �
�
provides an easy to remember formula for the inverse matrix. If A = � � is non-singular, i.e.
�
� a21 a22 �
� �
det A = a11 a22 − a12 a21 ≠ 0, then
� �−1 � �
� a11 a12 � � a22 −a12 �
� � = 1 � �.
Home Page
� � − � �
� a21 a22 � 12 21 � −a21 a11 �
� � � �
a a
11 22 a a
Title Page
Therefore, the inverse matrix of A (of the order two) is obtained by interchanging the entries on the
main diagonal, changing the sign of remaining entries and dividing all entries by the determinant Contents
of A.
��
� �−1 � � � �
� −1 3 ��
1 � 2 −3 �
� � 0, 2 −0, 3 �
Example 8.47. �� = 10 �
�
�=�
�.
�
� −4 2 �� 4 −1 � � 0, 4 −0, 1 � � �
� � � � �
Theorem 8.48. If a matrix A is non-singular, then
Page 162 of 298
1
det A−1 = .
det A Go Back
Exercises Full Screen
8.9. (?) Calculate determinants:

��
�� 1 2 3 �� 2x 0 1 �� x y x + y �� Close
−1 2 �� 2 + x x ��
a) �� b) ��
cos – sin – ��
� ��, c) �� 2 3 1 ��, d) ��
� ��, e) �� x x 2 ��, f) �� y x + y x ��,
�� 3 0 �� − sin – cos – �� 3 1 ��
�� 3 1 2 �� 1 − x 2 −x �� x + y x y ��
Quit
��
�� −1 0 2 3 �� 1 1 1 1 �� 1 1 1 1 ��
��
−1 0 �� 1 �� x ��
g) �� , h) �� , i) ��
1 2 12 1 1x
��.
x
�� 1 1 3 2 �� 1 1 3 1 �� 1 x x2 x2 ��
��
�� −1 2 1 2 �� 1 1 1 4 �� 1 x x2 x3 ��
Home Page
8.10. (?) Prove that if A is of order n, then det(–A) = –n det A.

Title Page
8.11. (?) Prove that if A is non-singular of order n, then:
a) det A−1 = det1 A , b) det AD = (det A)n−1 , c) det AT A > 0.
Contents
8.12. (?) Calculate det(3AT B(AB)−1 B), if A and B are matrices of order 3, and det A = −1,
��
det B = 2.
8.13. (?) Calculate � �

det �2A B (AB) (B ) � ,−1 T T −1 T
� −1 2 1 � � 1 1 0�
Page 163 of 298
� � � �
� � � �
ifA = �� 0 2 −3 ��, B = �� 0 2 −3 ��.
� � � �
� 0 2 1� � −2 3 1 �
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� � � �
of the matrix depending on the value of the parameter m ∈ R:
Full Screen
8.14. (?) Determine the rank
�1 m 1 �� 1 m −1 � �m m 1 � �1 1 m �
� � � � � � � � �
� 3 m� � � � � � � � �
�
a) A = � � � m �, c) C = � m 1 m �, d) D = � m 1 m �, e) E = � 1 1 m ��.
� � � � � �
�, b) B = � m 1
Close
2
�m 3� � � � � � � � �
� � �2 2 2 �� 1 2 −1 � � 2 2 −1 � � 1 m m2 �
� � � � � � � Quit
8.15. (?) Compute the inverse matrix applying the adjugate matrix method:
�1 1 ��
� −1 2 0 � � −1 2 2 � � 1 1
� � � � � � � � � �
�1 3 �� 2 −1 �� 1 ��
a) �� 1 −3 2 �, d) � 0 1 0 �, e) �� 0 1 1
�.
�, b) � � � � � � �0 1 ��
, c)
�4 2 �� 1 2 ��
� � � 2 1 0� � 0 2 1� �
0 1
�
� � � � �0
� 0 0 1 ��
Home Page
8.16. (?) Let P be a non-singular matrix. Prove that if B = P−1 AP, then det A = det B.
8.17. (?) Compute det[a1 − a3 , a1 + a2 , 2a2 − a3 ] if det[a1 , a2 , a3 ] = 2.

Title Page
8.18. (?) Prove that det[e1 , a2 , a3 ], det[a1 , e2 , a3 ], det[a1 , a2 , e3 ] are the principal minors of Contents
the second order of a matrix A = [a1 , a2 , a3 ].

��
8.4. Systems of linear equations � �
Definition 8.49. A system of equations

Page 164 of 298
�
�
�
� a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1 ,
�
�
�
�
� a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2 ,
Go Back
�
�
�
�
�
..................................................
�
�
�
� am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ... + amn xn = bm ,
�
Full Screen
where aij , bi ∈ R for i = 1, 2, ..., m, j = 1, 2, ..., n, is called the system of m linear equations with
Close
n variables written in the scalar form. The matrix A = [aij ] of dimensions m × n composed of
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the coeÖcients at the variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn is called the coeÖcient matrix of the system, the
vector b = [b1 , b2 , ..., bm ]T composed of the real numbers on the right-hand sides of the equations is
called the vector of the right-hand side, x = [x1 , x2 , ..., xn ]T is called the vector of variables.
Appending the column b to the matrix A we obtain the matrix with dimensions m × (n + 1) which
is denoted by [A�b], and is called the augmented matrix of the system.
The system of equation can be written in the vector form Home Page
x1 a1 + x2 a2 + ... + xn an = b, Title Page
where aj denotes the j-th (j = 1, 2, ..., n) column of the matrix A or in the matrix form Contents
Ax = b.
��
Definition 8.50. A system Ax = 0 is called the homogeneous system, a system Ax = b,

� �
where b ≠ 0, is called the non-homogeneous system.
Definition 8.51. The (particular) solution of a system of equations Ax = b is any Page 165 of 298
vector ̂
x ∈ Rn such that Â x = b. The general solution of a system of equations Ax = b is
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the set of all solutions of this system.
Each homogeneous system has at least one solution which is the vector 0. A non-homogeneous Full Screen
system can have no solution (we say that it is inconsistent), can have exactly one solution or
infinitely many solutions (in both cases we say that this system is consistent). The necessary and Close
suÖcient condition for a system of linear equations to be consistent is given by the next theorem.
Theorem 8.52 (Kronecker-Capelli). A system of linear equations Ax = b is consistent if

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and only if rk [A�b] = rk A.

Corollary 8.1. If a matrix A of dimensions m × n has the rank m, then the system of equations
Ax = b is consistent.
Let Xb = {x ∈ Rn ∶ Ax = b} denotes the set of all solutions of a system Ax = b. If b = 0, then

the set X0 = {x ∈ Rn ∶ Ax = 0} is called the nullspace of the matrix A. Home Page
Theorem 8.53. If ̂ x is a solution of a non-homogeneous system Ax = b, then any solution x

of this system can be written as x = ̂
x + x0 , where x0 ∈ X0 .
Title Page
Contents
The thesis of the theorem 8.53 is often formulated in the following way: The general solution
of a non-homogeneous system of equations is the sum of its particular solution and the general
��
solution of the homogeneous system with the same coeÖcient matrix.
� �
Exercises
8.19. (?) Prove that any system Ax = 0, where A is of dimensions m × n and m < n, has a
Page 166 of 298
non-zero solution..
Go Back
8.20. (?) Verify whether the system of equations is consistent.

�
�
� 2x1 + 3x2 − x3 = 1,
a) �
Full Screen
�
� −x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 3;
�
�
�
�
� x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 2,
Close
�
�
b) � −2x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 4,
�
�
�
�
� −x1 + 3x2 − 3x3 = 1.
�
Quit
8.4.1. Solving systems of linear equations by elementary row opera-
tions
Below we present an algorithm of solving a system of linear equations in a finite number of steps
or allowing to state that this system is inconsistent. This algorithm is based on elementary row Home Page
operations on the augmented matrix of a system.

Title Page
Definition 8.54. Systems of equations Ax = b and Cx = d are called equivalent if and only
if [A�b] ∼ [C�d]. Contents
Theorem 8.55. If systems of equations Ax = b and Cx = d are equivalent, then they have
��
identical sets of solutions.
� �
We solve a consistent system of equations Ax = b, where rkA = k, by performing elementary
row operations on the augmented matrix [A�b] in order to obtain the row basic form [C�d] with
Page 167 of 298
respect to linearly independent columns aj1 , aj2 , ..., ajk of the matrix A. The equivalent system
Cx = d (called also the basic form of a system of equations Ax = b) allows for defining each
variable xjl (l = 1, 2, ..., k) depending on the remaining variables (free variables or parameters) xj
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diÄerent from xj1 , xj2 , ..., xjk . Full Screen

If a system is inconsistent, then transforming the augmented matrix [A�b] to the equivalent
basic form [C�d] we obtain at least one inconsistent equation of the form 0x1 + 0x2 + ... + 0xn = d, Close
where d ≠ 0.
Quit
Example 8.56. We compute the general solution of the system
�
�
�
� 3x1 + x2 − x3 + 2x4 = 2,
�
�
� x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 + 3x4 = 1,
�
�
�
�
� 4x1 − x2 + x3 + 5x4 = 3.
� Home Page
Solution. We transform the augmented matrix to its basic form. Title Page
� 3 1 −1 2 2 � �3 1 −1 2 2 ��
� � �
� � � �
[A�b] = �� 1 −2 2 3 1 �� ∼ r2 + 2r1 �� 7 0 0 7 5 �� ∼
Contents
� � � �
� 4 −1 1 5 3 � r3 + r1 � 7 0 0 7 5 ��
� � � ��
� 3 1 −1 2 2 � �3 1 −1 2 2 �� r1 − 3r2 � 0 1 −1 −1 − 1 �
� � � � 7 �
� � 1 � � � �
∼ � � � 0 0 1 57 �� ∼ �1 0 0 1 5 �. � �
� 7 0 0 7 5 � ∼ 7 r2 � 1 � 7 �
� � � � � �
r3 − r2 �� 0 0 0 0 0 �� 0
� 0 0 0 0 �� 0 0 0 0 0�
� �
Page 168 of 298
We write down the new system in the scalar form (we skip the last equation which is 0 = 0).
�
Go Back
�
� x2 − x3 − x4 = − 17 ,
�
�
� x1 + x4 = 7 .
� 5 Full Screen
We have obtained the basic form with respect to the first and second columns. Therefore, we define Close
Quit
the variables x1 , x2 depending on the variables x3 , x4
�
�
� x2 = − 17 + x3 + x4 ,
�
�
� x1 = 7 − x4 .
� 5
Home Page
Observe that the variables x3 and x4 can take any real value. Substituting x3 = –, x4 = —, where
–, — ∈ R, the general solution has the form Title Page
�
�
�
� x1 = 57 − —,
�
�
�
�
Contents
� x2 = − 17 + – + —,
�
�
�
� x3 = –, ��
�
�
�
�
� x4 = —.
�
� �
The vector form of the general solution is
�x � � 5 −— � � 5 � �0� � −1 �
� 1� � 7 � � 7� � � � �
Page 169 of 298
� � � 1 � � 1� � � � �
� x2 � � − + – + — � � − � �1� � 1�
� � � 7 � � 7� � � � �
x=� �=� � = � � + –� � + — � �,
� x3 � � � � � � � � 0�
Go Back
� � � � � 0� �1� � �
� � � � � � � � � �
–
� x4 � � � � � � � � 1�
� � � — � � 0� �0� � � Full Screen
� 5�
� 7�
� 1�
�− �
Close
� �
where –, — ∈ R. It is easy to check that the vector � 7 � solves the non-homogeneous system, and
� 0�
� �
� �
Quit
� 0�
� �
the linear combination
�0� � −1 �
� � � �
� � � �
�1� � 1�
� � � �
–� �+— � �
�1� � 0�
� � � �
� � � �
�0� � 1�
� � � � Home Page
is the general solution of the homogeneous system (i. e. any vector of the null-space of the coeÖcient
Title Page
matrix can be written in this form for some – and —).
Example 8.57. We compute the general solution of the system Contents
�
�
�
� 2x1 + x2 − x3 = 2, ��
�
�
� −x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 1,
�
�
�
� � �
� x1 + 3x2 − 2x3 = 2.
�
Solution. We transform the augmented matrix as in the previous example. Page 170 of 298
� 2 1 −1 2 � r − 2r � 0 −5 3 −2 � r + r �0 0 0 1�
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
1 3 1 2 Go Back
� −1 2 −1 1 � ∼ r2 + r3 � 0 5 −3 3 � ∼ � 0 5 −3 3 � .
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� 1 3 −2 2 � � 1 3 −2 2 � � 1 3 −2 2 �
� � � � � � Full Screen
We can stop our calculations because the first row corresponds to the inconsistent equation 0 = 1. Close
Therefore, the system is inconsistent. The reader can easily check that rk A = 2, rk [A�b] = 3.
Definition 8.58. Let Cx = d be the basic form of a system Ax = b with respect to the columns
Quit
aj1 , aj2 , ..., ajk of the matrix A. The variables xj1 , xj2 , ..., xjk are called basic variables, and the
remaining variables are called nonbasic variables. A particular solution ̂ x of the system Ax = b
such that all nonbasic variables are equal to zero is called the basic solution.
The division of variables into basic and nonbasic depends on the obtained basic form of the
system Ax = b. There are diÄerent sets of basic and nonbasic variables for diÄerent basic forms. Home Page
Consequently, there are diÄerent basic solutions. However, the number of basic variables is always
the same, and equal to the rank of the matrix A. Title Page
Example 8.59. We will find two basic solutions of the system in the example 8.56.
Contents
Solution. One solution we obtain immediately by taking – = 0, — = 0. Therefore, we have

x1 = [ 57 − 17 0 0 ]T . In order to find another basic solution we can either transform the system to a ��
diÄerent basic form (e.g. with respect to the first and second columns) or we can make use of the
general solution. In any basic solution there are two basic variables and two non-basic variables � �
(the rank of the matrix A is 2). Therefore, any basic solution has at least two variables equal to 0.
We will find the basic solution such that x2 = 0 and x4 = 0. Applying the formula for the general
Page 171 of 298
solution we obtain the equations for – and —.

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�
� �
�
� − 17 + – + — = 0 � – = 17 ,
� ⇔�
� —=0 �
�
� � — = 0.
�
Full Screen
The second basic solution is then the vector x2 = [ 57 0 17 0 ]T .

Close
Concluding, let’s note that the basic solution with x1 = 0 and x4 = 0 does not exist because the
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second and third columns are linearly dependent so the variables x2 and x3 cannot be both basic
variables.
Exercises
8.21. (?) Find the general solution and all basic solutions of the system:
�
�
� 2x1 + x2 − 3x3 = 1,
a) �
�
� −x1 + 3x2 − x3 = 2;
�
�
Home Page
�
�
� −x1 + x2 + 2x3 = −1,
�
�
b) � 2x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 2,
�
�
�
Title Page
�
� x1 + 2x2 = 1.
�
8.22. (?) Find the general solution and two basic solutions: Contents
�
�
�
� 3x1 + 2x2 − x3 + 3x4 = 1,
�
�
a) � −x1 − 3x2 + x3 + 2x4 = 3, ��
�
�
�
�
� x1 + 2x3 + x4 = 2;
�
�
�
� �
�
� x1 − 3x2 + x3 + 2x4 = 2,
�
�
b) � −x1 + 2x2 − x3 + x4 = 3,
�
�
�
�
� −x2 + 3x4 = 5;
Page 172 of 298
�
�
�
�
� 2x1 − x2 + x3 = 1,
�
�
�
Go Back
�
� −x1 − 2x2 − x3 = 0,
c) �
�
�
� x1 − 3x2 = 1,
�
�
Full Screen
�
� 3x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 1.
�
�
Close
8.4.2. Cramer’s rule

If the coeÖcient matrix A of a system Ax = b is square and non-singular, then we can determine
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the solution (which is unique) using determinants.

Definition 8.60. If the coeÖcient matrix A is square and non-singular, then the system of
equations Ax = b is called Cramer’s system.
Theorem 8.61. A Cramer’s system Ax = b has the unique solution ̂

x = A−1 b.
Theorem 8.62 (Cramer’s rule). If a matrix A = [a1 , a2 , ..., an ] is non-singular, then the
Home Page
̂j of the solution of the system Ax = b are given by:

coordinates x
Title Page
det[a1 , a2 , ..., aj−1 , b, aj+1 , ..., an ]

̂j =
x Contents
det A
for j = 1, 2, ..., n. ��
The Cramer’s rule is usually written as x̂j =

Wj
W , where
� �
W = det A, Wj = det[a1 , a2 , ..., aj−1 , b, aj+1 , ..., an ],

Page 173 of 298
for j = 1, 2, ..., n. The determinant W is called the main determinant of the system Ax = b.
Go Back
Example 8.63. We will find the solution of the system
�
Full Screen
�
�
� 3x1 + x2 − x3 = 2,
�
�
� 2x1 − 2x3 = 4,
�
�
Close
�
�
� −x1 + x2 − x3 = 1.
�
Quit
� 3 1 −1 �
� �
� �
Solution. The coeÖcient matrix is A = � 2 0 −2 ��. Calculating its determinant we get
�
� �
� −1 1 −1 �
� �
W = det A = 0 + 2 − 2 − 0 + 6 + 2 = 8. Home Page
Therefore, it is the Cramer’s system. We have Title Page
� 2 1 −1 �
� �
� �
W1 = det � 4 0 −2 �� = −2 − 4 + 4 + 4 = 2,
�
Contents
� �
� 1 1 −1 �
� � ��
� 3 2 −1 �
� �
� �
W2 = det �� 2 4 −2 �� = −12 + 4 − 2 − 4 + 6 + 4 = −4,
� �
� �
� −1 1 −1 �
� �
� 3 1 2�
Page 174 of 298
� �
� �
W3 = det � 2 0 4 �� = −4 + 4 − 12 − 2 = −14.
�
� �
Go Back
� −1 1 1 �
� �
Full Screen
We obtain
x1 = W1
W = 2
8 = 14 , x2 = W2
W = −4
8 = − 12 , x3 = W3
W = −14
8 = − 74 . Close
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Exercises
8.23. (?) Solve the systems:
�
�
� �
� x1 + x2 − x3 + x4 = 1,
� � �
�
� + − = �
�
�
� � � �
2x 3x 1,
� 2x1 + x2 = 2, � 2x1 + x2 = 1, x2 + x3 − x4 = 1,
x
� �
1 2 3
a) � b) � c) � x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 2, d) �
� � � �
Home Page
� −x1 + 3x2 = 2;
� � −x1 + x2 = −2;
� �
�
�
� + + = −1;
�
�
�
�
x1 + x3 = 2,
� 1
x x 2 2x 3 �
�
� x3 + x4 = 2.
� Title Page
8.24. (?) Verify for what values of k ∈ R the system:

�
� �
�
� �
� kx1 + x2 + 3x3 = 1, �
� kx1 + x2 + x3 = 1,
Contents
� kx + 2y = k,
� �
� �
�
a) � b)� x1 + kx2 + x3 = 1, c) � x1 + kx2 + kx3 = 2,
�
� + = �
�
� �
�
� ��
� 2x
� + + = �
� 2x1 + x2 + kx3 = 1.
ky k;
�
� x 1 x 2 x 3 k; �
is consistent and solve it in this case.
� �
Page 175 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
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Home Page
Multivariable functions Contents
��
� �
9.1. Preliminary notions
Page 176 of 298
We will consider functions defined on subsets of the space Rk . Let us remind that
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Rk = R × . . . × R = �(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∶ � xi ∈ R� .
�� i
k czynników Full Screen
Elements of this set will be called points or vectors, depending on context.

Let x̄ ∈ Rk be an arbitrary point. Each of sets
Close
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K(x̄, Á) = �x ∈ R ∶ �(xi − x̄i ) < Á � ,
k
k 2 2
i=1
where Á > 0, is called the ball of radius Á and center x̄. We will also call these sets the neighbor-
hoods of the pointx̄.
A point x̄ is called the interior point of a set X if K(x̄, Á) ⊂ X for some Á > 0. If each point
of a set X is its interior point, then X is called the open set.
Home Page
Definition 9.1. Let X be a nonempty subset of A mapping f ∶ X → R is called the real

Rk .
function of k variables (or shortly the function of k variables). The set X is called the domain Title Page
of the function f , and any point x ∈ X – the argument of this function.

Contents
If we have only the expression f (x1 , . . . , xk ) given, then we assume that the domain of f is the
maximal subset of Rk composed of the elements for which the given expression is well defined. ��
In the sequel we will concentrate mainly on functions of two variables (k = 2).
� �
Example 9.2. a) The domain of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x22 is R2 .
�
b) The function f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 − x2 is defined on the set {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ x2 ≤ x21 }. Page 177 of 298
c) The domain of the function
� � Go Back
f (x1 , x2 ) = 1 + 2 x21 − x22 − x22 − x21
Full Screen
is the set {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ �x2 � = �x1 �}.
Definition 9.3. A set {(x, f (x)) ∈ X × R∶ x ∈ X} is called the graph of the function f ∶ X → R.
Close
The contour line (isoline) of the function f , corresponding to a value z ∈ R, is the set
Quit
Wz = {x ∈ X∶ f (x) = z} .
A set f (X) = {f (x)∶ x ∈ X} is called the range of the function f .
A contour line is the set of all arguments for which the value of the function equals z.
y
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
y= x21 + x22
��
y=z
� �
x2
Wz : x21 + x22 = z
Page 178 of 298
x1
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Figure 9.1: The graph and the contour line of the function in the example 9.2 a)
Full Screen
Example 9.4. We will find contour lines and ranges of functions in the example 9.2.
9.2) Any contour line of the function f (x) = x21 + x22 corresponding to z < 0 is the empty set.
Close
√
We have W0 = {(0, 0)}, and if z > 0, then the set Wz is the circle of radius z and center (0,0). The
function’s range is �0, ∞). Some illustration of the relations among the graph of the function, its
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cross-sections and contour lines is given on the figure 9.1.

9.2) For z ≥ 0 the set Wz is given by the equation x2 = x21 − z 2 , defining the parabola. If z < 0,
then Wz = �. The range is the same as in 9.2).
9.2) For x ∈ X we have f (x) = 1. Therefore, the only nonempty contour line is W1 . This set is
the same as the domain of f the range of f is {1}.
Home Page
y y
Title Page
1
Contents
��
x2 x2
x1 x1
� �
b) c)
Page 179 of 298
Figure 9.2: Graphs of functions in the exercise 9.2 (b,c)

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9.1. (?) Find the domain of:

√ √ 3
Close
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 − � x2 � ,
�
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = x41 + x42 − x21 x22 , Quit
ln(x1 + x2 ) x1 − x2
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = + ,
x1 x1 + x2
�
d) f (x1 , x2 ) = 1
+ 1,
� x1 x2
e) f (x1 , x2 ) = �e−x1 −2x2 − 1� x1 x2 .
2 2
9.2. (?) Find the range of:

a) f (x1 , x2 ) = e−x1 −x2 ,
2 2 Home Page
1
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = 2�x1 x2 � + 2 2 ,
x1 x2 Title Page
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = −(x21 + x22 )2 + (x21 + x22 ) + 2.
Contents
9.3. (?) Find the contour lines of the function f corresponding to the value z0 :
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = 3x1 − 2x2 , z0 = f (1, 0);
��
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = 14 x21 + 14 x22 , z0 = f (2, −2);
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = ln(x1 x2 ), z0 = −1, z0 = 0; � �
d) f (x1 , x2 ) = x2 ex1 − 1, z0 = −2, z0 = −1;
e) f (x1 , x2 ) = , z0 = −1, z0 = 0.
x2
Page 180 of 298
x1
9.4. (?) Draw the contour map of the function:
√
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = 3 x1 x2 ,
Go Back
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x22 , Full Screen
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = x2 �x1 ,
d) f (x1 , x2 ) = min(x1 , x2 ), Close
e) f (x1 , x2 ) = max(x1 − 2, 0).

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9.2. Continuity of a function
The main definition in this section is the generalization of the definition of continuity formulated
for a univariate function. We start the the considerations with the notion of a sequence in Rk .
Definition 9.5. Let X ⊂ Rk be a nonempty set. The sequence of elements of the set X is
Home Page
a mapping x∶ N → X. An element xn = x(n) ∈ X is called the n-th term of a sequence. Title Page
The sequence discussed in the above definition will be denoted by (xn ) or xn , n ∈ N. It corre-
sponds to k sequences (xn ), (xn ),. . . , (xn ) in the following way:
(1) (2) (k) Contents
��
xn = �xn , xn , . . . , xn � , n ∈ N.
(1) (2) (k)
The convergence of these sequences allows to define the convergence of the set (xn ) in a natural � �
way.
Page 181 of 298
Definition 9.6. We say that a sequence (xn ) converges to a point x̄ = (x̄1 , . . . , x̄k ) ∈ Rk ,
what is denoted lim xn = x̄ (or xn → x̄), if and only if for every i = 1, . . . , k the sequence (xn )
(i)
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converges to x̄i . The sequence (xn ) is called convergent if it converges to some point in Rk .
n→∞
Full Screen
Example 9.7. We will examine the convergence of some sequences in R2 .
a) The sequence � n+1 �
n , 2n , n ∈ N, is convergent to the point (1, 0).
1
Close
b) The sequence � n+1

n ,2
n � , n ∈ N, is not convergent.
Definition 9.8. We say that a function f ∶ X → R is continuous at a point x̄ ∈ X if and

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only if for every sequence (xn ) of elements of the set X convergent to x̄ the sequence (f (xn )) is
convergent to f (x̄), i.e.
� �� xn ∈ X ∧ n→∞
lim xn = x̄� ⇒ lim f (xn ) = f (x̄)� . (9.1)
(xn )
n→∞
n∈N
Home Page
If f is continuous at every point of the set X, then we say that f is continuous.
Example 9.9. a) We will show that the function Title Page
�
�
� 21 22 for (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0) ,
x x
f (x1 , x2 ) = � x1 +x2
Contents
�
� 0 for (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0) ,
�
��
is not continuous at the point (0, 0). Let us consider the sequence xn = ( n1 , n1 ),
n ∈ N. It is convergent
to the point (0, 0).Then we have lim f (xn ) = 12 ≠ f (0, 0). therefore, the condition (9.1) is not � �
n→∞
satisfied. The function f is not continuous at the considered point.
Page 182 of 298
b) We will examine the continuity of the function
�
�
� x211+x22 for (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0),
x2 x2 Go Back
f (x1 , x2 ) = �
�
�
� 0 for (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0), Full Screen
at the point x̄ = (0, 0). Observe first that �f (x1 , x2 )� ≤ �x2 �. Let xn = (x1,n , x2,n ), n ∈ N, be any
sequence converging to (0, 0). It means that both sequences (x1,n ) and (x2,n ) converge to 0. We have
Close
0 ≤ �f (xn )� ≤ �x2,n �. Therefore, the squeeze theorem implies that �f (xn )� converges to 0 = f (0, 0).
It means that the sequence (f (xn )) also converges to 0. The condition (9.1) is satisfied so the
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function f is continuous at the point (0, 0).

Below we recall some properties of continuous functions.
Theorem 9.10 (properties of continuous functions). a) The sum, the product, the quotient
and the superposition of continuous functions are continuous functions (in the sets where they are Home Page
well defined).
b) Polynomials, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions are continuous. Title Page
Example 9.11. a) Functions f1 (x) = x1 , f2 (x) = x2 are continuous (by the theorem above all Contents
polynomials and their quotients are continuous in the sets where they are well defined). We conclude
that both functions in the example 9.9 are continuous in R2 − {(0, 0)}. Taking into account the ��
solution of the example9.9) we can state that the function f is continuous in its domainR2 .
x2 +x3
b)The theorem implies that the function f (x1 , x2 ) = �1 22 2 sin(x1 + x2 ) is continuous on R2 . � �
1+ 1+x1 x2
9.5. (?) Examine the continuity of the functions:

�
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�
� x21 x22 +(x
x21 x22
2 for (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0),
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = � 1 −x2 )
�
� for (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0),
� 0 Full Screen
�
�
� x21 +x242 for (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0),
x1 x 2
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = �
�
�
� 0 for (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0).
Close
Quit
9.6. (?) What is the value of the parameter m ∈ R such that the function
�
� sin(x3 )
� x21 +x122 dla (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0),
f (x1 , x2 ) = �
�
�
� m dla (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0),
Home Page
is continuous?
Title Page
9.3. Partial derivatives Contents
Let f ∶ X → R, for X ⊂ Rk , be a function, x̄ = (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k ) ∈ X – an interior point of the set X.
��
Definition 9.12. The partial derivative (of the first order) of the function f at the point
x̄ with respect to the variable x1 is the number (if it exists): � �
f (x̄1 + t, x̄2 , . . . , x̄k ) − f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k )

(x̄) = lim
ˆf Page 184 of 298
. (9.2)
ˆx1 t→0 t
Go Back
Analogously, we define the partial derivative with respect to the second variable:
f (x̄1 , x̄2 + t, . . . , x̄k ) − f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k )

(x̄) = lim
ˆf Full Screen
, (9.3)
ˆx2 t→0 t
Close
and the following variables up to xk :
f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k + t) − f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k )

(x̄) = lim
ˆf Quit
. (9.4)
ˆxk t→0 t
The partial derivatives are also denoted respectively fx′ 1 (x̄), fx′ 2 (x̄), . . . , fx′ k (x̄). Usually (with
some exceptions) we will use the latest notation.
�
Example 9.13. We will compute partial derivatives of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = �x1 x2 � applying
the definition at some chosen points x̄ ∈ R2 . Home Page
a) Let x̄ = (0, 0). We have

√ Title Page
f (t, 0) − f (0, 0) t⋅0−0
fx′ 1 (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0.
t→0 t t→0 t Contents
Similarly, we can show that fx′ 2 (0, 0) = 0.

��
b) At the point x̄ = (0, 1) the limit
�
f (t, 1) − f (0, 1) �t� � �
lim = lim
t→0 t t→0 t
does not exist. Therefore, the derivative fx′ 1 (0, 1) does not exist. On the other hand
Page 185 of 298
f (0, 1 + t) − f (0, 1)
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fx′ 2 (0, 1) = lim = 0.
t→0 t
Full Screen
Observe that the formulae 9.2-9.4 imply that computing partial derivative with respect to a
given variable is in fact diÄerentiating a given function with respect to this variable and considering Close
remaining variables as constants. Therefore, we can apply all rules of diÄerentiation. In many cases
it allows for computing partial derivatives in an easy way. We show it in the following example. Quit
Example 9.14. Partial derivatives of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = 3x1 x22 − 5x1 x2 + x22 + 2x1 are equal
fx′ 1 (x) = 3x22 − 5x2 + 2, fx′ 2 (x) = 6x1 x2 − 5x1 + 2x2 . (9.5)
Computing the partial derivative with respect to x1 applying the definition 9.12 we obtain: Home Page
f (x1 + t, x2 ) − f (x1 , x2 )
fx′ 1 (x1 , x2 ) = lim Title Page
t→0 t
3(x1 + t)x22 − 5(x1 + t)x2 + x22 + 2(x1 + t) − (3x1 x22 − 5x1 x2 + x22 + 2x1 )
= lim Contents
t→0 t
= 3x2 − 5x2 + 2
2
��
and in the same way we could confirm the rightness of the second formula 9.5.
� �
By computing partial derivatives one can examine the monotonicity with respect to particular
variables. Analogously to the case of univariate function, one can interpret the values of derivatives Page 186 of 298
as the speed of change of the function values resulting from the change of values of respective
variable. The sign of partial derivatives inform about the type of monotonicity. We illustrate this Go Back
by the next example.

Full Screen
Example 9.15. We consider the function from the example 9.14 and we examine its monotonici-
ty with respect to each variable in the neighborhood of the pointx̄ = (−1, 2). We have fx′ 1 (x̄) = 4 > 0. Close
Therefor, f is increasing function of the variable x1 in the neighborhood of x1 = −1 with x2 constant

and equal 2 (in other words the function f (x1 , 2) is increasing in the neighborhood of x1 = −1). Quit
Similarly, we have fx′ 2 (x̄) = −3 < 0, so keeping x1 constant and equal to −1, the increase of x2 in
the neighborhood of the point x2 = 2 results in the decrease of the value of the function f (which
means that the function f (−1, x2 ) is decreasing in the neighborhood of x2 = 2).
Definition 9.16. Assume that all partial derivatives of the first order of a function f ∶ X → R
exist at a pointx̄ ∈ X ⊂ Rk . The vector Home Page
�fx′ 1 (x̄), . . . , fx′ k (x̄)� Title Page
is called the gradient of the function f at the point x̄ and we denote by the symbol∇f (x̄), Contents
gradf (x̄) or f ′ (x̄).

��
Values of partial derivatives approximate the change of the function’s value. If we substitute
t = 1, then formulae 9.2-9.4 imply that � �
fx′ 1 (x̄) � f (x̄1 + 1, x̄2 , . . . , x̄k ) − f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k ), Page 187 of 298
fx′ 2 (x̄) � f (x̄1 , x̄2 + 1, . . . , x̄k ) − f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k ),

......... Go Back
fx′ k (x̄) � f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k + 1) − f (x̄1 , x̄2 , . . . , x̄k ). (9.6)

Full Screen
The approximation is better if values of the function do not change too rapidly in the neighborhood
Close
of the point x̄. The measure of relative changes of function values are partial elasticities.
Definition 9.17. The partial elasticity of a function f ∶ X → R at a point x̄ ∈ X with Quit

respect to the i-th variable is the number (assuming that it exists):
x̄i ⋅ fxi (x̄)

Exi f (x̄) = (9.7)
f (x̄)
.
Assume additionally that the coordinates of the point x̄ are positive and f (x̄) > 0. As it was
Home Page
in case of univariate function, the number 9.7 describes approximate percentage increment of the
Title Page
function f value in case of increase of the variable xi by 1% (comparing to x̄i ) without changing
values of remaining variables (equal x̄j , for j ≠ i).
Contents
Example 9.18. The volume of production of a company equals

��
f (x1 , x2 ) = 100x21 + 20x1 x2 + 10x22 ,

� �
where x1 , x2 denote positive volumes of the production factors (e.g. labor and capital).We obtain
partial derivatives fx′ 1 = 200x1 + 20x2 and fx′ 2 = 20x1 + 20x2 . If the volumes of production factors are Page 188 of 298
equal to x̄ = (3, 5), then fx′ 1 (3, 5) = 700 and fx′ 2 (3, 5) = 160. These numbers are the approximation
of the increments f (4, 5) − f (3, 5) and f (3, 6) − f (3, 5). The real values of increments are equal
Go Back
respectively 800 and 170, the relative error of the approximation equals 100/800 and 10/170,which
Full Screen
is 12,5% and about 6%). Partial elasticities of f are equal to
Ex1 f (3, 5) = 3fx′ 1 (3, 5)�f (3, 5) = 1.448 . . . , Ex2 f (3, 5) = 5fx′ 2 (3, 5)�f (3, 5) = 0.551 . . . .
Close
If the value of x1 ,equal to 3, increases by 1% (keeping x2 = 5 unchanged), then the volume of pro-
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duction increases approximately by 1,45% comparing to f (3, 5) = 1450. We can provide analogous
interpretation for the partial elasticity with respect to the second variable.
ˆf
Definition 9.19. Assume that the partial derivative ˆx exists in every point of some neighbor-
hood of a point x̄ ∈ Rk . If the partial derivative ˆxˆ j � ˆxi � exists at the point x̄, then we call it the
i
ˆf
partial derivative of the second order of the function f at the point x̄, with respect to the Home Page
variables xi , xj , and we denote it by the symbol

Title Page
ˆ2f
(x̄) or fx′′i xj (x̄). (9.8)
ˆxj ˆxi Contents
If i ≠ j, then derivatives 9.8 are called mixed derivatives. In case where i = j we use the notation
��
ˆ2f
(x̄) or fx′′i xi (x̄).
ˆx2i � �
If partial derivatives of the second order exist with respect to all pairs of variables, then it is
Page 189 of 298
convenient to use the matrix
f ′′ (x̄) = �fx′′i ,xj (x̄)�k×k .

Go Back
(9.9)
Full Screen
called the matrix of partial derivatives of the second order or the Hessian of a function.
Example 9.20. We compute partial derivatives of the second order of the function in the Close
example 9.14. We have computed there partial derivatives of the first order. We continue, and
Quit
obtain:
ˆ2f ˆ2f
fx′′1 ,x1 = = � � = 0, fx′′2 ,x1 = = � � = 6x2 − 5,
ˆ ˆf ˆ ˆf
ˆx21 ˆx1 ˆx1 ˆx2 ˆx1 ˆx2 ˆx1
ˆ2f ˆ2f
fx′′1 ,x2 = = � � = 6x2 − 5, fx′′2 ,x2 = 2 = � � = 6x1 + 2.
ˆ ˆf ˆ ˆf
Home Page
ˆx1 ˆx2 ˆx1 ˆx2 ˆx2 ˆx2 ˆx2
The Hessian matrix 9.9 at a point x ∈ R2 has the form: Title Page
� ′′ � � �
�f (x) fx′′1 ,x2 (x) �� 0 6x2 − 5 ��
f ′′ (x) = �� x′′1 ,x1 =
� � �.
Contents
� fx2 ,x1 (x) fx′′2 ,x2 (x) � � 6x2 − 5 6x1 + 2 �

� � � �
��
For example at the point x̄ = (1, 2) we have:
� �
� �
�0 7 ��
f (1, 2) = ��
′′
�.
�7 8 ��
� Page 190 of 298
Theorem 9.21 (Schwarz). If a function f has continuous mixed derivatives of the second Go Back
order: fx′′i ,xj and fx′′j ,xi , for i ≠ j, at some neighborhood of a point x̄ , then they are equal.
Partial derivatives of the order ≤ 2 can be applied to examine the rate of change of a function.
Full Screen
Example 9.22. Consider the functionf ∶ R2 → R, f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 x32 − 2x1 x2 + 2x1 and the point Close
x̄ = (−1, 1). We have fx′ 1 (−1, 1) = −2 < 0 and fx′′1 ,x1 (−1, 1) = 2 > 0. It means that keeping x2 = 1
unchanged if we increase x1 in the neighborhood of x1 = −1, then values of f decrease with decreasing
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rate. Further, fx′ 2 (−1, 1) = 5 > 0 and fx′′2 ,x2 (−1, 1) = 6 > 0. Therefore, values of the function f (−1, x2 )
increase with increasing rate in the neighborhood of x2 = 1.
Exercises
9.7. (?) Compute partial derivatives of the first order of the function f at the point x̄ applying Home Page
the definition:
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = x41 − 4x2 , x̄ = (0, 1), Title Page
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = 2x1 x22 + 4x2 , x̄ = (1, −1),

c) f (x1 , x2 ) = �x1 � + 2x2 , x̄ = (0, 1), Contents
d) f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 �x2 �, x̄ = (0, 0).

��
9.8. (?) Verify whether partial derivatives of the function f exist at the point (0, 0).
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = 2 if x1 = 0 or x2 = 0, otherwise f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x2 . � �
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = 1 if x2 = x31 , x1 > 0, otherwise f (x1 , x2 ) = 0.

� �
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 − x22 + x22 − x21 . Page 191 of 298
9.9. (?) Compute partial derivatives of the first order of f :

√
Go Back
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = x31 x2 + 2x1 x2 − x1 + x2 ,

b) f (x1 , x2 ) = ln(x1 + ln x2 ), Full Screen
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 e−x1 x2 ,
d) f (x1 , x2 ) = 2x1 + x2 cos x1 . Close
9.10. (?) Compute partial elasticities of the functions below. We assume that variables and Quit
parameters are positive.

a) f (x1 , x2 ) = x–1 ⋅ x—2 ,
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x22 ,
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = (xk1 + xk2 )1�k .
9.11. (?) Compute partial derivatives of the second order of functions in the exercise 9.9. Home Page
9.12. (?) Let f (x1 , x2 ) = xx21+x x2

2 for (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0). Additionally, f (0, 0) = 0. Check whether
the partial derivative fx′′1 ,x2 (0, 0) exists.

1 2
Title Page
9.13. (?) Verify whether the following statements are true: Contents
a) The function f (x1 , x2 ) = ln (ex1 + ex2 ) satisfies the equation fx′ 1 + fx′ 2 = 1.
b) The function f (x1 , x2 ) = ln (x21 + x22 ) satisfies the equation fx′′1 ,x1 + fx′′2 ,x2 = 0. ��
9.14. (?) Find mixed derivatives of the second order of the function f at the point (0, 0) if:
� �
�
� x2 −x2
� x1 x2 x121 +x222 dla (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0),
f (x1 , x2 ) = �
�
� dla (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0).
Page 192 of 298
� 0
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Does the result contradict the Schwarz theorem?
Full Screen
9.4. Extrema of a bivariate function

Close
Definition 9.23. We say that a function f ∶ X → R has the local minimum at a pointx̄ ∈ X
if and only if Quit
� � f (x) ≥ f (x̄).
r>0 x∈K(x̄,r)∩X
If for every x ∈ X we have f (x) ≥ f (x̄), then we say that the function f has at x̄ the global
minimum (or that f achieves its minimal value).
The function f has the local (global ) maximum at x̄ ∈ X if and only if −f has its local
(global) minimum at this point.
Home Page
Similarly to the case of univariate function, minima and maxima of a bivariate function are
called its extrema. .
Title Page
y
Contents
��
� �
x2
Page 193 of 298
a c
b Go Back
x1
Full Screen
Figure 9.3: The function, whose graph is partially illustrated at the picture, has the local minimum
at the point a, local maximum at b. At c there is no local extremum. Close
Example 9.24. a) The function f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x22 , (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 , has the global minimum at
Quit
the point (0, 0). For each (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 we have f (x1 , x2 ) ≥ f (0, 0).
b) The function f (x1 , x2 ) = e−�x1 +x2 � , (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 , has the global maximum at every point
(x1 , x2 ) satisfying the condition x1 + x2 = 0.
If we deal with a diÄerentiable function we have a simple method to find its local extrema.
The following theorems concern the case of bivariate functions. The generalization for the case of Home Page
multivariable functions is given in later in this chapter.
Theorem 9.25 (Necessary condition of a local extremum existence). If a set X ⊂ R2 is

Title Page
nonempty and open, a function f ∶ X → R has partial derivatives of the first order in the neighborhood Contents
of a pointx̄ and has a local extremum at this point, then
��
fx′ 1 (x̄) = 0, fx′ 2 (x̄) = 0. (9.10)
� �
The condition given in the theorem 9.25 is also called the first order condition of the
existence of an extremum. Page 194 of 298
Solutions of the system 9.10 are called stationary points (or critical points) of the func-
tion f . Go Back
It is easy to observe that the condition demanding that both derivatives are 0, formulated in
the theorem9.25, is not enough to assure the existence of an extremum (as it was also in case of Full Screen
univariate functions). Take the function f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 x2 and the point (0, 0). The condition 9.10
is fulfilled but the function has no extremum at this point - in every neighborhood of (0, 0) the Close
function achieves positive and negative values which are greater and less than the value f (0, 0).
Quit
Before formulating the next theorem it is convenient to introduce the shorter notation for the
determinant of the Hessian matrix (see. 9.9):
� ′′ �
� fx1 ,x1 (x̄) fx′′1 ,x2 (x̄) �
W (x̄) = det [f (x̄)] = �� ′′
′′ �.
�
� fx2 ,x1 (x̄) fx′′2 ,x2 (x̄) �
� �
Home Page
Theorem 9.26 (SuÖcient condition of a local extremum existence.). Assume that a

function f ∶ X → R twice continuously diÄerentiable in a neighborhood of a stationary pointx̄. Then: Title Page
a) If fx′′1 ,x1 (x̄) > 0 and W (x̄) > 0, then f has a local minimum at x̄.
b) If fx′′1 ,x1 (x̄) < 0 and W (x̄) > 0, then f has a local maximum at x̄ . Contents
c) If W (x̄) < 0, then f has no local extremum at x̄.

��
We can also replace first inequalities in a) and b) respectively with fx′′2 ,x2 (x̄) > 0 and fx′′2 ,x2 (x̄) < 0.
� �
Example 9.27. We will find local extrema of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = x41 + 2x22 − 4x1 x2 . Coordi-
nates of stationary points satisfy the system of equations: Page 195 of 298
fx′ 1 = 4x31 − 4x2 = 0, fx′ 2 = 4x2 − 4x1 = 0.

Go Back
Therefore, we have three stationary points of the function f :

Full Screen
a = (0, 0), b = (1, 1), c = (−1, −1).

Close
� �
� 12x21 −4 �
The Hessian matrix is the following: f ′′ (x1 , x2 ) = �� .
�
� −4 4 �
Quit
� �
Therefore, Hessian matrix of f at stationary points are:
� � � �
� 0 −4 � � 12 −4 �
�
f (a) = � � � �.
� , f (b) = f (c) = �
′′ ′′ ′′
�
� −4 4 � � −4 4 �
� � � �
Home Page
We have: W (a) = det f ′′ (a) < 0, so there is no local extremum of f at the point a; fx′′1 ,x1 (b) =
= fx′′1 ,x1 (c) > 0 and W (b) = W (c) > 0, so we have local minima of f at the points b and c. Title Page
Example 9.28. The theorem 9.26 does not solve the problem of extremum existence in case
where fx′′1 ,x1 (x̄) = 0 or W (x̄) = 0. The function f can, but does not have to, have a local extremum
Contents
at the point x̄. In order to illustrate it we will analyze two functions. ��

a) Let f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 (1 + x22 ). The function f is diÄerentiable on R2 ; its stationary points are
(0, c) for c ∈ R. We have also W ((0, c)) = 0; therefore, the theorem 9.26 does not help much. � �
However, it is easy to notice that we have f (x1 , x2 ) ≥ 0 = f (0, c) for every (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 . Therefore,
the function f has (global) minima in all its stationary points. Page 196 of 298
b) The point x̄ = (0, 0) is the only stationary point of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x1 x42 . The
last theorem does not state in this case neither whether there exist an extremum at this point. Go Back
However, now in any neighborhood of the point x̄ there exist points at which the value of f is
greater and less that the value f (0, 0) = 0. Therefore, there is no extremum at the point (0,0). Full Screen
In conclusion, we consider shortly the problem of finding global extrema - maximal and minimal Close
value of a given function on a given set. In general it is a complex problem, but in simple cases,
which are the subject of our consideration, it is quite easy to find the solution. Quit
Definition 9.29. We say that the maximal value of a function f on a set A is equal to
m if and only if f (x) ≤ m for each x ∈ A and f (x̄) = m for some x̄ ∈ A. We say that f attains its
maximal value on the set at the point x̄.
Defining minimal value of a function f on a set A it suÖces to change the inequality

to the opposite one. Home Page
Example 9.30. a) We will find the maximal and minimal value of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 +x2
on the disk X defined by the inequality x21 + x22 ≤ 2. Contour lines of the function f are lines with
Title Page
equation x1 + x2 = c, where c ∈ R is the value of the function. Looking for the maximal and minimal
Contents
value of the function f on the set X we should find the contour line having at least one common
point with the set X corresponding to possibly maximal value of the function and we should do
��
the same in case of minimum. It is easy to observe that the “higher” (“lower”) is the contour line
placed, the higher (lower) is the corresponding value of the function. therefore, the maximal value � �
of f on X equals f (1, 1) = 2, and the minimal is f (−1, −1) = −2 (see the figure. 9.4 (a)).
b) Minimal value of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x22 on the set X = {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ x1 + x2 = 2} Page 197 of 298
equals f (1, 1) = 2, maximal value is not attained – the function is unbounded from above on this
set (see the figure. 9.4 (b)). Go Back
9.15. (?) Check whether the function f (x1 , x2 ) = 12 x41 + x22 − 2x1 x2 + 2 has extrema at points Close
(0, 0), (−2, −2), (1, 1), (2, 1), (−1, 1).
Quit
9.16. (?) Find local extrema (if they exist) of functions:
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = 3x21 + 3x1 x2 − x22 − 15x1 ,
Home Page
x2 x2 Title Page
Contents
(1,1)
(1,1) ��
x1 x1
� �
(-1,-1)
Page 198 of 298
(a) (b)
Go Back
Figure 9.4: Figures for the example 9.30. Contour lines of functions are red, arrows show (exemplary)
directions of growth of the function values. Full Screen
Close
Quit
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = −2x21 + 3x1 x2 − 3x22 − 2x1 − x2 + 1,
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x1 x2 + x22 − 6x1 − 4x2 + 5,
d) f (x1 , x2 ) = x31 + x32 + 3ax1 x2 , where a ∈ R is a parameter,
e) f (x1 , x2 ) = x41 + 4x1 x2 + x42 − 2x21 − 2x22 + 8,
f) f (x1 , x2 ) = 4x1 x2 + x11 + x12 , where x1 ≠ 0, x2 ≠ 0,
Home Page
g) f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 x2 ln(x21 + x22 ), (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0).

Title Page
9.17. (?) Find the constants a, b ∈ R minimizing the number ∫0 (x − (ax + b))2 dx. Compute
1 2
the minimal value of the integral. Contents
9.18. (?) We have given n ≥ 2 points (xi , yi ) such that at least two among the numbers ��
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are diÄerent. Find constants a and b minimizing the sum ∑ni=1 (axi + b − yi )2 .
� �
9.19. (?) Let f ∶ X → R be an arbitrary function. Prove that if g∶ R → R is an increasing
function, then g ○ f has its local maximum (minimum) at a point x̄ ∈ X if and only if f has its Page 199 of 298
local maximum (minimum) at x̄.
Go Back
9.20. (?) Find the maximal and minimal value of the function f on the set X if:
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x22 − 2x1 + 2x2 , X = {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ x1 + x2 ≤ 3, x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0},
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 − x22 , X = {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ x21 + x22 ≤ 1},
Full Screen
c) f (x) = x21 − 3x2 , X = {x ∈ R2 ∶ x1 + 2x2 ≤ 2, x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0}, Close

d) f (x) = x1 − x2 , X = {x ∈ R2 ∶ x21 + x22 ≤ 4, x1 ≥ 0},
e) f (x) = x21 + 2x22 , X = {x ∈ R∶ x21 + x22 ≤ 9}, Quit
f) f (x) = x1 + 2x2 , X = {x ∈ R∶ x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x1 + x2 ≤ 2}.

9.21. (?) A dog’s owner can buy two diÄerent kinds A and B of pet food containing two
important micronutrients: (m1 ) and (m2 ). The content of micronutrients and the price per 1 kg
are given in the table below. A dog can eat not more than 2 kg of pet food per day. We have to
determine the volume of the daily consumption of both kinds of food which satisfies two conditions:
Home Page
minimizes the total cost and provides at least 15mg of m1 and 30mg of m2 to the dog.
Content mg�kg Title Page

Food Price, z≥/kg
m1 m2
A 10 30 12 Contents
B 15 20 15
��
Does the solution change if: a) we add VAT (22% of each food price); b) the price of B decreases
by 1z≥? � �
9.5. Appendix. Directional derivatives. DiÄerentiability Page 200 of 298
of a function Go Back
Definition 9.31. The directional derivative of a function f ∶ X → R at a point x̄ ∈ X along Full Screen
a vector h ∈ Rk is the number (if exists)
f (x̄ + t ⋅ h) − f (x̄)
Close
∇h f (x̄) = lim . (9.11)

t→0 t Quit
y
y = f (x̄)
Home Page
(x̄, f (x̄))
Title Page
h x2
x̄
–
Contents
x1 ��
Figure 9.5: The directional derivative of the function f at x̄ along the vector h (of the length 1) � �
equals tg–
Page 201 of 298
Example 9.32. We compute the directional derivative of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 x22 + 2 at
the point x̄ = (1, −1) along the vector h = (2, −1). We have x̄ + th = (1 + 2t, −1 − t) and Go Back
f (1 + 2t, −1 − t) − f (1, −1) (1 + 2t)(−1 − t)2 + 2 − 3

∇h f (x̄) = lim = lim = 4. Full Screen
t→0 t t→0 t
Now we can define the partial derivatives in the following, elegant, way: Close
Definition 9.33. Let ei be i-th axis versor in Rk . If the directional derivative ∇ei f (x̄) exists, Quit
then we call it the partial derivative of a function f at a point x̄ with respect to the variable
ˆxi (x̄) or fx′ i (x̄)).
ˆf
xi (let us remind that we denote it by the symbol
According to the definition we have:
f (x̄1 , . . . , x̄i + t, . . . , x̄n ) − f (x̄1 , . . . , x̄i . . . , x̄n )

(x) = ∇ei f (x̄) = lim
ˆf
. (9.12)
ˆxi t→0 t Home Page
Definition 9.34. A vector h ∈ Rk is called the vector of increase of the value of a Title Page
function f ∶ X → R at a pointx̄ ∈ X if and only if the condition
� � f (x̄ + th) > f (x̄)

Contents
(9.13)
‘>0 t∈(0,‘)
��
is satisfied.
Defining the vector of decrease of the value of f at a point x̄ we have to reverse the sign of � �
inequality in the formula 9.13.

Theorem 9.35. Assume that there exists the directional derivative ∇h f (x̄). If ∇h f (x̄) > 0
Page 202 of 298
(∇h f (x̄) < 0 respectively), then h is the vector of increase (of decrease respectively) of the value of
Go Back
the function f at the point x̄. Conversely, if h is the vector of increase (of decrease respectively) of
the function f value at the point x̄, then ∇h f (x̄) ≥ 0 (∇h f (x̄) ≤ 0 respectively). Full Screen
Definition 9.36. Let X ⊂ Rk , be an open set. We say that a function f ∶ X → R is continuously

diÄerentiable on a set A ⊂ X if and only if all partial derivatives fx′ 1 , . . . , fx′ k are continuous in Close
A. If A = X, then we say that f is continuously diÄerentiable. The matrix

Quit
f ′ (x̄) = �fx′ 1 (x̄), . . . , fx′ k (x̄)�

is called the derivative matrix of the function f at a point x̄.
Home Page
(x̄, f (x̄)) Title Page
Contents
y = f (x)
��
x2 � �
s
w w
s x̄ Page 203 of 298
x1
Go Back
Figure 9.6: Vectors of increase (w) and decrease (s) of the values of f at the point x̄
Full Screen
Theorem 9.37. The sum, the diÄerence, the product, the quotient and the superposition of
continuously diÄerentiable functions is a continuously diÄerentiable function (wherever it exists). Close
Example 9.38. The last theorem implies that:

a) For any i = 1, . . . , k, the function fi (x) = xi is continuously diÄerentiable as well as any
Quit
polynomial function.
b) The function f (x1 , x2 ) = ln(2 + x21 + sin2 x2 ) is continuously diÄerentiable.
Theorem 9.39. If a function f is continuously diÄerentiable in some neighborhood of a point

x̄, then f is continuous at this point. Moreover, for any vector h ∈ Rk there exist the directional
derivative ∇h f (x̄), and it is equal to Home Page
∇h f (x̄) = f ′ (x̄) ⋅ h. (9.14) Title Page
Example 9.40. Applying the theorem 9.35 we confirm the results obtained in the example 9.14. Contents
We have f ′ (x̄) = (4, −3). For c > 0 we get ∇(c,0) f (x̄) = (4, −3) ⋅ (c, 0) = 4c > 0, which means that
any vector (c, 0) is the vector of increase of the function f value at the point x̄ for c > 0 (note ��
that ∇(−c,0) f (x̄) = (4, −3) ⋅ (−c, 0) = −4c < 0, so all vectors (−c, 0) are vectors of decrease of the
considered function). Since ∇(0,c) f (x̄) = (4, −3) ⋅ (0, c) = −3c < 0, every vector (0, c) is the vector of � �
decrease of the function f value at the point x̄.

Page 204 of 298
Example 9.41. Observe that the formula 9.14 implies that the directional derivative∇h f (x)
depends linearly on the coordinates of the vector h: for every – ∈ R we have ∇–h f (x) = –∇h f (x) Go Back
and ∇h1 +h2 f (x) = ∇h1 f (x) + ∇h2 f (x). It can be useful when examining the diÄerentiability of a
given function. To illustrate this problem we examine whether the function Full Screen
�
�
� x211+x22 dla (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0),
x2 x2
f (x1 , x2 ) = �
Close
�
�
� 0 dla (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 0).
Quit
is diÄerentiable at the point (0, 0). At this point the directional derivative along a non-zero vector
h = (h1 , h2 ) is equal
f (th1 , th2 ) − f (0, 0) −0

h21 h2 t3
(h1 t)2 +(h2 t)2 h21 h2
∇h f (0, 0) = lim = lim = (9.15)
h21 + h22
.
t→0 t t→0 t
Home Page
If h = (0, 0), then of course ∇h f (0, 0) = 0. Therefore, the function f has at the point (0, 0) the
directional derivative along any vector h ∈ R2 , but the dependence of ∇h f (0, 0) on h is not linear. Title Page
Indeed, the formula 9.15 implies that ∇(1,0) f (0, 0) = ∇(0,1) f (0, 0) = 0, but
Contents
∇(1,1) f (0, 0) = 1
2 ≠ ∇(1,0) f (0, 0) + ∇(0,1) f (0, 0),
��
that is the directional derivative is not linear on h. Consequently, the function f is not diÄerentiable
at the point (0, 0). � �
Concluding this subsection we generalize the definition 9.19 to the case of partial derivatives
Page 205 of 298
of arbitrary orders.
Definition 9.42. Let m ≥ 1 be an arbitrary integer. The partial derivative of the order m Go Back
with respect to the variables xim , . . . , xi1 is the following:
Full Screen
(x̄) = � �. . . �� (x̄) ,
ˆ mf ˆ ˆ ˆf
(9.16)
ˆxim ˆxim−1 . . . ˆxi1 ˆxim ˆxim−1 ˆxi1
Close
assuming that the expression on the right hand side is well defined.
Quit
The notion of the continuous diÄerentiability can also be generalized to the case of derivatives
of higher orders.
Definition 9.43. Let m be any integer.
a) If all partial derivatives of the m-th order of a function f are continuous at any point of an
open set A, then we say that f is m-times continuously diÄerentiable on the set A (in other
words f is of class C m on A). If A is the whole domain of the function f , then we say that f is
Home Page
m-times continuously diÄerentiable.
b) If f is m−times diÄerentiable for any m ∈ N, then we say that this function is infinitely Title Page
many times diÄerentiable (it is of: class C ∞ ).

Example 9.44. All functions considered in the example 9.38 are of class C ∞ . Contents
��
Exercises
9.22. (?) Compute the directional derivative ∇h f (x̄), if: � �
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + 3x1 x2 + 2x22 + x1 − x2 , x̄ = (1, 2), h = (3, 2),

b) f (x1 , x2 ) = ex1 sin x2 , x̄ = �1, fi2 �, h = (1, −1), Page 206 of 298
�
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = �x1 x2 �, x̄ = (0, 0), h = (1, −1).
� Go Back
9.23. (?) Verify that the function f (x1 , x2 ) = �x1 x2 � has partial derivatives in a neighborhood
of the point x̄ = (0, 0) but they are not continuous at this point. Full Screen
9.24. (?) Prove that all functions below are continuously diÄerentiable:
a) f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + 5x32 − 4x1 x2 − 10,
Close
�
b) f (x1 , x2 ) = ln �2 + x21 + x22 + 1�,
c) f (x1 , x2 ) = sin(cos x1 + cos x2 ),
Quit
d) f (x1 , x2 ) = 2+sin
x1
x2 .
9.25. (?) Verify whether the vector h is the vector of increase or of decrease of the function f
values at the point x̄, if:
a) f (x) = x21 x2 + x32 , x̄ = (1, −1), h = (0, −2),
b) f (x) = ln(x21 + 2x22 ), x̄ = (0, 1), h = (1, 3),
�
� x2 +x2
� x11 +x22 dla x1 + x2 ≠ 0,
Home Page
c) f (x) = � x̄ = (0, 1), h = (2, −3),

�
� + =
� 0 dla x 1 x 2 0,
d) function as in (c), x̄ = (0, 0), h = (1, 1),
Title Page
e) function as in (c), x̄ = (0, 0), h = (−1, 1).

Contents
9.6. Appendix. Extrema of multivariable functions ��
We will formulate the conditions of existence of local extrema of a function f ∶ X → R, where � �

X ⊂ Rk . For k = 2 these conditions are the same as those formulated before.
Theorem 9.45 (Necessary condition of an extremum existence). If a set X ⊂ Rk is

Page 207 of 298
non-empty and open, a function f ∶ X → R is diÄerentiable in a neighborhood of a point x̄ ∈ X and Go Back
has a local extremum at this point, then

Full Screen
fx′ i (x̄) = 0 for each i = 1, . . . , k. (9.17)
Close
Given a square matrix A = [aij ]k×k and numbers p = 1, . . . , k, we denote
Quit
Dp (A) = det[aij ]i,j=1,...,p .
More extensively:
�a a a �
� � � 11 12 13 �
� a11 a12 � � �
D1 (A) = det[a11 ], D2 (A) = det �� , D3 (A) = det � a21 a22 a23 � , . . . , Dk (A) = det A. (9.18)
� � �
� a21 a22 � � �
� � � a31 a32 a33 �
� � Home Page
Theorem 9.46 (SuÖcient condition of an extremum existence). Assume that a function Title Page
f ∶ X → R is twice continuously diÄerentiable in some neighborhood of a point x̄, which satisfies the
condition 9.17. Then: Contents
a) If Dp (f ′′ (x̄)) > 0 for all p = 1, . . . , k, then f has a local minimum at x̄ .

b) If (−1)p Dp (f ′′ (x̄)) > 0 (that is Dp �fx′′1 ,x1 (x̄)� are positive for even p and negative for odd ��
p), then f has a local maximum at x̄.

� �
c) If Dp (f ′′ (x̄)) is negative for some even p or there exist odd numbers p, q such that Dp (f ′′ (x̄))
and Dq (f ′′ (x̄)) have diÄerent signs, then f has no local extremum at the point x̄.
Page 208 of 298
Example 9.47. Consider the function (or rather a family of functions indexed by a real para-
meter a): Go Back
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 2 + ax2 2 + 3 x3 2 + 4 x1 x2 + 2 x3 + 6 x1 − 3 x2 .
Full Screen
The function is of class C 2 (even C ∞ ). Therefore, we can apply two latest theorems. Stationary
points satisfy the system Close
fx′ 1 = 2x1 + 4x2 + 6 = 0, fx′ 2 = 2ax2 + 4x1 − 3 = 0, fx′ 3 = 6x3 + 2 = 0. Quit

The Hessian M of f is the following:
�2 4 0�
� �
� �
M = �� 4 2 a 0 �� .
� �
�0 0 6�
� � Home Page
According to 9.18 we have: Title Page
� �
�2 4 �
�
D1 (M ) = 2, D2 (M ) = det � � , D3 (M ) = det M = 6(4a − 16).
�
Contents
� 4 2a �
� �
��
We can formulate some conclusions now:
a) If a = 5, then the function has one stationary point (−18, 15 2 , − 3 ). We have D2 (M ) = 4 > 0,
1
� �
D3 (M ) = 24 > 0, so the function has a local minimum.
b) If a = 1, then the function has one stationary point, while if a = 4, then there is no stationary Page 209 of 298
points. In both cases there is no local extremum.

c) For any parameter a the value D1 (M ) is positive. Therefore, the function has no local Go Back
maximum.
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Home Page
Solutions and answers Contents
��
� �
10.1. Solutions and answers to chapter 1
Page 210 of 298
1.1. a) We will solve the problem using the method presented in 1.2 (the considered formula is
denoted by w in the last column).
Go Back
p q p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼p ∼q (∼ p) ∨ (∼ q) w
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 Full Screen
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 .
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 Close
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Quit
p q p⇒q ∼p ∼q (∼ q) ⇒ (∼ p) w
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
b) 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 .
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
Home Page
1 1 1 0 0 1 1
p q p⇒q ∼p (∼ p) ∨ q w Title Page
0 0 1 1 1 1
c) 0 1 1 1 1 1 . Contents
1 0 0 0 0 1
��
1 1 1 0 1 1
p q p⇒q q⇒p (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p) p⇔q w � �
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
d) 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 . Page 211 of 298
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Go Back
e) We could prove this problem using the 0 − 1 method, but we will do it in other way – by
contradiction (reductio ad absurdum). Assume that the considered formula is false that is that the Full Screen
formula p ⇒ r is false, and the formula (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ r) is true. The formula p ⇒ r is false in

case, where the statement p is true, and the statement r is false. The formula (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ r) is
Close
true if both p ⇒ q, q ⇒ r are true. Since p is true, and p ⇒ q is true, then q is also true. Therefore,
since q ⇒ r is true, we have that r has to be true. We obtained a contradiction which means that
Quit
the considered formula is a tautology.

1.2. a) It is a tautology.
b) It is not a tautology: if one of the statements p, q is true, and the other is false then the
formula (p ∨ q) ⇒ (p ∧ q) is false.
c) It is not a tautology.
Home Page
d) It is a tautology.
1.3. a) It is false only in case where w (p) = 0 and w (q) = 0.
b) It is true if w(p) = w(q).
Title Page
c) It is true if w (p) = 0 and w (q) = 1, or w (p) = 1 and w (q) = 1.

1.4. p ∨ q ⇔ (∼ ((∼ p) ∧ (∼ q))).
Contents
1.5. p ∧ q ⇔ (∼ ((∼ p) ∨ (∼ q))). ��

1.6. p ∧ q ⇔ (∼ (p ⇒ (∼ q))).
1.7. Applying de Morgan’s law for conjunction negation we obtain � �
x ∈ (A ∩ B) ⇔ x ∉ A ∩ B ⇔ ∼ (x ∈ A ∩ B) ⇔ ∼ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B) ⇔
′
Page 212 of 298
⇔ (∼ x ∈ A) ∨ (∼ x ∈ B) ⇔ x ∈ A′ ∨ x ∈ B ′ ⇔ x ∈ A′ ∪ B ′
Go Back
for each element x. Therefore, sets (A ∩ B) and ∪ B′

′
A′ are equal.
1.8. a) Observe that if we take an arbitrary element x ∈ X, then the formula(x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ A′ ), Full Screen
equivalent to the formula (x ∈ A ∨ x ∉ A), is true. Therefore, A ∪ A′ = X.

b) There is no x ∈ X for which the formula (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ A) has the logical value equal to 1, so Close
A ∩ A′ = �.
c) x ∈ A − B ⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B) ⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ′ ) ⇔ x ∈ A ∩ B ′ .
Quit
d) x ∈ A ⇒ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ⇔ x ∈ A ∪ B.
e) Applying de Morgan’s law we obtain
x ∈ (A − (B ∪ C)) ⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ (B ∪ C)) ⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ (x ∉ B ∧ x ∉ C)) ⇔

⇔ ((x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ C)) ⇔ x ∈ (A − B) ∩ (A − C) .
Home Page
f) Similarly as in e) we get
Title Page
x ∈ (A − (B ∩ C)) ⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ (B ∩ C)) ⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ (x ∉ B ∨ x ∉ C)) ⇔

⇔ ((x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B) ∨ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ C)) ⇔ x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
Contents
��
g) Observe that
� �
(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ C) ⇒ (x ∈ A ⇒ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ C)) ⇔ (x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B ∩ C) .
Therefore, A ⊂ B ∧ A ⊂ C ⇒ A ⊂ B ∩ C.
Page 213 of 298
h) We have
Go Back
(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ C) ∧ (x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ C) ⇒ ((x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ⇒ x ∈ C) ⇔ (x ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ x ∈ C) ,
Full Screen
so A ⊂ C ∧ B ⊂ C ⇒ A ∪ B ⊂ C.
Close
1.9. We could repeat the solution of the example 1.7, but we make use of the formula proven
there, and we apply the tautology ∼ (∼ p) ⇔ p. Substituting the predicate Ï (x) by the predicate
∼ Ï (x) in the formula∼ � Ï (x) ⇔ � ∼ Ï (x), we obtain ∼ � ∼ Ï (x) ⇔ � Ï (x). Then we have
Quit
x∈X x∈X x∈X x∈X

∼ �∼ � ∼ Ï (x)� ⇔∼ � Ï (x), that is � ∼ Ï (x) ⇔∼ � Ï (x).
′
x∈X x∈X x∈X x∈X
1.10. Substituting the set Ai by its complement A′i in the formula � � Ai � = � A′i , we obtain
′ ′
i∈I i∈I
� � A′i � = � A′′i = � Ai . Therefore, we have � A′i = � � Ai � .

�
i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I Home Page
�
� � for t ≤ 0,
1.11. Observe that At = � √ √ Then � At = R, � At = �.
�
� �− >
�∞ t, t� for t 0. t∈R t∈R Title Page
∞
1.12. a) � An = �−1, 1�, � An = {0}.
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
Contents
b) � An = (−1, 1), � An = {0}.

n=1 n=1
∞ ∞ ��
c) � An = �− 23 , 2�, � An = �.
n=1 n=1
1.13. Assume that fl is irreflexive and transitive, and it is not asymmetric (proof by the con-
� �
tradiction). Therefore, there exist elements x, y ∈ X, such that (x, y) ∈ fl ∧ (y, x) ∈ fl. Then, using
transitivity, we have (x, y) ∈ fl ∧ (y, x) ∈ fl ⇒ (x, x) ∈ fl, which is contradictory to irreflexivity. So Page 214 of 298
the relation fl is asymmetric.
1.14. a) It is reflexive, because k�k for each k ∈ N; it is not symmetric, because e.g. 3�6, but it Go Back
is not true that 6�3; it is antisymmetric, because if k is divisible by n, and n is divisible by k, then
n = k; it is transitive, because if n�k and m�n, then m�k (k = l1 n, n = l2 m, where l1 , l2 ∈ N, then Full Screen
k = l1 l2 m); it is not total, because e.g. it is not true that 12�5 or 5�12.
b) It is reflexive (for each x ∈ R we have �x� = �x�), symmetric Close
xfly ⇔ �x� = �y� ⇔ �y� = �x� ⇔ yflx, Quit

transitive
xfly ∧ yflz ⇔ �x� = �y� ∧ �y� = �z� ⇒ �x� = �z� ⇔ xflz,
it is not antisymmetric, it is not total.

c) It is irreflexive (for each x ∈ R it is not true that x < x), asymmetric (if x < y, then not true Home Page
that y < x), antisymmetric (it follows from asymmetry), transitive

Title Page
xfly ∧ yflz ⇔ x < y ∧ y < z ⇒ x < z ⇔ xflz,

Contents
it is not total, because it is not reflexive (if we take x = y, then the statements xfly and yflx are
false). ��
d) It is irreflexive, (for each x ∈ R the statement x − x = 2 is false), asymmetric (if x − y = 2, then
it is not true that y − x = 2), antisymmetric (as in case b), it is not transitive nor total. � �
e) It is reflexive (for each x ∈ R we have sgn x = sgn x), symmetric (xfly ⇔ sgn x = sgn y ⇔
⇔ sgn y = sgn x ⇔ yflx), and transitive Page 215 of 298
xfly ∧ yflz ⇔ sgn x = sgn y ∧ sgn y = sgn z ⇒ sgn x = sgn z ⇔ xflz, Go Back
it is not antisymmetric not total. Full Screen
f) It is not reflexive nor irreflexive, it is symmetric, it is not antisymmetric, it is not transitive,

it is not total. Close
1.15. a) The relation fl is reflexive (for every set A ⊂ R we have A ⊂ A), antisymmetric (if A ⊂ B
and B ⊂ A, then A = B), and transitive (A ⊂ B ∧ B ⊂ C ⇒ A ⊂ C). It is then the partial ordering.
Quit
b) The considered relation is not total, for example ∼ (�0, 2� ⊂ �1, 3�) and ∼ (�1, 3� ⊂ �0, 2�).
Therefore, it is not a total ordering.
1.16. The relation fl is reflexive, because �x1 �+�x2 � ≤ �x1 �+�x2 � for any (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R×R, is transitive,
because the condition
�x1 � + �x2 � ≤ �y1 � + �y2 � ∧ �y1 � + �y2 � ≤ �z1 � + �z2 �
Home Page
implies that �x1 � + �x2 � ≤ �z1 � + �z2 �, but it is not antisymmetric, since for example we have Title Page
(−1, 2) fl (−2, 1) ∧ (−2, 1) fl (−1, 2) , Contents
but (−1, 2) =� (−2, 1). Therefore, this relation is not partial nor total ordering. ��
1.17. a) The relation fl is reflexive, because for each (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R × R we have (x1 , x2 ) fl (x1 , x2 )
(basing on the third part of the disjunction). It is transitive – to prove this fact we will consider � �
following cases (we assume that (x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y 2 ) ∧ (y1 , y2 ) fl (z1 , z 2 )):
1) (x1 < y1 ) ∧ (y1 < z1 ∨ (y1 = z1 ∧ y2 < z2 ) ∨ (y1 = z1 ∧ y2 = z2 )), Page 216 of 298
we have x1 < z1 , and (x1 , x2 ) fl (z1 , z2 );

2) ((x1 = y1 ∧ x2 < y2 ) ∨ (x1 = y1 ∧ x2 = y2 )) ∧ (y1 < z1 ), Go Back
we have x1 < z1 , and (x1 , x2 ) fl (z1 , z2 );

3) (x1 = y1 ∧ x2 < y2 ) ∧ ((y1 = z1 ∧ y2 < z2 ) ∨ (y1 = z1 ∧ y2 = z2 )),
Full Screen
then x1 = z1 ∧ x2 < z2 , so (x1 , x2 ) fl (z1 , z2 );

4) (x1 = y1 ∧ x2 = y2 ) ∧ (y1 = z1 ∧ y2 = z2 ),
Close
then x1 = z1 ∧ x2 = z2 , and (x1 , x2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ). Quit

The relation is antisymmetric, because the condition
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y 2 ) ∧ (y1 , y2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) ,
is satisfied if and only if x1 = y1 ∧ x2 = y2 . Therefore, (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y 2 ). So we have proven that it Home Page
is the partial ordering.

b) The relation fl is total – any two elements (x1 , x2 ) , (y1 , y 2 ) ∈ R × R, satisfy the condition Title Page
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y 2 ) ∨ (y1 , y 2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) . Contents
Therefore, it is a total ordering. The relation fl is called the lexicographic ordering. ��
1.18. The relation is reflexive, because it includes all pairs (a, a) , (b, b) , (c, c) , (d, d) ,
(e, e). It is symmetric, because it includes pairs (b, c) , (c, b) , (d, e) , (e, d). It is also transitive. � �
Equivalence classes are the sets: [a]fl = {a}, [b]fl = {b, c}, [d]fl = {d, e}.
1.19. a) The relation fl is reflexive: k − k = 0 = 3 ⋅ 0, for any k ∈ N; it is symmetric: if
Page 217 of 298
k − n = 3p, then n − k = −3p = 3 ⋅ (−p); it is transitive: if k − n = 3p and n − l = 3q, then

k − l = 3(p + q); so it is an equivalence relation. Equivalence classes of this relation are the fol-
Go Back
lowing: [1]fl = {1, 4, 7, 10, ...}, [2]fl = {2, 5, 8, 11, ...}, [3]fl = {3, 6, 9, 12, ...}.
b) It is not an equivalence relation, because it is not reflexive – e.g. ∼ 2fl2.
Full Screen
c) fl is reflexive, because x2 = x2 for any x ∈ R; it is symmetric, because x2 = y 2 ⇒ y 2 = x2 for Close
all x, y ∈ R; it is transitive, because x2 = y 2 ∧ y 2 = z 2 ⇒ x2 = z 2 for all x, y, z ∈ R. Therefore, fl is an

equivalence relation and its equivalence classes are: [0]fl = {0}, [x]fl = {x, −x} for all x ≠ 0. Quit
d) It is an equivalence relation (see the solution in the case c). Its equivalence classes are:
[0]fl = {kfi, k ∈ C}, [x]fl = {x + 2kfi, k ∈ C} for all x ≠ 0.
e) It is an equivalence relation (see the solution in the case c). Its equivalence classes are:
[(0, 0)] fl = {(0, 0)} , [(x, y)]fl = {(u, w) ∈ R2 ∶ u2 + w2 = x2 + y 2 } for x2 + y 2 ≠ 0 (so it is the set in-
cluding only the point (0, 0), and circles with the center in this point, and the radius equal to
�
x2 + y 2 ).
Home Page
1.20. a) The relation fl is reflexive, because x1 − x1 = x2 − x2 = 0 ∈ C; symmetric, because

Title Page
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ (x1 − y1 = k ∧ x2 − y2 = k) ⇒ (y1 − x1 = −k ∧ y2 − x2 = −k) ⇒ (y1 , y2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) ,

Contents
where k, −k ∈ C; and transitive: if (x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) and (y1 , y2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ), then

��
(x1 − y1 = k1 ∧ x2 − y2 = k1 ) ∧ (y1 − z1 = k2 ∧ y2 − z2 = k2 ) ⇒ x1 − z1 = k1 + k2 ∧ x2 − z2 = k1 + k2 .
� �
b) [(1, 2)]fl = {(k, k + 1) ∶ k ∈ C} .

Page 218 of 298
1.21. a) The relation fl is obviously reflexive, it is symmetric, because
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ x21 − x22 = y12 − y22 ⇒ �y12 − y22 = x21 − x22 � ⇒ (y1 , y2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) ,
Go Back
Full Screen
and transitive:
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ∧ (y1 , y2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ) ⇔ �x21 − x22 = y12 − y22 � ∧ �y12 − y22 = z12 − z22 � ⇒ x21 − x22 = z12 − z22 . Close
b) [(1, 1)]fl = {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ x21 − x22 = 0 ⇔ �x1 � = �x2 �}. Therefore, it is the set containing the Quit
point (0, 0), and vertices of squares with the center at the origin (0, 0) and sides parallel to axes.
1.22. a) fl is reflexive, because (x − x) �x − x1 � = 0, symmetric, because if xfly, then
(x − y) �x − y1 � = 0 ⇔ �x = y ∨ x = y1 � ⇔ �y = x ∨ y = x1 � ⇔ (y − x) �y − x1 � = 0
for x, y ∈ R−{0}, then yflx. It is also transitive – in order to prove this fact we consider the following Home Page
cases (we assume that xfly ∧ yflz ):

1) x − y = 0 ∧ y − z = 0 ⇒ x − z = 0 ⇒ xflz, Title Page
2) x − y = 0 ∧ y − z1 = 0 ⇒ x − z1 = 0 ⇒ xflz,
3) x − y1 = 0 ∧ y − z = 0 ⇒ x − z1 = 0 ⇒ xflz, Contents
4) x − y1 = 0 ∧ y − z1 = 0 ⇒ x − z = 0 ⇒ xflz.
��
b) � 12 �fl = { 12 , 2}.
1.23. a) fl is reflexive, because x2 − x2 = 0 ∈ C. Therefore, xflx for all x ∈ R, symmetric, since
� �
x2 − y 2 = k ⇒ y 2 − x2 = −k, where k, −k ∈ C, so xfly ⇒ yflx; it is also transitive, because if xfly and
yflz , then Page 219 of 298
x 2 − y 2 = k1 ∧ y 2 − z 2 = k2 ⇒ x 2 − z 2 = k1 + k 2 ,
where k1 , k2 , k1 + k2 ∈ C,so xflz. Go Back

√ √ √
b) � 2�fl = { k + 2, − k + 2; k ∈ C}.
Full Screen
1.24. a) fl is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive (see the solution of the exercise 1.23).
b) � 12 � = { 2k+1
2 ; k ∈ C}. Close
1.25. a) fl is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive (see the solution of the exercise 1.23).
√ √
b) � 2�fl = {w + 2 ∶ w ∈ W}. Quit
1.26. a) fl is reflexive, because x1 − x1 = x2 − x2 for all (x1 , x2 ) ∈ N2 , so (x1 , x2 ) fl (x1 , x2 );
symmetric, because
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ x1 − y1 = x2 − y2 ⇔ y1 − x1 = y2 − x2 ⇔ (y1 , y2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) ;
and transitive, because Home Page
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ∧ (y1 , y2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) ⇔ x1 − y1 = x2 − y2 ∧ y1 − z1 = y2 − z2 ⇒ Title Page
⇒ x1 − z1 = x2 − z2 ⇔ (x1 , x2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ) .
Contents
b) [(2, 1)]fl = {(1 + n, n) ∶ n ∈ N} .

��
1.27. a) fl is reflexive, because (x1 + x2 )2 = (x1 + x2 ) for x ∈ R2 ; symmetric, since
2
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ (x1 + x2 ) = (y1 + y2 ) ⇔ (y1 + y2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) ⇔ (y1 , y2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) ;

2 2 2 2 � �
and transitive because the condition Page 220 of 298
(x1 + x2 ) = (y1 + y2 ) ∧ (y1 + y2 ) = (z1 + z2 ) ⇒ (x1 + x2 ) = (z1 + z2 )

2 2 2 2 2 2 Go Back
implies that (x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ∧ (y1 , y2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ) ⇒ (x1 , x2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ) . Full Screen
b) [(1, 3)]fl = {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ �x1 + x2 � = 4}.

Close
1.28. a) fl is reflexive
sin (x1 − x2 ) = sin (x1 − x2 ) for (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R × R, Quit

symmetric
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ⇔ sin (x1 − x2 ) = sin (y1 − y2 ) ⇔

⇔ sin (y1 − y2 ) = sin (x1 − x2 ) ⇔ (y1 , y2 ) fl (x1 , x2 ) ,
Home Page
and transitive
Title Page
(x1 , x2 ) fl (y1 , y2 ) ∧ (y1 , y2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ) ⇔

⇔ sin (x1 − x2 ) = sin (y1 − y2 ) ∧ sin (y1 − y2 ) = sin (z1 − z2 ) ⇒
Contents
⇒ sin (x1 − x2 ) = sin (z1 − z2 ) ⇔ (x1 , x2 ) fl (z1 , z2 ) . ��
b) �� 12 fi, − 12 fi��fl = {(x + kfi, x) ∶ x ∈ R ∧ k ∈ C}. � �

1.29. a) See the solution of the exercise 1.28.
b) �� 14 fi, − 14 fi��fl = ��x + 2k+1
2 fi, x� ∶ x ∈ R ∧ k ∈ C�.
Page 221 of 298
1.30. a) The condition n + 2y − 3 = 0 implies that (n, y) ∈ f if and only if y = 2 .

n+3
Therefore, for
every n ∈ N we have Go Back
(n, y1 ) ∈ f ∧ (n, y2 ) ∈ f ⇒ y1 = y2 = n+3

2 ∈ W.
Full Screen
Therefore, f is a mapping.
b) For n > 2 there is no k ∈ N such that n + k = 2, then f is not a mapping (Df ≠ N). Close
c) It is a mapping.
d) It is not a mapping, e.g. (1, −1) ∈ f ∧ (1, 1) ∈ f . Quit
e) It is not a mapping, e.g. (0, 0) ∈ f ∧ (0, fi) ∈ f .
�
�
� 2x for x ≥ 0,
1.31. Observe that f (x) = � Then we have f (�−1, 1�) = �0, 2�, f (�1, 2�) = �2, 4�,
�
� 0 for x < 0.
�
f −1 ({0}) = (−∞, 0�, f −1 (�0, +∞)) = (−∞, +∞).
1.32. The function f can be written as f (x) = (x + 2)(x − 1). The vertex of the parabola, which Home Page
is the graph of f , has the coordinates(− 12 , − 94 ), and x−intercepts are points (−2, 0) and (1, 0). Then
f (�−2, 1�) = �− 94 , 0�, f (R) = �− 94 , +∞�, f (�−2, 0�) = �− 94 , 0�, f −1 ({0}) = {−2, 1}, f −1 (R) = R. Title Page
1.33. f ��− 12 fi, 12 fi�� = �−1, 1�, f (R) = �−1, 1�, f −1 ({0}) = {kfi ∶ k ∈ C},
f −1 ��0, 12 �� = � ��2kfi, 16 fi + 2kfi� ∪ � 56 fi + 2kfi, 2 (k + 1) fi��, f −1 (R) = R.
Contents
k∈C
1.34. a) g ○ f ∶ R → R, (g ○ f ) (x) = (2x − 1) .
2
��
b) g ○ f ∶ R+ → R+ , (g ○ f ) (x) = x.
1.35. g ○ f ∶ R+ − {0} → R+ − {0}, (g ○ f ) (x) = x2 , f ○ g ∶ R → R, (f ○ g) (x) = 2x. � �
1.36. a) If f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then
Page 222 of 298
x1
x1 +1 = x2
x2 +1 ⇔ x1 x2 + x1 = x1 x2 + x2 ⇔ x1 = x2 ,
Go Back
so f is an injection.
b) The function f is the superposition of two injections: g ∶ (0, +∞) → R+ , g(x) = x2 i h ∶ R+ → R, Full Screen
h(x) = ln x, f = h ○ g, so it is an injection.
c) It is an injection (as a superposition of two injections). Close
d) It is not injective – it is constant function, f (x) = fi2 for all x ∈ �−1, 1�.

Quit
� √
2.1 a) f (−1) = 1 − (−1) = 2, f (2) = (2 − 2)3 + 1 = 1, so f (−1) > f (2).
b) The graph is shown at the figure 10.1.
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
��
� �
Figure 10.1: The graph of the function in the exercise 2.1
Page 223 of 298
c) f (X) = �0, ∞).

d)f ∶ X → Y , where X = R and Y = R, f (X) ≠ Y . The function f is not a surjection. Go Back
e) The function is decreasing in (−∞, 1).

f) The function has the local minimum at the point x = 1. Full Screen
2.2 a) The graph is shown at the figure 10.2.

b) f (X) = R. Close
�
� �
�
�
�x ≤ 2 �
�x > 2
c) f (x) > 0 ⇔� or � ⇔
�
�−x 2 − 2x + 1 > 0 �
��log (x − � >
Quit
�
� �
� 2 2) 0
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 10.2: The graph of the function in the exercise 2.2 Contents
�
�
��
√ √ �
�x > 2 √ √
x ∈ (− 2 − 1, 2 − 1) or � ⇔ x ∈ (− 2 − 1, 2 − 1) ∪ (2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
�
�
�log2 (x − 2) ≠ 0
� � �
�
� �
�
�
�x ≤ 2 �
�x > 2
d)f (x) > 0 ⇔� or � ⇔
� �
Page 224 of 298
�
� −x 2 − 2x + 1 ≤ 2 �
� �log2 (x − 2) � ≤ 2
� �
�
�
�
�x > 2
Go Back
x ≤ 2 or � ⇔ x ∈ (−∞, 2� ∪ � 94 , 6�.
�
�
�−2 ≤log2 (x − 2) ≤ 2
� Full Screen
e) The function is increasing in the intervals: (−∞, −1), (2, ∞).

f) Local maximum of the function f is attained at the point x = −1, while local minima are at Close
points x = 2 and x = 3.
Quit
�
�
�
�x−1≥0 �
�
�
� �
�
�x ≥ 1
2.3 a) �x + 2 ≥ 0 ⇔ � ⇔ x ≥ 1.
�
� �
�
�
�
�
�
√ �x > −2
�
� x+2≠0
�
� �
�
�
� x+2 ≥ 0 �
�(x − 1)(x + 2) ≥ 0
Home Page
x−1
b) � ⇔ � ⇔ x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ �1, ∞).
�
� �
�
�x + 2 ≠ 0
� �x ≠ −2
� Title Page
c) 2x+1 − 1 > 0 ⇔ x + 1 > 0 ⇔ x > −1.

�
�
�
�
�x ∈ (−2, 2)
Contents
�
�
�
�
� �
� �
�
�
� 4 − x2 > 0 �
� (2 − x)(2 + x) > 0 �
�x>0
�
�
� �
�
� �
�
�
��
d) �x > 0 ⇔ �x > 0 ⇔ �log2 x ≠ 0 ⇔ x ∈ (0, 2) − � 12 , 1� .
�
�
� �
�
� �
�
�
�
�
� �
�
� �
�
� � �
� (log 3 − log x ≠ 0
� log ((log 2 − 1) ≠ 0
�
�log2 x ≠ 1
�
x) x x)
�
2 2 2 2
�
�
�
�log x ≠ −1
� 2 Page 225 of 298
2.4 We conclude basing on the graphs of considered functions.
a) f is surjective and injective so it is a one-to-one correspondence.
Go Back
b) f is injective, but not surjective, so it is not a bijection.
c) f is surjective but not injective, so it is not a bijection. Full Screen
2.5 a) For example X = �0, fi�, Y = �−1, 1�. b) For example X = �− fi2 , fi2 �, Y = �0, 1�.
c) For example X = �0, fi�, Y = R. d) For example X = R, Y = R. Close
2.6 a) f is decreasing. For x1 , x2 ∈ R we have x1 < x2 ⇔ −2x1 > −2x2 ⇔ −2x1 + 5 > −2x2 + 5.
b) f is decreasing. For x1 , x2 ∈ (− 13 , ∞) such that x1 < x2 we have 3x1 + 1 < 3x2 + 1. Therefore, Quit
taking into account the fact that the function y = log0,5 x is decreasing, we obtain
log0,5 (3x1 + 1) > log0,5 (3x2 + 1).
√
c) f is not monotonic. It is enough to note that for example f (−2) = 2, f (−1) = 0 and
√
f (1) = 2.
Additionally we can show that f decreases in the interval (−∞, −1�, and increases in the
interval�0, ∞). Notice that y = x2 + x = (x + 12 )2 − 14 decreases in the interval (−∞, − 12 ), and in-
Home Page
creases in (− 12 , ∞). Therefore, for x1 , x2 ∈(−∞, −1� such that x1 < x2 , we have x21 +x1 > x22 +x2 . Since
√ � �
y = x is an increasing function, we get x21 + x1 > x22 + x2 . For x1 , x2 ∈�0, ∞) such that x1 < x2
Title Page
� �
we have x21 + x1 < x22 + x2 . Therefore, x21 + x1 < x22 + x2 .
2.7 a) No, the function f + g do not have to be injective. For example f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x and
Contents
g ∶ R → R, g(x) = −x are injections, and the function (f + g)(x) = x + (−x) = 0 is not injective. ��
b) No - similarly as in a).
c) Yes. Take x1 < x2 , functions f and g are increasing. Therefore, f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) and g(x1 ) < g(x2 ). � �
So we have also f (x1 ) + g(x1 ) < f (x2 ) + g(x1 ) < f (x2 ) + g(x2 ).
2.8 a) f (A) = {6, 9, 12}, f −1 (B) = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Page 226 of 298
b) f (A) = �−5, −1�, f −1 (B) = (−∞, 1� ∪ �3, ∞).

c) f (A) = (0, 1�, f −1 (B) = �−1, 0� ∪ �2, 3�.
√ √ √ √
Go Back
d) f (A) = �0, 9�, f −1 (B) = �−4, − 14) ∪ (−2, − 2� ∪ � 2, 2) ∪ ( 14, 4�.

e) f (A) = �5, 7�, f −1 (B) = �0, 1� ∪ �− 12 , 32 � .
Full Screen
√
f) f (A) = �− 3, ∞), f −1 (B) = � fi3 , fi2 ) ∪ �fi, ∞).
g) f (A) = (−∞, 6�, f −1 (B) = (0, 13 ) ∪ (3, 4).
Close
√
h) If x ∈ � 14 fi, 34 fi�, then sin x ∈ � 22 , 1� and log2 (sin x) ∈ �− 12 , 0�. f (A) = �− 12 , 0�.
Quit
�
� �
�
�
� x ∈ (0, fi) �
� x ∈ (0, fi) �
�
�
� �
�
� �
�
�x ∈ (0, fi)
�log2 (sin x) ≤ 1 ⇔ �sin x ≤ 2 ⇔ � ⇔ x ∈ � 61 fi, 56 fi�. f −1 (B) = � 16 fi, 56 fi�.
�
� �
� �
�
�
� �
� �sin x ≥ 2
�
1
�
� (sin ≥ −1 �
� ≥
� 2 �
1
log x) sin x 2
2.9 a) g ○ f ∶ R → R, g ○ f (x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 1) = sin(2x + 1) + cos(2x + 1). Home Page
f ○ g ∶ R → R, f ○ g(x) = f (g(x)) = f (sin x + cos x) = 2(sin x + cos x) + 1.

b) We check, whether the condition f (R) ⊂ (−∞, 0) holds. It is easy to notice that f (x) = 1+x 1
2 ≥ 0 Title Page
for x ∈ R. Therefore, the range of the function f is not included in the domain of the function g,
so we cannot define the superposition g ○ f , Contents
f ○ g ∶ (−∞, 0) → R,f ○ g(x) = f (g(x)) = f (log3 (−x)) = 1+(log31(−x))2 .

��
2 < 1 ⇔x
c) Observe that 1+x 2 2 > 1 ⇔ x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞). So g ○ f ∶ R → R, g(f (x)) =
�
�
�
� 2 − 1 for x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞),
6
= � 1+x � �
�
�
� for x ∈ �−1, 1�.
� (1+x2 )2
4
�
�
�
�
2
for x < 1
f ○ g ∶ R → R, f ○ g(x) = f (g(x)) = � 1+(3x−1)
Page 227 of 298
2
�
�
� for x ≥ 1.
� 1+x4
2
2.10 a) Yes. If g(f (x1 )) = g(f (x2 )), then the injectivity if g implies f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), and the
Go Back
injectivity of f implies x1 = x2 .
b) Yes. Take any z ∈ Z.We want to show that there exists x ∈ X such that g(f (x)) = z. The
Full Screen
function g transforms the set Y onto the set Z, so there exists y ∈ Y such that g(y) = z. The Close
function f transforms the set X onto the set Y . Then there exists x ∈ X such that f (x) = y and
g(f (x)) = g(y) = z. Quit
c) Yes. If x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). Therefore, g(f (x1 )) < g(f (x2 )).
d) No. If x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). Therefore, g(f (x1 )) < g(f (x2 )).
e) Yes. If x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). Therefore, g(f (x1 )) > g(f (x2 )).
2.11 a) Yes. Suppose that f is not injective. There exist then x1 , x2 ∈ X, such that x1 ≠ x2 i
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). We have x1 ≠ x2 and g(f (x1 )) = g(f (x2 )). It implies that g ○ f is not injective..
b) No. For example f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x and g ∶ R → R, g(x) = x2 . Then g(f (x)) = 22x .
Home Page
2.12 a) No. f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x − 1 and g ∶ R → �0, ∞), g(x) = x2 . Then g(f (x)) = (2x − 1)2 .
b) Yes. If g is not surjective , then there exists z ∈ Z for which there is no y ∈ Y , such that
Title Page
g(y) = z. Therefore, there is no x ∈ X such that g(f (x)) = z, so f is not surjective.

2.13 a) Y = R, f −1 (y) = 13 y − 13 .
Contents
b) Y = �0, ∞),f −1 (y) = y 2 − 1. ��

c) Y = �0, ∞),f −1 (y) = log5 x − 2.
d) Y = R, f −1 (y) = 3 2−3 . � �
y
√
e) Y = �2, ∞), f −1 (y) = y − 2 + 1.
√
f) Y = �2, ∞), f −1 (y) = − y − 2 + 1. Page 228 of 298
g) Y = R − {1}, f −1 (y) = 2y+4

y−1 .
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
3.1. Since an arithmetic sequence satisfies the condition an+1 − an = r for n ∈ N, we have that
a6 −a3 = 3r, so r = −2. We know that a1 = 2. Therefore, we have: an = a1 +(n−1)r = 2−2(n−1) = 4−2n.
The sum of first ten terms of (an ) is equal to S10 = 10(a12+a10 ) = −70. Home Page
3.2. Since a geometric sequence satisfies the condition aan+1 = q for n ∈ N., we have that aa42 = q 2 ,
so q = 3 or q = −3. Therefore, we have two solutions: an = 2 ⋅ 3n−1 or an = 2 ⋅ (−1) ⋅ 3n−1 . The first
n
n−1 Title Page
solution is an increasing sequence, and the second solution is not monotonic, because its terms are
Contents
alternately positive and negative.
= 3xn+1 −xn = const for n ∈ N. We have that xn
x
3.3. Assumptions of the exercise imply that 33xn+1
��
n
is an arithmetic sequence, such that 9 ⋅ (2x1 + 8r) = −18 ∧ 2x1 + 7r = 0. The solution of this system of
equations is x1 = 7 ∧ r = −2, so xn = 9 − 2n. Fifth term of the sequence 3x1 , 3x2 , 3x3 , . . . is then equal
� �
to 3−1 = 13 . This sequence is bounded from below by 0, and from above by its first term 37 = 2187.
3.4. a) The sequence (an ) is arithmetic with the common diÄerence −3, because an+1 − an = Page 229 of 298
= −3n − 3 − 4 − (−3n − 4) = −3, so it is a decreasing sequence, bounded from above by its first term
a1 = −7 and unbounded from below. Go Back
b) The sequence (bn ) is not monotone as an alternating sequence (positive and negative terms
alternately), it is bounded from above by its first term b1 = 15 , and from below by its second term Full Screen
a2 = − 13
1
.
c) cn = 5 − n+2
11
, so (cn ) is increasing, bounded from above by 5, and from below by c1 = 43 . Close
d) The sequence (dn ) is decreasing, bounded from above by d1 = 0, unbounded from below.
Quit
e) The sequence (en ) is increasing, bounded from below by e1 = 5, unbounded from above.
� 45 �
= = 45 , so (an ) is the geometric sequence with the common ratio equal to
n+1
an+1
3.5. a) an � 45 �
n
q = 45 , and the first term equal to 45 .

bn = 3n+3n ⋅ n! = 3n+3n ⋅ n! = = n. Therefore, bn is not geometric (the ratio of
(n+1)! 3n (n+1)⋅n! 3n (n+1)n
b) bn+1 n+1
Home Page
subsequent term is not constant).
c) (cn ) is not a geometric sequence.
3.6. We can transform the formula for the n−th term of the sequence, and we obtain an =
Title Page
= (5n +3n )⋅(5n −3n )

5n −3n = 5n + 3n . We will check, whether (an ) is an arithmetic sequence calculating the Contents
diÄerence of two subsequent terms

��
an+1 − an = 5n+1 + 3n+1 − (5n + 3n ) = 5 ⋅ 5n − 5n + 3 ⋅ 3n − 3n = 4 ⋅ 5n + 2 ⋅ 3n .
� �
The diÄerence depends on n (is not constant), so it is not an arithmetic sequence. The diÄerence
an+1 − an is always positive. Therefore, our sequence is increasing. Page 230 of 298
3.7.
a) lim (3n − n2 ) = lim n(3 − n) = ∞ ⋅ (−∞) = −∞. Go Back
n→∞ n→∞
3 −1 = lim = 12 , since → 0.
n +13 1+ 13 1
b) lim 2n n
2− 1 n3
n→∞ n→∞ n3 Full Screen
−2n+3+ 22
lim −2n = lim = = −∞.
3 +3n2 +2 −∞
c) 2 −3n+2
n
n→∞ 1− n + n2
n 3 2 1
n→∞
+ 2
+1 = lim
d) lim nn4 +2 = = 0.
1
2 0 Close
n2 n4
n→∞ n→∞ 1+ 14 1
n
Remark: Sequences in cases a) – c) are fractions in which numerator and denominator are
Quit
polynomials of the variable n. Limits of these expressions are indeterminate forms of the kind
∞
, and we calculate them by dividing numerator and denominator by n in the highest power in
∞
denominator (in the case a) we divided by n3 , in b) by n2 , and in c) by n4 ). It is easy to conclude
that if degrees of numerator and denominator are equal, then the limit is equal to the ratio of the
coeÖcients at n in the highest power in numerator and denominator. If the degree of numerator
Home Page
is less than the degree of denominator, then the limit is equal to 0. If the degree of numerator is
greater than the degree of denominator, then the limit is improper, and its sign depends on the
Title Page
signs of coeÖcients at nin the highest power in numerator and denominator.
e) lim (n+1) −(n+2)4
= 0, since the degree of numerator is equal to 3, and the degree of denominator
4
n→∞ (n+1)4
+(n+2)4 Contents
is equal to 4.
√ √ √ � √
= = = = 1 = 1.
2 +3) n(n3 +n2 +3n+3)
√ √ n7√+n5 +9n3 +9n n7 +n5 +9n3 +9n
f) lim n(n+1)(n lim lim lim n +2n ��
√
n→∞ n2 n3 +2)
√ n→∞ n7 +2n4 ) n7 +2n4 )
7 4
n→∞ n→∞
g) lim n2 + 1 − n2 + 3 = lim √nn2+1−(n +3)
= lim √n2 +1+−2√
= −2
∞ = 0. The first transformation
2 2
√
+1+ n2 +3 n2 +3
√ n→∞ √
� �
n→∞ n→∞
√n +1+√n +3
2 2
was multiplying the sequence by 1 written as .
� √ � √ √ n2 +1+ n2 +3
h) lim n + n − n − n = lim � √2 � n
√ = lim � 2�
= 2
= 1.
n→∞ n→∞ n+ n+ n− n n→∞ 1+ √1n + 1+1 √1n 1+1 Page 231 of 298
= ⋅ = 1 ⋅ 0 = 0.
2 +2n+5
lim n n+2n+5
2 1
i) lim 2nn (n2 −3) 2 −3 2n
n→∞ n→∞
+1 � 35 � +1
n+1 = lim = lim = 15 .
3n
3 +5
n
n n Go Back
j) lim 1+5 5n
1
+5 1
+5
n→∞ n→∞ 5n n→∞ 5n
k) lim n12 ∑nk=1 k = = 12 . The first transformation uses the formula for the sum of n
1
n(n+1)
lim n2
2
Full Screen
n→∞ n→∞
terms of arithmetic sequence.
l) lim � n+3 � = lim �1 + n3 � n = lim ��1 + n3 � 3 � = e3 .
n n 3
Close
n→∞ n n→∞ n→∞
�1
m) lim − n+2 � = lim ��1 − n+2 � ⋅ �1 − n+2 �� =
1 n+3 1 n+2 1
n→∞ n→∞
−1
1 −(n+2)
Quit
= lim ��1 − n+2 � � ⋅ �1 − n+2
1
�� = e−1 ⋅ 1 = e−1
n→∞
−1
12
��1+ n � � −1
n
2n 6 6
lim � n+6 � = lim � 1+ 4 � ⋅ � 1+ 4 � = lim ⋅ � 1+ n4 � = ⋅ 1 = e4 .

6 6
2n−1 1+ n 1+ n 1+ 6 e12
n) 8 e8
n→∞ n+4 n→∞ n n n→∞ ��1+ 4 � n
4� n
n
o*) lim �1 − (n+1)2� = lim ��1 − (n+1 � ⋅ �1 + (n+1 �� =

n+1 n+1
1 1 1
n→∞ n→∞
−(n+1) −1
= lim ��1 − � ⋅ �1 + � � = lim ��1 − (n+1 � � ⋅ �1 + (n+1 � � = e−1 ⋅ e = 1.
n+1 n+1 n+1
1 1 1 1 Home Page
n→∞ (n+1 (n+1 n→∞
p*) We calculate the limit using squeeze theorem. Observe that for all n we have:
Title Page
√ √ √
7n ≤ 2n + 3 ⋅ 4n + 7n ≤ 5 ⋅ 7n .
n n n
Contents
The left-hand side is the constant sequence, with terms equal to 7, while
��
√ √
lim 5 ⋅ 7n = lim 7 ⋅ 5 = lim 7 ⋅ 5 n = 7 ⋅ 1 = 7.
n n 1
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ � �

√
Then lim n 2n + 3 ⋅ 4n + 7n = 7.
n→∞ Page 232 of 298
sin n
q) We apply the squeeze theorem. Note that the sequence n+1 satisfies the following inequalities
for all n ∈ N: Go Back
n+1 ≤ n+1 ≤ n+1 ,

−1 sin n 1
−1
= 0.
1 Full Screen
and both sequences n+1 and n+1 converge to 0. Therefore, lim sin n
n→∞ n+1
r*) First we prove, using mathematical induction that the sequence (an ) is monotone and
bounded. Therefore, (an ) is convergent by the theorem 3.20. Observe that a2 ≤ a1 since a1 = 1,
Close
√
a2 = 3. We will show that the sequence (an ) increases, proving that if i an+1 ≥ an , then an+2 ≥ an+1
Quit
for any n ≥ 2. We have:
√ √
an+2 = 2 + an+1 ≥ 2 + an = an+1 ,
(the inequality follows from the inductive hypothesis), so the considered sequence is increasing, and
then bounded from below by a1 = 1. Now we will prove that the sequence (an ) is bounded from Home Page
above by 2. The first term satisfies this inequality, the we will show that if an ≤ 2, then an+1 ≤ 2.
We have:
√ √
Title Page
an+1 = 2 + an ≤ 2 + 2 = 2.
The sequence (an ) is then convergent. We calculate its limit, using the recursive formula for its
Contents
n-th term:
√ ��
lim an = lim 2 + an ,
n→∞ n→∞
� �
so the limit g of the sequence (an ) satisfies the equation:
�
g= 2 + g.
Page 233 of 298
Solving this equation we obtaing 2 = 2 + g ⇔ g 2 − g − 2 = 0. Solutions are g1 = −1 and g2 = 2. Since Go Back
all terms of the sequence are positive, its limit is equal to g2 = 2.

3.8. The left-hand side of the equations is the sum of infinite geometric sequence. It is convergent Full Screen
if and only if the common ratio q = 1−x 1

satisfies the inequality � 1−x
1
� < 1 which implies that x <
0 ∨ x > 2. For such x the left-hand side can be written as = − x1 . Now we solve the equation
1
1−x
Close
1
1− 1−x
− x1 = −1 − 2x. Its solutions are x1 = 12 , x2 = −1, and only x1 = −1 satisfies x < 0 ∨ x > 2. Therefore,
the solution is x = −1.
Quit
3.9. The sequence an is the sequence of partial sums of the geometric sequence with the common
ratio and the first term equal to 2. Therefore,
an = 2 1−2
1−2 = 2 (2 − 1) .
n
n
Home Page
− 1
= =
2(2n −1)
= lim =
lim 2n+1−1−1
1
n 1
Then we have lim an lim 2(2 n+1 −1)
2 2n+1
1 2.
n→∞ an+1 n→∞ n→∞ 2
n→∞ 1− n+1
2
Title Page
3.10. Using the formula for the sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence we obtain
an = 5(1+n)n
2n+10 − n5 = 25+25n2 −10n−2n2
10n+50 = 23n2 −10n+25
10n+50 . Contents
2 −10n+25
Therefore, lim 23n10n+50 = +∞. ��
n→∞
3.11. We calculate the limit of the sequence an :
� �
log2 (p2 +1)+ n
(p2 +1)n +2
= lim n log2n+1
(p2 +1)+2
= lim = log2 (p2 + 1).
2
lim log2 n+1 1
1+ n
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Page 234 of 298
Now we solve the inequality log2 (p2 + 1) > 1. We obtain the condition p2 + 1 > 21 that is p2 + 1 > 2.
We obtain the inequality p2 > 1, so we have p > 1 or p < −1. We conclude that the limit of the Go Back
sequence an = log2 (pn+1 is greater than 1 for p ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞).
2 +1)n +2
Full Screen
Close
Quit
4.1. a) The function f (x) = x−3
x+2 is continuous at the point x = −1, then lim x−3
= f (−1) = −4.
x→−1 x+2
b) lim x+3 = lim (x−3)⋅(x+3)
x2 −9
x+3 = lim (x − 3) = −6.
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3
lim xx−2x+1 = (x−1)
= 2 = 0.
2 2 Home Page
c) 3 −x2 lim lim x−1
x→1 x (x−1)
2
x→1 x
√
x→1
lim+ x3 +2x32√ = lim+ x 2 3+5x 2 = 0 ⋅ 3 = 0.

2 3 3 x+2 2
d)
x→0 3x 2 +5x x
Title Page
x→0
lim x +2x−2= = +∞.
2 6
e) 0+
x→2+ x−2
f) The denominator has two roots: x0 = −2, x1 = 3, and the positive coeÖcient at x2 , so if x Contents
approaches 3 from the left side, then the denominator is negative, and the numerator is equal to
��
= −∞.
3 +3
30. Therefore, lim− x2x−x−6
x→3
g) In order to find the limit we divide the numerator and denominator by x in the highest power
� �
in denominator which is x2 . We have
−x+2+ x4 −2
−x3 +2x2 +4x−2
= lim = −∞,
Page 235 of 298
limx2 +4x+3 x→+∞ 1+ x + x2
4 3
x→+∞
since the numerator after transformations diverges to −∞, and the denominator converges to 1.
Go Back
+ 5
3 +6x+8 = lim = 03 = 0
2 +5
2
h) lim 3x2x x x3
3+ + 8
6
x→−∞ x→−∞ x2 x3 Full Screen
+ 2 + 3
lim 4x2x+3x = lim = =2
2 +2x+3
3
4 4+ 4
x2 x3 x4
i) 4 −6x+11
2− 63 + 114 2
x→+∞ x→+∞ x x
Remark : In examples g), h), i) we have fractions with polynomials in numerator and denomi- Close
nator. We calculate their limit in infinity analogously as in case of sequences, and conclusions are
Quit
the same as in the remark 10.3.
j) Similarly as in the solution of exercise g) in 3.1 we have
√ √
lim � x2 − 5x − x2 − 8x − 14� = lim √
x2 −5x−(x2 −8x−14)
√ = lim √ √
3x+14
=
x→+∞ x→+∞ x2 −5x+ x2 −8x−14 x→+∞ x2 −5x+ x2 −8x−14
= lim = 32 . =
3+ 14
� �x 3
x→+∞ 1− x + 1− x8 − 142
√
1+1
√
5
k) lim � x3 − 4x2 + 8 − x3 − x + 2� = lim

x
√
x3 −4x2 +8−(x3 −x+2)
√ = lim √ −4x2 +x+6
√ =
x→+∞ √ x→+∞ x3 −4x2 +8+ x3 −x+2 x→+∞ x3 −4x2 +8+ x3 −x+2
−4 x+ √1x + �6
= = −∞
= −∞.
Home Page
lim � 4 8 � x1
3
x→+∞ 1− x + 3 + 1− 2 + 2 2
x3
l) We make use of the fact that lim sinx x = 1. Observe thatlim sinx3x = lim3 sin3x3x = lim3 siny y = 3,
x x
Title Page
where y = 3x.
x→0 x→0 x→0 y→0
m) lim sin8x2x = lim2 sin2x2x ⋅ 81 = 14 Contents
= = 59
x→0 x→0
n) lim sin 5x
lim sin5x5x sin9x9x 59
x→0 sin 9x
��
o) Observe that the exponent of the considered expression is divergent to −∞. Therefore, we
x→0
have
� �
lim− e x = 0.
1
x→0
p) lim+ e x = +∞.
1
Page 236 of 298
q) lim e−x +1 = 0
x→0
2
r) lim ln(x2 + 2) = +∞
x→+∞
Go Back
=∞ =0
x→−∞
1 1
s) lim ln(x+1)+3
x→+∞
t*) Note that the absolute value of the considered function can be bounded in the following Full Screen
way:
0 ≤ �x sin x1 � ≤ �x�, Close
since �sin x1 � ≤ 1. Both boundaries converge to 0 if x → 0, so using the squeeze theorem we Quit
havelim �x sin x1 � = 0 that is limx sin x1 = 0. We can also compute the limit of this function ba-
x→0 x→0
sing on the fact that if we have a product of two functions f ⋅ g, one of them is bounded, and the
second converges to 0 at some point, then the product f ⋅ g also converges to 0 at this point. In
our case the function f (x) = x converges to 0 for x → 0, and the function g(x) = sin x1 is bounded,
since −1 ≤ sin x1 ≤ 1.
4.2. a) We will show two sequences (xn ) i (yn ) divergent to +∞ such that lim sin (xn ) =�
Home Page
≠ lim sin (yn ). Let xn = 2nfi and yn = fi2 + 2nfi. Then

n→∞
n→∞ Title Page
lim sin (xn ) = lim sin 2nfi = 0,

n→∞ n→∞ Contents
while
��
lim sin (yn ) = lim sin � fi2 + 2nfi� = 1.
n→∞ n→∞
We conclude that lim sin x does not exist. � �

x→+∞
b) Analogously as in exercise a) take xn = −2nfi and yn = �− fi2 + 2nfi�. We obtain:
Page 237 of 298
lim cos (xn ) = lim cos(−2nfi) = 1,

n→∞ n→∞
Go Back
while
lim cos (xn ) = lim cos �− � fi2 + 2nfi�� = 0. Full Screen
n→∞ n→∞
Therefore, lim cos x does not exist. Close
c) Take xn = − fi4 + 2nfi and yn = − fi4 + fi +2nfi . Then lim xn = lim yn = 0 and lim sin xn1+ fi =
x→−∞
1 1
= lim sin − fi + 11 + fi = lim sin 2nfi = 0, while lim sin yn1+ fi = lim sin − fi + 11 + fi =
4 n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 4
Quit
n→∞ 4 2nfi 4 n→∞ n→∞ 4 n→∞ 4 fi +2nfi 4
4
√
= lim sin( fi4 + 2nfi) = 2
2 , so limfi sin x+1 fi does not exist.
n→∞ x→− 4 4
d) We compute one-sided limits of the expression �x−1�

x−1 at the point x0 = 1. We have: lim− �x−1�
x−1 =
x→1
= = −1, while
lim− −(x−1) =
lim+ �x−1� = 1. Therefore,
lim x−1 lim �x−1�
does not exist.
x−1 x→1 x−1 x→1+ x−1 x→1 x−1
4.3. a) We need to check whether f is continuous at x = 0 (everywhere else it is continuous;
x→1
Home Page
for x < 0 it is a quadratic function, and for x > 0 – linear function). The value of f at x = 0 is
f (0) = 02 −2 = −2, and it is equal to the right-hand limit of the function f at this point. However the Title Page
left-hand limit of the function f at x = 0 equals lim+ 2x + 1 = 1. Therefore, the limit of the function
f at x = 0 does not exist, so the function is not continuous at this point.
x→0
Contents
b) Continuous in R − {0}, not continuous at x = 0.

��
c) Continuous in R − {5}, not continuous at x = 5.
4.4 a) We have to find a and b for f to be continuous at points x = −2 and x = 3 (everywhere else
� �
the function f is continuous, because it is exponential, linear, and rational function in respective
intervals) . The value of f at x = −2 is −3, and its right-hand limit at this point is equal to
lim ax + b = −2a + b, then the equation −2a + b = −3 should be satisfied. At the point 3 the value
Page 238 of 298
x→−2+
of f equals f (3) = −1, so the second condition for parameters is given by lim− ax + b = f (3) = −1, Go Back
3a + b = −1. Solving the system of equations

x→3
�
�
�−2a + b = −3
Full Screen
�
�
� 3a + b = −1
� Close
we obtaina = 25 , b = − 11
5 . Quit
√
3a + 3 = 1. Therefore, we have 3a = −2, and a = − 23 . We
�
b) The function f is continuous if
should notice that the domain of the function g(x) = − 23 x + 3, which is equal �−∞, 92 �, includes
�
the interval �−∞, 3� in which the function is defined by − 23 x + 3.
4.5. a) The domain of logarithmic function is the set of positive reals. Therefore, we solve the
inequality x2 −4 > 0, and we obtain Df = (−∞, −2)∪(2, +∞). We calculate then the following limits:
Home Page
lim ln(x2 − 4) = +∞, lim− ln(x2 − 4) = −∞, lim+ ln(x2 − 4) = −∞, lim ln(x2 − 4) = +∞. Title Page
x→−∞ x→−2 x→2 x→+∞
b) The expression under the square root sign should be nonnegative, and the denominator
≥ 0 and x ≠ −3. We obtain
2 −1
has to be diÄerent from zero. Therefore, we solve the inequality xx+3 Contents
Dg = (−3,�−1� ∪ �1, +∞). Now we calculate

� � �
�
limits:
−1
= 09+ = +∞, lim− xx+3−1
= f (−1) = 0, lim+ xx+3 = f (1) = 0, lim xx+3 = +∞. ��
2 2 2 −1 2 −1
lim+ xx+3
x→−3 x→−1 x→1 x→+∞
c) The domain of the exponential function is the set of all real numbers, so the only restriction
√ √ � �
for the domain of h is the condition x4 − 32 ≠ 0, that is x ≠ −2 4 2 and x ≠ 2 4 2. The domain of the
√ √ √ √
function h is then equal to : Dh = (−∞, −2 4 2) ∪ (−2 4 2, 2 4 2) ∪ (2 4 2, +∞). We calculate limits:
lim e x4 −32 = e0 = 1,
1 Page 239 of 298
x→−∞
lim√ − e x4 −32 = +∞ (exponent diverges to +∞ so the value of the function diverges to +∞),
1
Go Back
x→−2 4 2
= 0, (exponent diverges to −∞ so the value of the fictions converges to 0),
1
lim√ + e x4 −32
x→−2 4 2 Full Screen
x4 −32 = 0, x4 −32 = +∞, lim e x4 −32 = e0 = 1.
1 1 1
lim
√ −e lim
√ +e
x→2 4 2 x→2 4 2 x→+∞
d) Absolute value of any expression is nonnegative, so we only have to assume that �2x + 4� ≠ 0 Close
that is x ≠ −2. It implies that Dk = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞). Calculating limits, using properties
of logarithmic function, we get: lim ln �2x + 4� = +∞, lim− ln �2x + 4� = −∞ = lim+ ln �2x + 4�, Quit
lim ln �2x + 4� = +∞.

x→−∞ x→−2 x→−2
x→+∞
4.6. a) Since we exclude from the domain of f the point x = 3, we check whether the line x = 3
is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f . We have: lim− 3x+5 = −∞ and lim+ 3x+5 = +∞. Then the
x→3 2x−6 x→3 2x−6
line x = 3 is the vertical asymptote (both-sided) of the graph of the function f . Now we calculate
limits of f in infinity: lim 3x+5 = 32 = lim 3x+5 . So, the line y = 32 is the horizontal asymptote of
x→−∞ 2x−6 x→+∞ 2x−6
the graph of f in −∞ and in +∞.
Home Page
b) The domain of g is the set of all real numbers, so the graph of the function g has no vertical
asymptotes. We calculate the limits in infinity: lim �e−x +1 − 1� = −1 = lim �e−x +1 − 1�, since the
4 4 Title Page
exponent diverges to −∞ in both cases. Therefore, the line y = −1 is the horizontal asymptote of
x→−∞ x→+∞
the graph of g in −∞ and in +∞.

Contents
c) The domain of the function h is Dh = (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, +∞), then we calculate:
� � ��
lim− �x33+1� = +∞ = lim+ �x33+1� . Therefore, x = −1 is the vertical asymptote (both-sided) of
x→−1 x→−1 � �
the graph of h. No we compute the limits: lim �x33+1� = 0 = lim �x33+1� . Therefore, the line y = 0 � �
is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of h in−∞ and in +∞.

x→−∞ x→+∞
d) Dk = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪ (2, +∞), lim− �3x + x24−4 � = lim+ �3x + x24−4 � = +∞,
Page 240 of 298
x→−2 x→2
lim �3x + x24−4 � = lim− �3x + x24−4 � = −∞. Therefore, lines x = −2 and x = 2 are vertical asympto-
x→−2+ x→2 Go Back
tes of the graph of k. Now we compute: lim �3x + x24−4 � = −∞, since lim 3x = −∞ and lim 4
x2 −4 = 0.
x→−∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
Similarly lim �3x + x24−4 � = +∞. Therefore, the graph of k has no horizontal asymptotes. We look Full Screen
x→+∞
for the slant asymptote then:
Close
lim k(x) = lim �3 + 4

x3 −4x
� = 3 = lim �3 + 4
x3 −4x
�.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x→+∞
Quit
Therefore, a = 3, and we calculate
lim (k(x) − 3x) = lim �3x + x24−4 − 3x� = lim 4

= 0 = lim (k(x) − 3x) .
x→−∞ x −4
2
x→−∞ x→−∞ x→+∞
So b = 0, and the line y = 3x is the slant asymptote of the graph of the function k in −∞ and in Home Page
+∞.
e*) Dp = R − {0}, but sincelim sinx x = 1, the function p has no vertical asymptote. No we find the Title Page
x→0
limits of p in infinity. Similarly as in 3.7 , the exercise t*) we can apply the inequalities 0 ≤ � sinx x � ≤ � x1 �.
Both bounding functions are convergent to 0 for x → −∞ and for x → +∞, then the line y = 0 is
Contents
the horizontal asymptote of the graph of the function p in −∞ and in +∞.

��
f (x)
4.7. a) lim f (x)+g(x) = 3+0
3
= 1,
x→x0
(x)+h(x)
b) lim fg(x)+p(x) = +∞
−∞ , indeterminate form, � �
x→x0
c) lim g(x) = −∞ 0
= 0,
x→x0 f (x)⋅p(x)
d) lim ef (x)⋅g(x) = e0 = 1, Page 241 of 298
x→x0
e) lim eh(x)⋅p(x) = e−∞ = 0,
�
x→x0
� +∞
Go Back
f) lim � h(x)
p(x) � = +∞ , indeterminate form,
x→x0
2 (x) = ln +∞ = −∞.
2 2
g) lim ln f 2 (x)+p Full Screen
x→x0
Close
Quit
5.1. a) f ′ (x) = 2x+3, b) f ′ (x) = 3 √3 x , c) g (x) = 6x sin x+3x cos x, d) f (x) = 8x +cos x−x sin x,
2 ′ 2 ′ 3
e) f ′ (x) = (x−3)2 , f) h (x) = − 2 √

x −6x ′ , g) f ′ (t) = (1+t2t2 )2 , h) f ′ (x) = −3x−3 ,
2 1 2x+5
x(2x−5)2
i) h′ (x) = − sin12 x , j) f ′ (t) = 3t2 sin t + t3 cos t, k) g ′ (z) = − − 2zz2 (z
+9z −12
3 2
2 −4)2
, Home Page
l) h′ (t) = − 4−4 cos t+cos2 t , m) f (y) = −1+cos y , n) f (x) = x2 +2x cos x+cos2 x .
−2 cos t+sin t+1 ′ 2 ′ sin x cos x+x2 cos x+x
5.2. a) f ′ (x) = √xx2 +1 ; b) f ′ (x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x; c) f ′ (x) = 2x (cos x2 );
Title Page
d) g ′ (x) = − √
x
3; e) h′ (t) = (t+3)4 (t−12)
; f) h′ (v) = −2v (sin (1 + v 2 ));
� x2 −4� t5 Contents
g) f ′ (x) = − 12 x33x+4
√ .
x+1 √ √
5.3. Df = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞); yes x1 = 2 + 1, x2 = 1 − 2. ��
5.4. f ′ (x) = sin x + x cos x, x ∈ R. Since

� �
f ′ (−x) = sin(−x) + (−x) cos(−x) = −f ′ (x),
Page 242 of 298
we have that f ′ is odd.

5.5. y = x − 4. Go Back
5.6. y = 59 x − 19 .
5.7. x = −2.
Full Screen
5.8. y = x.
Close
5.9. a) 3, b) 1, c) ln 2, d) 2, e) 0, f) 1, g) 1, h) 1, i) 0, j) ea .
5.10. a) Df = R, f decreases in (−∞, 1), increases in (1, ∞);
b) Df = R, f decreases in �−∞, − 12 � and in �0, 21 �, increases in �− 12 , 0� and in � 12 , ∞�;
Quit
c) Df = R − {0}, f increases in (−∞, −1) and in (1, ∞), decreases in (−1, 0) and in (0, 1);
d) f decreases in (−∞, 0), increases in (0, ∞);
e) f increases in (−∞, 0), decreases in (0, ∞);
√ √ √ √ √ √
f) Df = �−∞, − 5�∪�− 5, 5�∪� 5, ∞�. f decreases in (−∞, −5), �−1, 5�, � 5, ∞�, increases
√ √
in�−5, − 5�, �− 5, −1�.
Home Page
5.11. b ∈ �1, ∞).

5.12. a) for a ≥ 1, b) a = 0.
Title Page
5.13. a) local maximum at x = 2; b) local minimum at x = 3; c) local maximum at x = 23 , local

minimum at x = 2; d) local maximum at x = −1, local minimum at x = 1; e) local maximum at
Contents
x = 0; f) local minimum at x = −1, local maximum at x = 1. ��

5.14. We compute the global maximum of the function u(x) = xp = x100x 2 +100 , x ∈ (0, +∞); xmax = 10.
5.15. We compute the global minimum of the function k(x) = 2x2 +50+ x322 , x ∈ (0, +∞); xmin = 2. � �
5.16. a = 2, maximum.
5.17. Page 243 of 298
a) a = 25 , b) a = 0.
5.18. fmin = f (−1) = −9, fmax = f ( 23 ) = 32 27 .
√ √
Go Back
5.19. fmin = f ( 2) = −4 2 − 2, fmax = f (3) = 7.

√ √
5.20. fmin = f ( 2) = 2 2 − 2, fmax = f (4) = 2 12 .
Full Screen
5.21. At 9 AM.
√
5.22. a) f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 6 x + x45 , f ”(x) = 6x − 4 + √3x − x206 , f ”(1) = −15.
Close
b) f ′ (x) = 1−ln
x2 , f ”(x) =
x
x3 , f ”( e ) = −5e .
2 ln x−3 1 3
c) f ′ (x) = 2(x + 1)ex +2x , f ”(x) = 2(ex +2x + 2(x + 1)2 ex +2x ) = 2ex +2x (2x2 + 4x + 3), f ”(0) = 6.
Quit
2 2 2 2
d) f ′ (x) = − (x−1)
ex , f ”(x) = −
e (2(x−1)−(x−1) )
= x −4x+3 , f ”(0) = 3.
2 x 2 2
e2x ex
5.23. a) First we note that the domain of f is Df = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞). Then we compute first
and second derivative of f , and we examine the sign of derivatives. We obtain f ′ (x) = − x32 − 13 and
f ”(x) = x6,3 . Observe that the first derivative of f is negative in the domain, so f decreases in the
interval (−∞, 0), and decreases in (0, +∞). Second derivative is negative in (−∞, 0). Therefore, f
Home Page
decreases with increasing rate in this interval.

Title Page
b) There is no such interval.
√
4−x2 + � x
2
5.24. Df = �−2, 2�, f ′ (x)= − √4−x f ”(x) = − = − (4−x2 )4√4−x2 .

2
x
2
, 4−x2
4−x
Contents
a) does not exist b) (−2, 0) c) (0, 2) d) does not exist

5.25. a) f (x) = e x(2 − x),f ”(x) = e (x2 − 4x + 2). Therefore, f is convex in the inte-
′ 2−x 2−x ��
√ √
rvals �−∞, 2 − 2�, �2 + 2, +∞�, since f ”(x) > 0 in these intervals. f is concave in the interval
√ √ √ √ � �
�2 − 2, 2 + 2� (f ”(x) < 0 in this interval). Inflection points are x1 = 2 − 2 and x2 = 2 + 2.
b) Df = R − {0}. Observe that we can transform the formula for f in the following way:
f (x) = x + x1 . We have f ′ (x) = 1 − x12 , f ”(x) = x23 . The function f is convex in (0, +∞) and concave
Page 244 of 298
in (−∞, 0). f doesn’t have any inflection points.

c) Df = R − {0}, f ′ (x) = ln x2 + 2, f ′′ (x) = x2 . f convex in (0, ∞) and concave in (−∞, 0); no
Go Back
inflection points. Full Screen

d) Df = (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞), f ′ (x) = 12 √lnxx−2 , f ′′ (x) = 14 √8−ln3 x3 . The solutions of the equation
2
ln2 x � x� ln x
√ √ √
1 8−ln2 x
= 0 are x1 =
4 �√x�3 ln3 x e−2 2 , x2 = The inequality 4 √ 3 3 > 0 is satisfied for 0 < x < e−2 2
e2 2 . 1 8−ln2 x Close
� x� ln x
√ √ √
and 1 < x < e , while the inequality 4 √ 3 3 < 0 holds for e−2 2 < x < 1 and x > e2 2 . Then f is
2 2 1 8−ln2 x
� x� ln x
√ √ √ √ Quit
convex in �0, e −2 2 � and �1, e �, and concave in �e−2 2 , 1� and �e2 2 , +∞�. Inflection points of f
2 2
Table 10.1: Sign of derivatives of f (x) = exx
1
√ √
x −∞ . . . −1 − 12 2 . . . −1 . . . −1 + 12 2 ... 0 ... ∞
f ′ (x) − − − 0 + + + −
f ′′ (x) − 0 + + + 0 − +
f (x) � −0.11234 � −e−1 � −0.32609 � �
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pp min pp
Title Page
√ √
are x1 = x2 =
e−2 2 , e2 2 .
5.26. a) Df = R − {0}, f ′ (x) = −e x x+1
x3 , f (x) = e
′′
1 1
4x+1+2x2
x
x5 . We have then: Contents
−e x x+1
x3 = 0 ⇔ x = −1.
��
1
The inequality f ′ (x) > 0 holds for x ∈ (−1, 0), while f ′ (x) < 0 for x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, +∞). Similarly � �
for f ” we have:
√ √
Page 245 of 298
f ”(x) = 0 ⇔ e = 0 ⇔ x = −1 − 12 2 ∨ x = −1 + 12 2.
1
x
4x+1+2x2
x5
√ √
Go Back
> 0 holds for −1 − 2 < x < −1 + 12 2 and for x > 0, while the inequality
1
4x+1+2x2 1
The inequality e
√ √
x
x5 2
< < −1 − −1 + 2 2 < x < 0. We present the results in the table
1 2
e x 4x+1+2x
x 5 0 holds for x 1
2 2 and for 1 Full Screen
10.1.
√
f increases with increasing rate in the interval �−1, −1 + 12 2�, increases with decreasing rate
Close
√ √
in the interval �−1 + 12 2, 0� , decreases with decreasing rate in the intervals �−1 − 12 2, −1� and
√
(0, +∞) , and decreases with increasing rate in the interval �−∞, −1 − 12 2�.
Quit
√
Table 10.2: Sign of derivatives of g(x) = 2x2 + 3
x −∞ ... 0 ... ∞
g ′ (x) − +
g ′′ (x) + √+ +
g (x) � �
Home Page
3
min
Title Page
Table 10.3: Sign of derivatives of h(x) = x + 3

√ √ x−2
x −∞ . . . 2 − 3 . . . 2 . . . 2 + 3 ... ∞ Contents
h′ (x) + 0 − X − 0 +
h (x)
′′ − −√ − X + +√ + ��
h(x) � 2−2 3 � X � 2+2 3 �
max min
� �
b) Dg = R, g ′ (x) = � 2x
(2x2 +3)
, g ′′ (x) = �
6
3. We have g ′ (x) > 0 ⇔ x > 0, and g ′ (x) < 0 ⇔
� (2x2 +3)�
⇔ x < 0, while the second derivative of g is positive. Therefore, g decreases with decreasing rate
Page 246 of 298
in (−∞, 0), and increases with increasing rate in (0, +∞).

√ Go Back
c) Dh = R−{2}, h′ (x) = x(x−2) 2 , h (x) = 3 . Zeros of the first derivative are x1 = 2− 3, x2 =
2 −4x+1
′′ 6
√ √
(−2+x)
√ √
= 2 + 3. The function h increases in �−∞, 2 − 3�, �2 + 3, +∞�, and decreases in �2 − 3, 2�,
√
Full Screen
�2, 2 + 3�. h′′ is positive in (2, +∞) and negative in (−∞, 2). See the table 10.3.
√
The function h increases with decreasing rate in the interval �−∞, 2 − 3�, decreases with
√ √
Close
increasing rate in �2 − 3, 2�, decreases with decreasing rate in �2, 2 + 3�, and increases with
√
increasing rate in �2 + 3, +∞�. Quit
d) Dp = R, p′ (x) = − sin x, p”(x) = − cos x. We have p′ (x) > 0 for x ∈ {((2k − 1) fi, 2kfi) , k ∈ C}
(we denote by C the set of all integers), p′ (x) < 0 for x ∈ {(2kfi, (2k + 1)fi) , k ∈ C}, p”(x) > 0 for
x ∈ �� fi2 + 2kfi, 32 fi + 2kfi� , k ∈ C�, and p”(x) < 0 for x ∈ ��− fi2 + 2kfi, fi2 + 2kfi� , k ∈ C�. The function p
increases with decreasing rate in all intervals of the form �− fi2 + 2kfi, 2kfi�, decreases with increasing
rate in all intervals of the form �2kfi, fi2 + 2kfi�, decreases with decreasing rate in all intervals
Home Page
of the form � fi2 + 2kfi, (2k + 1) fi�, and increases with increasing rate in all intervals of the form
�(2k + 1) fi, 32 fi + 2kfi�, for all k ∈ C.
Title Page
5.27. f ′ (x) = –x–−1 + —, f ′′ (x) = –2 x–−2 − –x–−2 = (–2 − –) x–−2 . f ′′ is positive in the interval
(0, +∞), i.e. f is concave if and only if –2 − – > 0, and f is concave in this interval if and only
Contents
if –2 − – < 0. Therefore, f is convex in (0, +∞) for – ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, +∞) and any values of —, “; ��
while f is concave in (0, +∞) for – ∈ (0, 1) and any values of —, “. If – = 0 or – = 1, then f is
linear, and it is convex and concave simultaneously. The function f increases with decreasing rate � �
in the interval (0, +∞) in case where –x–−1 + — > 0 and (–2 − –) x–−2 < 0 for x > 0. We know that
f ′′ is negative in the interval for – ∈ (0, 1). In this case the expression –x–−1 has positive value. It Page 247 of 298
is enough to take — > 0 to satisfy our conditions. Then if we take – ∈ (0, 1), — ∈ (0, +∞) and “ ∈ R
the function f increases with decreasing rate in the interval (0, +∞). Go Back
5.28. We have f ′ (x) = aeax (1 − e−2ax ), f ′′ (x) = a2 eax (1 + e−2ax ). The solution of the equation
aeax (1 − e−2ax ) = 0 is x = 0 independently of a. Similarly we have f ′ (x) > 0 for x > 0, and f ′ (x) < 0
Full Screen
for x < 0 independently of a. The second derivative of f is positive independently of a. Therefore, we

conclude that f decreases with decreasing rate in the interval (−∞, 0), and increases with increasing
Close
rate in (0, +∞) for any a ∈ R − {0}.

5.29. a) Df = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞); lim f (x) = −∞, lim− f (x) = −∞, lim+ f (x) = +∞, lim f (x) =
Quit
x→−∞ x→0 x→0 x→+∞

= +∞; then x = 0 is the vertical asymptote, no horizontal asymptotes.
a = lim f (x) = 12 = lim f (x) , b = lim �f (x) − 12 x� = 1 = lim �f (x) − 12 x�; y = 12 x + 1 the slant
x→−∞ x x→+∞ x
asymptote in −∞ and in +∞.
x→−∞ x→+∞
f ′ (x) = 12 (x + 1) x−1x2 = 2 − 2x2 ; zeros of f x1 = −1, x2 = 1; f > 0 for x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞),
1 1 ′ ′
f ′ < 0 for x ∈ (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1). Local extrema of f are: x1 = −1 local maximum, and x2 = 1 local
Home Page
minimum.
f ′′ (x) = x13 , f ′′ < 0 for x < 0, f ′′ > 0 for x > 0 (no inflection points); f is concave in (−∞, 0),
Title Page
convex in (0, +∞). Therefore, f increases with decreasing rate in (−∞, −1), decreases with increasing
rate in (−1, 0), decreases with decreasing rate in (0,1), and increases with increasing rate in (1, +∞).
Contents
We present the results in the table 10.4; in the sequel we present the graph of f. ��
Table 10.4: Sign of derivatives of f (x) = (x+1) � �

2
2x
x −∞ . . . −1 . . . 0 ... 1 ... ∞
f ′ (x) + 0 − − 0 + Page 248 of 298
f ′′ (x) − − − + + +
f (x) −∞ � 0 � −∞ ∞ � 2 � ∞ Go Back
max min
b) Df = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞), lim f (x) = 1, lim− f (x) = +∞, lim+ f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = 0; x = 0 Full Screen
is the vertical asymptote, y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote in −∞, and y = 0 is the horizontal
x→−∞ x→0 x→0 x→+∞
asymptote in +∞. Close
f ′ (x) = (exe−1)2 ; f ′ > 0 in the domain, so f has no local extrema, and is increasing in intervals
x
(−∞, 0), (0, +∞).

Quit
f ′′ (x) = −ex (eex −1)3 ; (f

′′ < 0) for x > 0 and f ′′ > 0 for x < 0. Therefore, f increases with increasing
x +1
3
1
Home Page
-4 -2 0 2 4
x
-1 Title Page
Figure 10.3: The graph of f (x) = (x+1)2 Contents

2x
��
Table 10.5: Sign of derivatives of f (x) = 1−e
1
x
x −∞ ... 0 ... ∞
� �
f (x)
′ + +
f ′′ (x) + −
f (x) 1 � ∞ −∞ � 0 Page 249 of 298
rate in the interval (−∞, 0), and increases with decreasing rate in (0, +∞).
Go Back
c) Df = (0, 1) ∪ (1, +∞), lim+ f (x) = 0, lim− f (x) = −∞, lim+ f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = +∞; then
x = 1 is the vertical asymptote, no horizontal asymptote in +∞ , no slant asymptote either, since
x→0 x→1 x→1 x→+∞ Full Screen
a = lim f (x) = 0, so b does not exist. Close

x→+∞ x
f ′ (x) = lnlnx−1
2
x
, x = e is the zero of f ′ , f ′ > 0 for x ∈ (e, +∞), f ′ < 0 for x ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, e); x = e is
the local minimum. Quit
f ′′ (x) = − x�ln
ln x−2
3
x�
; f ′′ > 0 for x ∈ (1, e2 ), f ′′ < 0 for x ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (e2 , +∞); x = e2 is the inflection
Home Page
Title Page
Figure 10.4: The graph of f (x) = 1

1−ex
Contents
��
Table 10.6: Sign of derivatives of f (x) = lnxx
x 0 ... 1 ... e . . . e2 . . . ∞
� �
f ′ (x) − − 0 + + +
f (x)
′′ − + + + 0 −
f (x) 0 � −∞ ∞ � e � 2e 1 2
� ∞ Page 250 of 298
min pp
Go Back
point of f ; f decreases with increasing rate in (0, 1), decreases with decreasing rate in 1, e), increases
with increasing rate in (e, e2 ), and increases with decreasing rate in (e2 , +∞). Full Screen
d) Df = R, lim f (x) = 0, lim f (x) = 0; y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote in −∞ and in +∞.

x→−∞ x→+∞ √ √
The first derivative of f is equal to f ′ (x) = e−x (1 − 2x2 ). Its zeros are x1 = − 12 2, x2 = 12 2 ;
2
√ √ √ √
Close
f increases in �− 12 2, 12 2�, decreases in �−∞, − 12 2� and � 12 2, +∞�; x1 is a local minimum of f ,

√ √
x2 is a local maximum of f. f ′′ (x) = 2xe−x (2x2 − 3); zeros are x1 = − 12 6, x2 = 0 and x3 = 12 6 (all
2 Quit
√ √ √
are inflection points of f ); f decreases with increasing rate in �−∞, − 12 6�, � 12 2, 12 6�, decreases
6
Home Page
0 1 2 3 4 5
x
-2
Title Page
Figure 10.5: The graph of f (x) = x

ln x
Contents
��
Table 10.7: Sign of derivatives of f (x) = xe−x
2
√ √ √ √
x −∞ ... − 12 6 . . . − 12 2 . . . 0 . . . 12 2 . . . 1
2 6 ... ∞
� �
f ′ (x) − − − 0 + + + 0 − − −
f ′′ (x) − + + + 0 − − − +
� � � �
0 0
f (x) � − 2e � − 12 2e � 0 � 12 2e � �
1 6 1 6 Page 251 of 298
0 e 2e e 0
pp
pp min max pp
Go Back
√ √ √ √
with decreasing rate in �− 12 6, − 12 2�, � 12 6, +∞�, increases with increasing rate in �− 12 2, 0� ,
√
and increases with decreasing rate in �0, 12 2�.
Full Screen
Observe additionally that f satisfies the equation f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ R. Therefore, f is
an odd function (its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin (0, 0)).
Close
5.30. a) f (x) = (x+1) is increasing in the interval (1, +∞), and lim f (x) = +∞, so f ((1, +∞)) =
2
2x
(f (1), +∞) = (2, +∞). The preimage (or the inverse image) of the set (−∞, 0) under the function
x→+∞ Quit
0.4
0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4
x Home Page
-0.2
Title Page
-0.4
Figure 10.6: The graph of f (x) = xe−x

2 Contents
��
f is the set of all x ∈ Df such that f (x) < 0. In this case we have f −1 ((−∞, 0)) = (−∞, 0). The set
f (Df ), is the set of all values of the function, i.e. the range of the function. For f (x) = (x+1)
2
we
2x
� �
have f (Df ) = (−∞, 0� ∪ �2, +∞).
b) The function f (x) = 1−e 1
x increases in (1, +∞), and lim f (x) = 0, so f ((1, +∞)) =
x→+∞ Page 252 of 298
= � 1−e
1
, 0�; f −1 ((−∞, 0)) = (−∞, 0); f (Df ) = (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, +∞).
c) The function f (x) = lnxx decreases in (1, e) , and increases in (e, +∞). Additionally lim+ f (x) = Go Back
= +∞, and f (e) = e, so f ((1, +∞)) = (e, +∞). Moreover, f −1 ((−∞, 0)) = (0, 1); f (Df ) =
x→1
= (−∞, 0) ∪ �e, +∞). Full Screen
d) The function f (x) = xe−x deceases in (1, +∞), and lim f (x) = 0, then f ((1, +∞)) = �0, 1e �;
2
√ −1 1√ −1 x→+∞
f ((−∞, 0)) = (−∞, 0), f (Df ) = �− 2 2e , 2 2e �.
−1 1 Close
2 2
Quit
6.1. It is enough to check whether F ′ (x) = f (x) for a x ∈ (a, b) (see definition 6.1).
a) Yes. b) Yes. c) No, (e−x ) = −e−x . d) Yes.
′
6.2. a) F (x) = x3 + x2 + C, F (−1) = 0, that is (−1)3 + 12 (−1)2 + C = 0. So C = 12 .

2
Home Page
b) F (x) = −2cosx + x + C. C = −fi.

6.3 a) ∫ (2x + 1)dx = x2 + x + C. Title Page
√
b)∫ (x5 + 2 x − 5)dx = 16 x6 + 43 x 2 − 5x + C.
3
c) ∫ (sin x + cos x)dx= − cosx + sin x + C. Contents
d)∫ (x − 2)(x + 3)dx = ∫ (x2 + x − 6) dx = 31 x3 + 12 x2 − 6x + C.

��
+1 dx = ∫ (x − 1)dx = 3 x − x + C.
e) ∫ xx2 −1
4 1 3
2
√
f) ∫ 4 x(x + 3)dx= ∫ �x 4 + 3x 4 � dx = 49 x 4 + 12
5 x + C.
5 1 9 5
� �
4
√
g) ∫ x +4√x x+1 dx = ∫ �x 2 + 4x− 6 + x− 2 � dx = 27 x 2 + 245 x + 2x + C.
3 3 5 1 1 7 5 1
6 2
h) ∫ (2ctg2 x + 3)dx = ∫ (2(ctg2 x + 1) + 1) = ∫ �2 � cos + 1� + 1� dx = ∫ �2 sin12 x + 1� dx =

2 x
Page 253 of 298
sin2 x
= −2ctgx + x + C.
i) ∫ e ex−1 dx=∫ (ex − e−x )dx = ex + e−x + C.
2x
Go Back
j) ∫ 2x (1 + 4−x )dx = ∫ (2x + 2−x )dx = ln2 2 − 2ln 2 + C.

x −x
6.4. We apply the notation used in the theorem 6.17. Full Screen
a) cos x + x sin x + C. Hint: f (x) = x, g ′ (x) = cos x.

b)− (1 + x) e−x + C.
Close
�
� �
� f (x) = x f (x) = 1 � �
′
∫ xe dx = � � = −xe−x − ∫ (−e−x ) dx = −xe−x − e−x + C.

−x
� �
� g (x) = e g(x) = −e �
�
′ −x −x
Quit
�
c) 12 x2 ln x − 14 x2 + C. Hint: f (x) = ln x, g ′ (x) = x.
d) −x2 cos x + 2 cos x + 2x sin x + C. Hint: f (x) = x2 , g ′ (x) = sin x, we integrate by parts twice.
e) − lnxx − x1 . Hint: f (x) = ln x, g ′ (x) = x12 .
√
f) 23 x 2 ln x − 49 x 2 + 3x ln x − 3x + C. Hint: f (x) = ln x, g ′ (x) = x + 3.
3 3
�
� �
�
√ � f (x) = ln x f ′ (x) = x1 �
∫ ( x + 3)lnxdx = � √ � = � 23 x 2 + 3x� ln x − ∫ � 23 x 2 + 3� dx =
3 1
� g (x) = x + 3 g(x) = 3 x 2 + 3x �
� ′
3
�
� �
2 Home Page
= � 3 x + 3x� ln x − 9 x − 3x + C.
3 3
2 2 4 2
g) (x2 − 2x + 2) ex + C. Hint: f (x) = x2 , g ′ (x) = ex ,we integrate by parts twice.

Title Page
h) 12 ex cos x + 12 ex sin x + C. Hint: f (x) = cos x, g ′ (x) = ex , we integrate by parts twice. Contents
6.5. a) 12 ln (x2 + 1) + C. Hint: we substitute t = x2 + 1.
b) 29 (3x + 5) + C. Hint: we substitute t = 3x + 5.
3�2
��
c) 12 ex + C. Hint: we substitute t = x2 .
2
d) 13 (ln x) + C. Hint: we substitutet = ln x. � �

3
e) ln � ln x� + C. Hint: we substitute t = ln x.
�
� �
� t = ln x � �
∫ (xlnx) dx = ∫ x ln x dx = � � = ∫ 1t dt = ln �t� + C = ln � ln x� + C.
Page 254 of 298
−1 1
� �
� dt = x dx �
� �
1
f) ln � sin x� + C; Hint: we substitute t = sin x, see the example 6.26;

√ √
Go Back
g) −2 cos x + C. Hint: we substitutet = x.

� √ �
√ �
� t= x � � √
dx = � � = ∫ 2 sin tdt = −2 cos t + C = −2 cos x + C.
Full Screen
∫ √
sin x
� dt = √ dx �
� �
� �
x 1
2 x
h) ln (e + e ) + C. Hint: we substitute t = ex + e−x .
x −x Close
�
� �
�
� t = ex + e−x �
ex −e−x
∫ ex +e−x = � � = ∫ 1t dt = ln �t� + C = ln (ex + e−x ) + C.
� �
dx
� dt = (e − e ) dx �
� −x
�
x Quit
i) 13 (cos x) − cos x + C. Hint: we substitute t = cos x.

3
�
� �
� t = cos x � �
∫ sin xdx = ∫ (1 − cos2 x) sin xdx =� � = ∫ − (1 − t2 ) dt = 13 t3 − t + C =
3
� �
� dt = − sin xdx �
� �
= 13 (cos x) − cos x + C.
3
√
j) 4 x3 + 2x + C. Hint: we substitute t = x3 + 2x.
Home Page
6.6. a) Integration by parts:
�
� �
� f (x) = sin x f ′ (x) = cos x � �
∫ sin x cos xdx = � �
� = sin2 x − ∫ sin x cos xdx. Therefore, we have:
�
� g (x) = cos x g(x) = sin x �
� ′
Title Page
�
∫ sin x cos xdx = sin 2
x − ∫ sin x cos xdx. Then ∫ sin x cos xdx = 2 sin x + C.
1 2
Integration by substitution. Applying the formula sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, we have:

Contents
�
� �
� t = 2x � �
∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ 2 sin 2xdx = � � = ∫ 14 sin tdt = ��
1
�
� = �
�
� dt 2dx �
− 4 cos t + C = − 4 cos 2x + C = − 4 (cos x − sin2 x) = − 14 (1 − 2 sin2 x) + C.
1 1 1 2
� � � �
�
� f (x) = cos x f (x) = − sin x �
′
�
b) Integration by parts: ∫ cos xdx = � ′ �=
� g (x) = cos x g(x) = sin x � �
2
�
� � Page 255 of 298
= cos x sin x − ∫ (− sin x)dx = cos x sin x + ∫ (1 − cos x) dx = cos x sin x + x − ∫ cos2 xdx.
2 2
Then we have ∫ cos2 xdx = cos x sin x + x − ∫ cos2 xdx. Then ∫ cos2 xdx = 12 cos x sin x + 12 x + C. Go Back
Integration by substitution. We apply the formula cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x.

�
� t = 2x � �
� �
Full Screen
∫ cos xdx = ∫ ( cos 2x+1 )dx =∫ 2 dx+∫ 2 dx=� �=∫ cos tdt + ∫ =
cos 2x 1 1 1
� �
2
2 dx
� dt = 2dx �
� �
2 4
Close
= 14 sin 2x + 12 x + C = 12 cos x sin x + 12 x + C.

�
� �
� f (x) = ln x f ′ (x) = x1 �
�
Quit
c) Integration by parts∶ ∫ x dx = � ′ � = (ln x) − ∫

lnx 2 lnx
� g (x) = x g(x) = ln x �
� �
x dx.
� �
1
x dx = 2 (ln x) + C.
Then ∫ lnx 1 2
Integration by substitution:
�
� �
� t = ln x ��
∫ x dx = � � = ∫ tdt = 12 t2 + C = 12 (ln x) + C.
lnx 2
� �
� dt = x dx �
� �
1
�
� �
�
� t = 2x + 5 ��
�
Home Page
�
�
� �
�
�
√ �
� = 2dx �
� √
6.7. a) 10 (2x + 5) − 6 (2x + 5) + C. ∫ x 2x + 5dx = � � = (t − tdt =
dt
∫
5 3
1 5 1
� �
5)
x = t−5
2 2
� �
Title Page
� �
4
�
�
�
2 �
�
�
�
� = �
�
� �
1
2 dt dx
Contents
= 4 ∫ �t 2 − 5t 2 � dt = 10 t 2 − 6 t 2 + C = 10 (2x + 5) 2 − 6 (2x + 5) 2 + C.
3 1 5 3 5 3
1 1 5 1 5
√
b) 23 x (9 + x) + C. Hint: transform the integrand to a sum of functions. ��
c) 19 (2 + 3x) e3x + C. Hint: apply the theorem 6.17.
d) 3 ln �x + 1� + C. Hint: apply the theorem 6.22. � �
e) x − 2 ln �x + 1� + C. Hint: ∫ x−1 x+1 dx = ∫
�1 − x+1
2
� dx;
f) �1 − x1 � e x + C.
1
Page 256 of 298
�
� �
�
� t = x1 �
∫ x3 e dx = � � = ∫ −tet dt, and we integrate by parts (see the example 6.18).
1 x1
�
� = − �
�
� �
1 Go Back
dt x 2 dx
g) 3 sin x − 5 sin x + C. Hint:
1 3 1 5
�
� �
� t = sin x � �
Full Screen
∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ sin x �1 − sin x� cos xdx = � � = ∫ t2 (1 − t2 )dt = ∫ (t2 − t4 ) dt.
2 2 2
� �
3
�
� dt = cos xdx �
�
h) 3 x sin (3x + 2) + 9 cos (3x + 2) + C.
1 1 Close
�
� �
�
� f (x) = x f ′ (x) = 1 �
∫ x cos(3x + 2)dx = � �
�=
�
� g (x) = cos(3x + 2) g(x) = 3 sin(3x + 2) �
�
Quit
′
�
1
= 13 x sin (3x + 2) − ∫ 13 sin(3x + 2)dx = 13 x sin (3x + 2) + 19 cos (3x + 2) + C.

i) 23 x3�2 ln x − 49 x3�2 + C. Hint: apply the theorem 6.17.
j) 15 tg5 x + 4tgx + C. Hint: apply the theorem 6.22.
k) x log3 (x + 1) − lnx3 + ln(x+1)
ln 3 + C. Hint: apply the theorem 6.17.
6.8. a)∫−1 (2x + 1)dx = 12.
3
b) ∫−fi4 sin 2xdx = �− 12 cos 2x�−fi = 12 .

fi fi
4 Home Page
c)∫0 xx3 +1 = � 13 ln �x3 + 1��0 = 13 ln 9.

2 2 2
d)∫−1 xex dx = [xex − ex ]−1 = 2e−1 − 1, see the example 6.18.

0 0 Title Page
e) ∫−1 �2x − 1�dx = ∫−12 �2x − 1�dx + ∫ 1 �2x − 1�dx =∫−12 −(2x − 1)dx + ∫ 1 (2x − 1)dx = 94 + 14 = 10
1 1
1 1 1
4 . Contents
f) ∫−3 f (x)dx = ∫−3 (x + 1)dx + ∫0 cos xdx = − 32 + 0 = − 32 .

2 2
fi 0 fi
−1
g) ∫−2 �1 − x2 �dx=∫−2 (x2 − 1)dx + ∫−1 (1 − x2 )dx + ∫1 (x2 − 1)dx= 43 + 34 + 20 3 = 3 . ��
3 1 3 28
h)∫ 1 x� ln x�dx = ∫ 1 (−x ln x)dx+ ∫1 x ln xdx = ( 14 − 34 e−2 )+� 14 + 14 e2 � . Hint: apply the theorem 6.17.
e 1 e
�
� � �
e e
�
�∫ −(x − 1)dx
t
for t ∈ (−1, 1�
6.9. g(t) = � −1
�
�
�∫−1 −(x − 1)dx + ∫1 (x − 1)dx for t > 1.
�
1 t
�
Page 257 of 298
�
�
�− 2 + t + 2 for t ∈ (−1, 1�.
t2 3
Therefore, g(t) = � 2
�
�
�2 −t+ 2
� for t > 1.
t 5 Go Back
6.10. We apply the theorem 6.34. See the figure 10.7.

a) �A� = ∫−3 ((2x + 2) − (x2 + 3x − 4)) dx = 125
2 Full Screen
6 .
1 √
b) �A� = ∫0 � x − x2 � dx = 13 .
c) �A� = ∫−1 ((−x2 + 2x + 6) − (3x2 − 2x − 2)) dx = 18.
2 Close
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) (b)
��
� �
Page 258 of 298
Go Back
(c) (d) Full Screen
Figure 10.7: Graphs for the exercise 6.10

Close
Quit
Home Page
Title Page
Contents
(a) (b)
��
� �
Page 259 of 298
Go Back
(c) (d) Full Screen
Figure 10.8: Graphs for the exercise 6.11

Close
Quit
d) The equation of the tangent line is y = 1e x. We subtract from the area of the triangle with
vertices (0, 0), (e, 1), (e, 0) the area of the set bounded by the graph of the functiony = ln x, and
the lines y = 0, x = e. We have �A� = 2e − ∫1 ln xdx= 2e − 1.
e
6.11. We apply the theorem 6.34. See the figure 10.8.

a) �A� = ∫−1 e−x dx + ∫0 ex dx =√e + e2 − 2.
0 2 Home Page
1 √
b) �A� = ∫0 � x − x2 � dx + ∫1 � x1 − x2 � dx = 12 + � 13 ln 2 − 16 � = 13 + 13 ln 2.
3
2 2 2
√
2 √
√
4 √ √ √
c) �A� = ∫1 � x − x1 � dx + ∫ √ � − � = � ( − − + �1 − 3 2� = 3 − 3 ln 2.
3 3 Title Page
x2 2 1 2 1 1
3
2
x 2 dx 3 2 1) 3 ln 2�
d) �A� = ∫ fi4 tgxdx + ∫ fi3 ctgxdx = ln 3 − ln 2.
fi fi
Contents
6 4
��
� �
Page 260 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
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7.1. We will determine the equation of the line passing through the points a and b, and then we
will check whether the coordinates of the point c satisfy this equation. The line has the parametric
equation w = (1 − t) a + tb, t ∈ R that is Home Page
�
� �
�
�
� x = (1 − t) + 2t �
� x = 1 + t,
�
� �
�
Title Page
� y = (1 − t) (−1) + t ⇔ � y = 1 + 2t,
�
�
� �
�
�
� = (1 − �
�
� z t) 3 � z = 3 − 3t,
� Contents
�
�
�
� 0 = 1 + t, ��
�
�
where t ∈ R. Checking for the coordinates of the point c we obtain the system � 1 = 1 + 2t, which
�
�
�
� � �
� 3 = 3 − 3t,
�
is contradictory. So the points do not lie on the same line.
7.2. x = 45 t + 1, y = − 35 t, z = t, t ∈ R. Page 261 of 298
�
�
�
� −t + 2 = 2,
�
�
7.3. x = −t + 2, y = −t + 1, z = t, t ∈ R. Solving the system � −t + 1 = 1, we obtain t = 0, therefore Go Back
�
�
�
�
� t = 0,
�
Full Screen
the point a belongs to the line.
Close
Quit
�1� � 2�
� � � �
� � � �
7.4. a) The parametric equation of the line passing through a = � 0 � , b = �� 1 �� is
� �
� � � �
�2� � −1 �
� � � �
�x� �1� � 2� �
�
� � � � � � �
� x = 1 + t,
�
Home Page
� � � � � �
� y � = (1 − t) � 0 � + t � 1 � ⇔ �
� y = t,
� � � � � � �
� � � � � � �
�
�z� � 2 � � −1 � �
� � � � � � � z = 2 − 3t,
�
Title Page
for t ∈ R. Combining this equation with the equation of the plane we obtain Contents
3x + y − z = 3 ⇔ 3 (1 + t) + t − (2 − 3t) = 3 ⇔ t = 27 . ��
The line intersects the plane at the point with coordinates x = 97 , y = 27 , z = 87 . � �

�0� �2� �
� � � � � � x = 2t,
� � � � � �
�
b) The parametric equation of the line passing through a = �� 5 �� , b = �� 1 �� is � y = 5 − 4t, for
� � �
Page 262 of 298
� �
�2� �4� � �
� � � � � � z = 2 + 2t,
�
t ∈ R. We have Go Back
3x1 + x2 − x3 = 3 ⇔ 3 (2t) + (5 − 4t) − (2 + 2t) = 3 ⇔ 3 = 3.

Full Screen
The equation is satisfied for any t ∈ R, which means that the plane includes the line.
Close
Quit
�
�
�
� x = 2,
�
�
c) The parametric equation of the line is � y = 1 − 2t, for t ∈ R. We have
�
�
�
�
� z = 1 − 2t,
�
3x1 + x2 − x3 = 3 ⇔ 6 + 1 − 2t − 1 + 2t = 3 ⇔ 6 = 3. Home Page
The equation is contradictory, therefore the line and the plane are disjoint (parallel). Title Page
7.5. There exit the number t ∈ (0, 1) such that

Contents
c = (1 − t) a + tb ⇔ tb = c − (1 − t) a ⇔ b = t c − t a,
1 1−t
��
so xb = − 1, yb =
1
t − 2t + 3, zb = − 2t + 1. Calculating the distance d(a, b) we have
� �
�
2 2 2
1 2 2 3
d(a, b) = �−1 − � − 1�� + �3 − �− + 3�� + �1 − �− + 1�� = .
t t t �t� Page 263 of 298
� 2�
� �
� �
We obtain �t� = 9 and t ∈ (0, 1) , so t = 3 and b = �� −3 ��.
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3 1
� �
� −5 �
� � Full Screen
� 1� � 6� � 1� �1�
� � � � � � � �
� � � � � � � �
7.6. a) � 6 �, b) � −8 �, c) � 6 �, d) �� 7 ��.
� � � � � � Close
� � � � � � � �
� −2 � � 10 � � −3 � �7�
� � � � � � � �
Quit
� −4 � � −6 �
� � � �
� � � �
� −2 � � −2 �
� � � �
7.7. a) � �, b) � �.
� −8 � � 4�
� � � �
� � � �
� 1 � � −2 �
� � � �
7.8. a) The equation of the line is Home Page
� 1� �0� � 1−t �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
Title Page
� −1 � � 2 � � −1 + 3t �
� � � � � �
x = (1 − t) � � + t � � = � �,
� 2� �2� � 2 �
� � � � � �
Contents
� � � � � �
� 0� �1� � t �
� � � � � �
��
for t ∈ R. Solving the system
�
�
�
� 1 − t = −1, � �
�
�
�
�
� −1 + 3t = 5,
�
�
�
� 2 = 2,
�
Page 264 of 298
�
�
�
�
� t = 2,
we obtain t = 2. The point belongs to the line.
Go Back
b) The parametric equation of the line is Full Screen
� 2 � � −1 � � 2 − 3t �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� 1� � 2� � 1+t �
Close
� � � � � �
x = (1 − t) � � + t � � = � �,
� 1 � � 3 � � 1 + 2t �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� −1 � � 1 � � −1 + 2t �
Quit
� � � � � �
for t ∈ R. The system
�
�
�
� 2 − 3t = 1,
�
�
�
�
� 1 + t = 1,
�
�
�
� 1 + 2t = 0,
�
�
�
�
� −1 + 2t = 1,
� Home Page
is inconsistent. Therefore, the point does not belong to the line. Title Page
7.9. a) The parametric equation of the segment is
� 2 � � −1 � � 2 − 3t �
� � � � � �
Contents
� � � � � �
� 0� � 1� � t �
� � � � � �
(1 − t) � � + t � � = � �, ��
� 2 � � 0 � � 2 − 2t �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� −1 � � 3 � � −1 + 4t �
� � � � � � � �
where t ∈ �0, 1�. Solving the system

�
�
� 2 − 3t = 1,
Page 265 of 298
�
�
�
�
�
� t = 13 ,
�
�
Go Back
�
� 2 − 2t = 43 ,
�
�
�
�
� −1 + 4t = 3 ,
� 1
Full Screen
we obtain t = 13 . The point x belongs to the segment.

Close
Quit
b) The parametric equation of the segment is
� 1� � 2� � 1+t �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
� 2 � � −1 � � 2 − 3t �
� � � � � �
x = (1 − t) � � + t � � = � �,
� −4 � � 1 � � −4 + 5t �
� � � � � �
� � � � � �
Home Page
� 0 � � −1 � � −t �
� � � � � �
Title Page
where t ∈ �0, 1�. The system

�
�
�
� 1 + t = 3,
�
�
Contents
�
�
� 2 − 3t = −4,
�
�
�
� −4 + 5t = 6, ��
�
�
�
�
� −t = −2,
�
� �
has the solution t = 2, which is not the element of the interval �0, 1�. The point x does not belong
to the segment, but it belongs to the line passing through the points a and b. Page 266 of 298
7.10. The point c coordinates are equal to cj = (1 − t) aj + tbj for j = 1, 2 . . . , n, where t ∈ �0, 1�.
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
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Therefore, we have
� �
�n �n
d(a, c) + d (c, b) = �� (aj − cj ) + �� (cj − bj) =
2 2
� �
j=1 j=1
�n �n
Home Page
= �� (aj − ((1 − t) aj + tbj )) + �� ((1 − t) aj + tbj − bj) =

2 2
� �
j=1 j=1
Title Page
�n �n
= �� (taj − tbj ) + �� ((1 − t) aj − (1 − t) bj ) =
2 2
� �
j=1 j=1 Contents
�2 n �
= �t � (aj − bj ) + �(1 − t) � (aj − bj ) =
n
2 2 2
��
� �
j=1 j=1
�n �n
= �t� �� (aj − bj ) + �1 − t� �� (aj − bj ) = � �
2 2
� � �
j=1 j=1
�n � �n
= t�� (aj − bj ) + (1 − t)�� (aj − bj ) = �� (aj − bj ) = d(a, b).
n Page 267 of 298
2 2 2
j=1 j=1 j=1

Go Back
7.11. a) Linearly independent. Full Screen

b) Linearly dependent.
c) Linearly dependent. Close
d) Linearly independent.
e) Linearly independent. Quit
f) Linearly dependent, because the number of vectors is greater than the dimension of the space
(see the theorem 7.15).
g) Linearly dependent, the third vector is the sum of the first and the second.
h) Linearly independent.
7.12. Consider the equation –x + —y + “z = 0, equivalent to the equation
Home Page
– (2a + b + c) + —(a − b + c) + “ (a + c) = 0.
Title Page
After transformation we obtain

Contents
(2– + — + “) a + (– − —) b + (– + — + “) c = 0.
��
Since vectors a, b, c are linearly independent, the numbers –, —, “ satisfy the system of equations
� �
�
�
�
� 2– + — + “ = 0,
�
�
� – − — = 0,
�
�
Page 268 of 298
�
�
� – + — + “ = 0.
�
Go Back
The unique solution of this system are – = 0, — = 0, “ = 0. Therefore, x, y, z are linearly independent.
7.13. The system of equations
�
Full Screen
�
�
� –1 + –2 + –3 = 0,
�
�
� –2 + –3 = 0,
�
�
Close
�
�
� –3 = 0,
�
Quit
has the unique solution with all variables equal to 0. Therefore, vectors v1 ,v2 , v3 are linearly
independent and form the basis of the space R3 . Solving the system of equations
�
�
�
� –1 + –2 + –3 = −1,
�
�
� –2 + –3 = 2,
�
�
Home Page
�
�
� –3 = 2,
�
Title Page
we obtain –1 = −3, –2 = 0, –3 = 2, then x = −3v1 + 0v2 + 2v3 .

7.14. The vectors v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly independent. Hence, they form the basis of the space
�
Contents
�
�
� –1 + –2 + –3 = 1,
�
�
R3 . The solution of the system � 2–2 + –3 = −2, is –1 = 1, –2 = −2, –3 = 2, so x = v1 − 2v2 + 2v3 . ��
�
�
�
�
� −–1 − –2 = 1,
�
� �
Page 269 of 298
Go Back
Full Screen
Close
Quit
8.1. a) A has dimensions 2 × 3, B has dimensions 3 × 3. The product AB has dimensions 2 × 3;
� �
� −4 7 0 �
therefore, we have AB − A = � � �.
�
� 2 8 −16 �
� � Home Page
� 1 −4 6 �
� �
� �
b)2B − A A = � −2 −3 8 �� .
T �
� �
Title Page
� 2 4 −24 �
� �
c) We cannot calculate the sum BAT + 3A because the product BAT has dimensions 3 × 2 , Contents
and the matrix 3A has dimensions 2 × 3.

��
d) AT A − CT C is not defined, since AT A has dimensions 3 × 3, and CT C has dimensions 4 × 4.
8.2. a) Basing on the rules of matrix operations and on the conditionAB = BA, we get
� �
(A − B)(A + B) = A(A + B) − B(A + B) = AA + AB − BA − BB = A2 + O − B2 = A2 − B2 .
b) (A + B)2 = (A + B)(A + B) = A2 + AB + BA + B2 = A2 + 2AB + B2 . Page 270 of 298
8.3. Assume that the matrix A has dimensions m × n. The condition that the matrix product
AB exists implies that the dimensions of B are n × k. The existence of matrix products AC and Go Back
CB implies that C has dimensions n × n. After factorization we obtain:

5AB − ACB = A (5B − CB) = A (5I − C) B. Full Screen
8.4. If A is of dimensions m×n, then AT dimensions are n×m. Therefore, there exists the product
AT A. Basing on the properties of matrix operations we obtain (AT A) = AT (AT ) = AT A. It
T T Close
proves that the matrix AT A is symmetric. The proof for the matrix product AAT is analogous.
Quit
8.5. a) 2, b) 2, c) 2.
� � � � � � � �
�1 2� �1 2� � 1 2 � r1 − 2r2 � 1 0 �
� � � � � � � �, rank 2.
8.6. a) � �∼ � �∼ � �∼ � �
� 2 −1 � r2 − 2r1 � 0 −5 � − 15 r2 � 0 1 � �0 1�
� � � � � � � �
b) 2.
� 1 1 −1 � � 1 1 −1 � r − r � 0 1 1 � �0 1 1� r −r �0 1 0�
� � � � 2 � � � � 3 � �
� � � � � � � � � �
1 1
c) �� 2 1 1 �� ∼ r2 − r1 �� 1 0 −2 �� ∼ � 1 0 −2 � ∼
� �
� 1 0 −2 � ∼ r2 + 2r3 � 1 0 0 � ,
� � � �
Home Page
� � � � � � � � � �
�3 0 2� � 3 0 2 � r3 − 3r2 � 0 0 8 � 1 r3 � 0 0 1 � �0 0 1�
� � � � � � 8 � � � �
rank 3. Title Page
d) 2.
Contents
e) 3.
� −1 2 0 �� 1 0 0 �
� ��
� � � ��
8.7. a) Similarly to the example 8.29 we transform the matrix [A�I] = � 1 3 0 �� 0 1 0 ��. We
� �
� � �
� 1 2 1 �� 0 0 1 �
� � � � �
obtain
� −1 2 0 �� 1 0 0 � r + r � 0 5 0 �� 1 1 0 � � 0 1 0 �� 1 1 0 �

� �� 2 � �� 5 5 ��
1
� � � � �
� 1 3 0 �� 0 1 0 � ∼
5 r1
Page 271 of 298
� �
1
� � �
[A�I] = � 1 3 0 �� 0 1 0 � ∼ � � �
� 1 3 0 �� 0 1 0 � ∼ � ��
� ��
� 1 2 1 �� 0 0 1 � r3 − r2 � 0 −1 1 �� 0 −1 1 � � 0 −1 1 �� 0 −1 1 �
� � � � � � � � �
Go Back
�
� 0 1 0 �� 1 1 0 � r � 1 0 0 �� − 3 2 �
� �� 5 5 �� 2 � �� 5 5 0 ��
� � �
∼ r2 − 3r1 �� 1 0 0 �� − 5 5 0 �� ∼ r1 �� 0 1 0 �� 15 15
�
0 �� ,
Full Screen
3 2
� ��
r3 + r1 �� 0 0 1 �� 15 − 45 1 �� 0 0 1 �� 1 − 4 1 ��
� � 5 5 Close
Quit
� −3 2 0 �
� 5 5 �
� �
that is A = �� 15 15 0 ��.
−1
� 1 4 �
� �
� 5 −5 1 �
b)
� 2 1 1 �� 1 0 0 � r − 2r � 0 −5 5 �� 1 −2 0 � r − r � 0 0 0 �� 1 1 −1 �

Home Page
� ��
� � � � � �
[A�I] = �� 1 3 −2 �� 0 1 0 �� ∼ � 1 3 −2 �� 0 1 0 � ∼ � 1 3 −2 �� 0 1 0 � .
1 2 1 3
� ��
� � � � � � �
Title Page
� 3 4 −1 �� 0 0 1 � r3 − 3r2 � 0 −5 5 �� 0 −3 1 � � 0 −5 5 �� 0 −3 1 �

� � � � � � � � �
Contents
We can notice that the rank of the matrix A is less than 3 (equal 2), A is singular and A−1 does
not exist. ��
�1 0 1�
�2 2 �
� �
c) A = � 0 0 −1 ��.
−1 � � �
�1 1 5�
� �
�4 2 4�
� 1 −1 −1 1 �
� �
� �
Page 272 of 298
� 0 1 −1 1 �
� 5 �
d) A−1 = � �.
� 0 0 1 −4 �
� 5 �
Go Back
� �
�0 0 0 1 �
� 5 �
� 1 1 0�
� 2 2 �
Full Screen
� �
8.8 a) A = �� − 52 − 32 2 ��. Observe that
−1
� �
� −1 −1 1 �
Close
� �
Quit
� 1 1 0 � � 1 2 −1 3 � � 1 3 1 3 �
� 2 2 �� 2 2 2 2�
� 5 3 ��
AX = B ⇔ X = A B so we have X = � − 2 − 2 2 � � 0 1 2 0 �� = �� − 13
−1 � � � − 9 11
− 11 �
�.
� �� 2 2 2 2 �
� −1 −1 1 � � −2 1 3 1 � � −3 −2 2 −2 �
� ��
� 1 0 −1 �
� 5 5 �
� �
b) A−1 = �� 35 0 25 ��. Moreover, we have AX + A = I ⇔ AX = I − A ⇔ X = A−1 (I − A) ⇔
Home Page
� 3 1 1�
�− �
� 10 2 − 5 �
X = A−1 − I
Title Page
� 1 0 −1 � � 1 0 0 � � −4 0 −1 �
� 5 5 � � � � 5 5 �
� 3 � � � � 3 �
� �
so X = � 5 0 5 � − � 0 1 0 � = � 5 −1 25 ��.
� 2 � � Contents
� 3 1 1� � � � 3 1 6�
�− � � � � �
� 10 2 − 5 � � 0 0 1 � � − 10 2 − 5 �
��
� −7 4 −6 �
� �
� �
c) A = �� −7 4 −7 ��, we have also (AXA−1 +A)T = B−AT ⇔ AXA−1 = BT −2A ⇔ X = A−1 BT A−
−1
� � � �
� 2 −1 2 �
� �
2A
Page 273 of 298
so
� −7 4 −6 � � 2 1 5 �T � −1 2 4 � � −1 2 4 � � 39 −89 −196 �
� ��
� ��
X = �� −7 4 −7 �� −2 0 3 �� 0 2 7 �� − 2 �� 0 2 7 �� = �� 40 −103 −243 �� .
Go Back
� ��
� 2 −1 2 � � 1 4 2 � � 1 −1 0 � � 1 −1 0 � � −13 30 66 �
� �� Full Screen
8.9. a) −6, b) sin2 – + cos2 – = 1, c) −18, d) 2 − 2x, e) −2x3 + x2 − 7x, f) −2x3 − 2y 3 , g) 22, h) 6, Close
i) x6 − 3x5 + 3x4 − x3 .
Quit
8.10. If A = [a1 , a2 , ..., an ], then the properties of the determinant imply that
det(–A) = det [–a1 , –a2 , ..., –an ] = – det [a1 , –a2 , ..., –an ] =
= –2 det [a1 , a2 , ..., –an ] = ... = –n det [a1 , a2 , ..., an ] = –n det A.
Home Page
8.11. a) We have A−1 A = I, det (A−1 A) = det I, then det A−1 det A = 1. Dividing both sides of
Title Page
the equation by det A we get det A−1 = det1 A .

b) We have A−1 = det1 A (AD ) anddet A−1 = � det1 A � det (AD ) . We obtain
T n T Contents
��
1
= 1
det AD ⇔ (det A) = det AD .
n−1
det A (det A)n
� �
c) det (AT A) = det AT det A = det A det A = (det A) > 0.
2
8.12. We apply the rules of computing determinants and we get

Page 274 of 298
det(3AT B(AB)−1 B) = 33 det AT det B det(AB)−1 det B =

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= 27 det A det B det A1det B det B = 27 det B = 54.
Full Screen
8.13. det A = −8, det B = 17, and Close
det �2A−1 BT (AB)T (B−1 )T � = 23 det1 A det B det A det B det1 B = 8 ⋅ 17 = 136. Quit
�
�
� 2 for m ≠ ±3,
8.14. a) rk A = �
�
� 1 for m = ±3.
�
b) For any m ∈ R the rank of B is less than 3 because the first and the second columns are
equal. For m = 1 all columns are the same and rk B = 1. If m ≠ 1, then the matrix B has a non-zero
��
Home Page
�
� 1 m ��
minor of order 2 (e.g. �� = 2 − 2m) and its rank is 2.
�� 2 2 �� Title Page
�
�
� 3 for m ≠ 0 ∧ m ≠ 2,
c) rk C = �
�
� 2 for m = 0 ∨ m = 3.
� Contents
�
�
� 3 for m ≠ −2 ∧ m ≠ −1 ∧ m ≠ 1,
d) rk D = � ��
�
� 2 for m = −2 ∨ m = −1 ∨ m = 1.
�
�
�
� 2 for m ≠ 1,
e) rk E = � � �
�
� 1 for m = 1.
�
� 1 −1 0 0 �
� −1 0 2 � � −1 −2 2 � � �
� 1 3 � � 2 1� � 5 � � � � �
� �
Page 275 of 298
� − 5 10 � � 5 5� � 2 � � � � 0 1 −1 0 �
� � � � � 1 � � �
5
8.15. a) � 2 1 �, b) � 1 2 �, c) � 5 0 5 �. d) � 0 1 0 �, e) � � (in this case the
� 5 − 10 � � −5 5 � � 7 1 1 � � � � 0 0 1 −1 �
� � � � � � � 0 −2 1 � � �
� 10 2 10 � � � � �
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�0 0 0 1�
� �
elementary row operations method is much better). Full Screen
8.16. det B = det (P−1 AP) = det P−1 det A det P = det1 P det A det P = det A.
Close
Quit
8.17. Elementary row operations of the third type do not change the determinant so
det [a1 − a3 , a1 + a2 , 2a2 − a3 ] = det [a1 , a1 + a2 , 2a2 − a3 ] =

= det [a1 , a2 , 2a2 − a3 ] = det [a1 , a2 , −a3 ] = −2.
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�a a a �
� 11 12 13 �
� �
Title Page
8.18. Let A = �� a21 a22 a23 ��. We will prove that det[e1 , a2 , a3 ] is the principal minor of order
� �
� a31 a32 a33 �
� �
Contents
two of the matrix A. Applying the Laplace expansion along the first column we obtain
��
�1 a a �
� 12 13 � � � � �
� � � a22 a23 � � a22 a23 �
� � �
det[e1 , a2 , a3 ] = det � 0 a22 a23 � = (−1) det � � � �.
� = det � � � �
1+1
� � � a32 a33 � � a32 a33 �
� 0 a32 a33 � � � � �
� �
Page 276 of 298
The proof of remaining cases is analogous.

8.19. The rank of the matrix A can be at most m. Therefore, n columns of the matrix A form Go Back
a linearly dependent system. It means that there exist a linear combination of the columns of A
with not all coeÖcients equal to zero which gives the zero vector. These coeÖcients constitute the Full Screen
non-zero solution of the homogeneous system Ax = 0

� �
� 2 3 −1 �
8.20. a) The rank of the coeÖcient matrix A = � � � is 2, the rank of the augmented
Close
�
� −1 2 2 �
� �
� �
� 2 3 −1 �� 1 �
Quit
matrix [A�b] = �� is also 2, the system is consistent.

� −1 2 2 �� 3 �
� �
� 1 2 −1 �
� �
� �
b) The rank of the coeÖcient matrixA = � −2 1 −2 �� is 2, the rank of the augmented matrix
�
� �
� −1 3 −3 �
� �
� 1 2 −1 �� 2 �
� ��
�
[A�b] = �� −2 1 −2 �� 4 �� equals 3, the system is inconsistent.
Home Page
� � �
� −1 3 −3 �� 1 �
� � � Title Page
8.21. a) We solve the system by elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.
� � � � � � � 5 �
� 2 1 −3 �� 1 � � 2 1 −3 �� 1 � � 2 1 −3 �� 1 � w1 + 3w2 � − 8 1 0 �� 58 �
� �� ∼
� � � � � � �∼ � � �.
Contents
[A �b ] = � � �� ∼ � �� 7 ��
� −1 3 −1 �� 2 � w2 − 3w1 � −7 0 8 �� −1 � 18 w2 � − 78 0 1 �� − 18 � � − 8 0 1 �� − 18 �
� � � � � � � � ��
The general solution is

�
� � �
�
� x1 = t,
�
�
� x2 = 58 + 58 t,
�
�
�
�
� x3 = − 8 + 8 t,
� 1 7 Page 277 of 298
where t ∈ R. The basic solution corresponding to the obtained basic form is the vector x1 = Go Back
� 0 58 − 18 � . The remaining basic solutions are computed using the general solution form. We have
T
x2 = 0 iÄ + 58 t = 0 then t = −1 and x2 = � −1 0 −1 � . Similarly, we have x3 = 0 for t = 71 ) and

T
5 Full Screen
8
x3 = � 17 57 0 � .
T
Close
b) The general solution:
x = � 1 0 0 � + t � −4 2 −3 � ,
T T
Quit
for t ∈ R. Basic solutions:� 1 0 0 � and � 0 12 − 34 � .
T T
8.22. a) Applying elementary row operations we get
� 3 2 −1 3 �� 1 � r − 3r � 0 2 −7
�
0 �� −5 ��
� �� 3 �
� � � ��
1
[A �b ] = � −1 −3 1 2 �� 3 � ∼ r2 + r3 �� 0 −3
� � � 3 3 �� 5 �� ∼ Home Page
� � � � ��
� 1 0 2 1 �� 2 � �1 0 1 �� 2 ��
� � � � 2
�
� 0 2 −7 0 �� −5 � � � � 0 1 − 7 0 �� − 5 �
1 − 72 0 �� − 52 ��
Title Page
� �� 2 r1 � 0 � �� 2 ��
1
� � � ��
∼ 13 r2 �� 0 −1 1 1 �� 53 �� ∼ �0 −1 1 1 �� 53 �� ∼ r2 + r1 � 0 0 − 5 1 �� − 5 � .
2
� � �� 6 �
� � � � ��
� 1 0 2 1 �� 2 � r3 − r2 � 1 1 1 0 �� 13 �� r3 − r1 � 1 0 9 0 �� 17 �
2 Contents
� � � � � 2 � 6 �
��
The general solution is:
�
�
�
� x1 = 17
6 − 2 t,
9
�
�
�
� �
�
� x2 = − 52 + 72 t,
�
�
�
� x3 = t,
�
�
�
�
Page 278 of 298
� x4 = − 6 + 2 t,
� 5 5
for t ∈ R. Basic solutions are Go Back
x1 = � 17
6 −2 0 −6
� , x2 = � 43 − 43 0 � , x3 = � − 21 � , x4 = � 0 − 27 � .
T T T T
5 5 1 8 5 20 8 17 20
3 0 7 21 27 27
Full Screen
Close
Quit
b) The general solution is
�
�
�
� x1 = −13 − t + 7s,
�
�
�
�
� x2 = −5 + 3s,
�
�
�
� x3 = t,
�
�
�
�
� x4 = s,
�
Home Page
for t, s ∈ R. Basic solutions are (among others) Title Page
x1 = � −13 −5 0 0 � , x2 = � 0 −5 −13 0 � .
T T
Contents
c) The general solution is ��

�
�
�
� x1 = 1 + 3t,
�
�
� x2 = t, � �
�
�
�
�
� x3 = −1 − 5t
�
for t ∈ R. Basic solutions are Page 279 of 298
x1 = � 1 0 −1 � , x2 = � 0 − 31 � , x3 = � 25 − 15 0 � .
T T T
2 Go Back
3
��

Full Screen
2 1 �� 1 �� 2 ��

8.23. a) W = �� = 7, W1 = �� = 4, W2 = ��
2 2
�� = 6, x1 = = 47 , x2 = = 67 .
2 ��
W1 W2
�� −1 3 �� 2 3 �� −1 W W Close
b) x1 = 1, x2 = −1.
Quit
��
�� 2 1 −3 �� 1 1 −3 �� 2 1 −3 �� 2 1 1 ��
c) W = �� 1 2 −1 �� = 10, W1 = �� 2 2 −1 �� = −10, W2 = �� 1 2 −1 �� = 12, W3 = �� 1 2 2 �� = −6,
��
�� 1 1 2 �� −1 1 2 �� 1 −1 2 �� 1 1 −1 ��
x1 = −1, x2 = 56 , x3 = − 35 .
Home Page
d) Applying elementary row operations of the third type we get
��
�� 1 −1 1 �� r1 − r3 �� 0 1 −2 1 ��
1 −2 1 ��
1
��
Title Page
�� 0 1 −1 �� 0 1 1 −1 �� 3+1 �

�
� �
W = �� = (−1) �� 1 1 −1 �� =
1
�� = ��
�� 1
1 0 �� 1 0 1 0 ��
�� 0 1 1 ��
Contents
0
��
�� 0
1 1 �� 0 �� 0 0 1 1 ��
��
��
�� 1 −2 1 �� 1 −2 1 ��
�
� �
� �
� �
� 1+1 �� 3 −2 ��
= r2 − r1 �� 1 1 −1 �� = �� 0 3 −2 �� = (−1) �� = 5.
�� 1 1 ��
�� 0 1 1 �� 0 1 1 ��
Page 280 of 298
Similarly, we calculate W1 = 4, W2 = 3,W3 = 6, W4 = 4. We obtain x1 = 45 , x2 = 35 , x3 = 65 , x4 = 45 .
��
�
� k 2 ��
8.24. a) The main determinant is W = �� = k 2 − 4. For k =� ±2 it is the Cramer’s system.
�� 2 k ��
Go Back
��
�
� k 2 ��
� k k ��
Moreover, we have W1 = �� = k − 2k, W2 = �� = k 2 − 2k. Therefore, we get the solution
�� k k �� 2 k ��
Full Screen
2
�
�
� 2x + 2y = 2, Close
x = kk2−2k = = k2 −2k
= = �
2
, . For 2 the system
�
k
y k
k is consistent, and its general
−4 k+2 k2 −4 k+2
�
� 2x + 2y = 2,
�
�
� −2x + 2y = −2,
Quit
solution x = t, y = 1 − t, where t ∈ R. For k = −2 the system �

� 2x − 2y = −2,
is inconsistent.
�
�
��
�� k 1 3 ��
b) W = �� 1 k 1 �� = k 2 −4k +3, W =� 0 iÄ k =� 1 and k =� 3. In this case the solution is x1 = − 3k+1
k−3 , x2 =
��
�� 1 1 1 ��
−1, x3 = k+k
k−3 . If k = 1, then the system
2 −2
Home Page
�
�
�
� x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 1,
�
�
� x1 + x2 + x3 = 1, Title Page
�
�
�
�
� x1 + x2 + x3 = 1,
�
Contents
has the general solution x1 = 1 − t, x2 = t, x3 = 0, where t ∈ R. For k = 3 we obtain the system

��
�
�
�
� 3x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 1,
�
�
� x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 1, � �
�
�
�
�
� x1 + x2 + x3 = 3.
�
Page 281 of 298
Applying elementary row operations we show that it is inconsistent.

c) W = k 3 − k 2 − k + 1, W =� 0 iÄ k =� ±1. The solution is Go Back
x1 = k−2
k2 −1 , x2 = k2 +k−3
−k2 +k3 −k+1 , x3 = −4k+4+k2
−k2 +k3 −k+1 .
Full Screen
For k = 1 and k = −1 the system is inconsistent because in both cases rk A = 2, rk [A�b] = 3. Close
Quit
9.1. a) {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0}.
b) We have x41 + x42 − x21 x22 = (x21 − x22 )2 + x21 x22 ≥ 0. Therefore, the domain of the function is the
set R2 . Home Page
c) {(x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ∶ x1 + x2 > 0, x1 ≠ 0}.

d) The domain is defined by inequality x11 + x12 ≥ 0 so x1 > 0, x2 > 0 or x1 x2 < 0, x1 + x2 ≤ 0. Title Page
e) We have e−x1 −2x2 − 1 ≤ 0; therefore, the domain is given by the condition x1 x2 ≤ 0.

2 2
9.2. a) (0, 1�. Contents
b) �3, ∞). Hint. After the substitution t = �x1 x2 � (t can be any positive real number) the problem
��
is reduced to finding the range of the function g(t) = 2t + t−2 , where t > 0 which is possible to solve
by the univariate calculus methods. 9.2) (−∞, 9�4�. c) Hint. The substitution t = x21 + x22 ≥ 0 and
� �
the method analogous to the previous exercise allow to solve this problem.
9.3. a) The line 3x1 − 2x2 = 3.
√ Page 282 of 298
b) The circle of radius 2 2 and the center (0,0) .
c) W0 , W−1 are hyperbolas defined by the equations respectively x1 x2 = 1 and x1 x2 = e−1 . Go Back
d) W−2 , W−1 are defined by the equations respectively x2 = −e−x1 , x2 = 0.

e) The set W−1 is defined by the conditions x2 = −x1 , x1 ≠ 0, and the set W0 –by the conditions Full Screen
x2 = 0, x1 ≠ 0.
9.4. a) The contour line Wz , where z ∈ R, is defined by the equation x1 x2 = z 3 . The contour Close
map is presented on the figure10.9 a).

Quit
b) See the figure 10.9 b).
c) The set Wz is defined by the conditions x2 = zx1 , x1 ≠ 0, see the figure. 10.9 c).
d) Solving the equation min(x1 , x2 ) = z we obtain the system of conditions: x1 ≤ x2 , x1 = z
or x1 ≥ x2 , x2 = z. The set Wz is composed of two perpendicular rays (half-lines) with the same
endpoint (z, z), see the figure 10.9 d).
Home Page
x2 x2 x2
Title Page
x1 x1 x1 Contents
��
(a) (b) (c)
� �
x2 x2
Page 283 of 298
Go Back
x1 x1
Full Screen
(d) (e) Close
Figure 10.9: Contour maps of functions in the exercise 9.4 Quit

e) For z < 0 we have Wz = �. The set W0 is the half-plane defined by the condition x1 ≤ 2, while
for z > 0 the Wz id the line with the equation x1 = 2 + z, see the figure 10.9 e).
9.5. Both functions are not continuous at the point (0, 0). At all other points of the domain
they are continuous.
9.6. For m = 0. The inequality � sin x� ≤ �x� (the reader is asked to prove the inequality) implies
Home Page
that for an arbitrary (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 − {(0, 0)} we have �f (x1 , x2 )� ≤ �x1 �. Fort every sequence (xn )
with terms diÄerent from (0, 0), and convergent to (0, 0), we have lim f (xn ) = 0. The condition of
Title Page
continuity is then m = f (0, 0) = 0.

n→∞
9.7. a) fx′ 1 (x̄) = 0, fx′ 2 (x̄) = −4. b) fx′ 1 (x̄) = 2, fx′ 2 (x̄) = 0. c) fx′ 1 (x̄) does not exist, fx′ 2 (x̄) = 2.
Contents
d) fx′ 1 (x̄) = fx′ 2 (x̄) = 0. ��

9.8. a) fx′ 1 (0, 0) = fx′ 2 (0, 0) = 0. b) as in a). c) Derivatives do not exist. Hint: find the domain
of the function f. � �
9.9. All partial derivatives exist. The reader is asked to find their domains.
a) fx′ 1 = 3x21 x2 + 2x2 − 2√1x1 , fx′ 2 = x31 + 2x1 + 1. Page 284 of 298
b) fx′ 1 = x1 +ln 1
x2 , fx2 = x2 (x1 +ln x2 ) .
′ 1
c) fx′ 1 = e−x1 x2 (1 − x1 x2 ), fx′ 2 = −x21 ⋅ e−x1 x2 . Go Back
d) fx′ 1 = 2 − x2 sin x1 , fx′ 2 = cos x1 .

9.10. a) Ex1 f (x1 , x2 ) = –, Ex2 f (x1 , x2 ) = —; b) Exi f (x1 , x2 ) = x2 +xi 2 for i = 1, 2; c) Exi f (x1 , x2 ) =
2x2 Full Screen
(xi �f (x1 , x2 )) for i = 1, 2.

1 2
k
Close
9.11. Applying the results obtained in 9.9 we have
a) fx′′1 ,x1 = 6 x1 x2 + 1�4 x1 , fx′′1 ,x2 = fx′′2 ,x1 = 3 x21 + 2, fx′′2 ,x2 = 0;
−3�2
Quit
b) fx′′1 ,x1 = − (x1 + ln(x2 )) , fx′′1 ,x2 = fx′′2 ,x1 = − (x +ln(x , fx′′2 ,x2 = − x2 2 (x1 +ln(x −x
−2 1 1 1
2;
1 ))2 x
2 2 2 )) 2 (x1 +ln(x2 ))
2
c) fx′′1 ,x1 = x2 e−x1 x2 (−2 + x1 x2 ), fx′′1 ,x2 = fx′′2 ,x1 = x1 e−x1 x2 (−2 + x1 x2 ), fx′′2 ,x2 = x31 e−x1 x2 ;
d) fx′′1 ,x1 = −x2 cos(x1 ), fx′′1 ,x2 = fx′′2 ,x1 = − sin(x1 ), fx′′2 ,x2 = 0.
9.12. Observe that the definition implies fx′ 2 (0, 0) = 0. At the remaining points we have
x1 (x21 − x22 )
fx′ 2 (x1 , x2 ) =
Home Page
(x21 + x22 )2
.
Title Page
We also have
fx′ 2 (t, 0) − fx′ 2 (0, 0)
lim = +∞. Contents
t→0 t
Therefore, the derivative fx′′1 ,x2 (0, 0) does not exist..
��
9.13. a) Yes, on the set R2 . b) Yes, on the set R2 − {(0.0)}.
9.14. At (x1 , x2 ) ≠ (0, 0) partial derivatives of the first order are equal to:
� �
x2 − x22 2x1 x22
fx′ 1 (x1 , x2 ) = x2 12 + 2x1 x2 2
x1 + x22 (x1 + x22 )2 Page 285 of 298
x2 − x22 2x2 x21

fx′ 2 (x1 , x2 ) = x1 12 − 2x1 x2 2 ;
x1 + x22 (x1 + x22 )2 Go Back
at (0, 0) both derivatives are 0. We get Full Screen
fx′ 2 (t, 0) − fx′ 2 (0, 0)

fx′′1 ,x2 (0, 0) = lim = 1, Close
t→0 t
fx′ (0, t) − fx′ 1 (0, 0)
fx′′2 ,x1 (0, 0) = lim 1 = −1. Quit
t→0 t
Mixed derivatives have diÄerent values. It follows from the fact (the reader is asked to verify it)
that mixed derivatives of the second order of the function f are not continuous at the point (0, 0)
– the assumptions of the Shwarz theorem are not satisfied then.
9.15. The function f has the local extremum (minimum) only at the point (1, 1).
9.16. a) One stationary point � 10 �, no local extrema.
15 Home Page
7 , 7
b) Local maximum at �−1, − 23 �.
c) Local minimum at � 83 , 23 �.
Title Page
d) Let us consider separately two cases a = 0 and a ≠ 0. In the first case there are no extrema, in
the second - there is one local extremum at the point (−a, −a): minimum for a < 0 and maximum
Contents
for a > 0. ��
√ √ √ √
e) Stationary points: x0 = (0, 0), x1 = ( 2, − 2) and x2 = (− 2, 2). At the first point there
is no extremum, the remaining two are local minima. � �
f) Local minimum � √ 3 , √
1 1
4 34
�.
g) Coordinates of stationary points satisfy the system of equations: Page 286 of 298
2x21 x2 2x22 x1
x2 ⋅ ln �x21 + x22 � + = 0, ⋅ ln �x 2
+ 2
� + = 0. (10.1) Go Back
x21 + x22 x21 + x22
x 1 1 x 2
Assume first that x1 ≠ 0 and x2 ≠ 0. After some transformations (multiplication of the first equation
Full Screen
by x1 , the second - by x2 and subtraction of equations) we get �x1 � = �x2 �. Considering consecutively
the cases x1 = x2 and x1 = −x2 we obtain from 10.1 coordinates of stationary points:
Close
1 1 −1 −1 1 −1 −1 1 Quit
x1 = � √ , √ � , x2 = � √ , √ � , x3 = � √ , √ � , x4 = � √ , √ � .
2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e
The cases x1 = 0, x2 ≠ 0 and x1 ≠ 0, x2 = 0 along with equations 10.1 result in the following
stationary points:
x5 = (0, 1), x6 = (1, 0), x7 = (0, −1), x8 = (−1, 0).
Examining the Hessian matrix of f at all stationary points we state that x1 and x2 are local minima Home Page
and x3 and x4 local maxima. All remaining points are not local extrema.
9.17. We have ∫0 (x2 − (ax + b))2 dx = 15 + b2 + 13 ⋅ a2 − 23 ⋅ b − 12 ⋅ a + ab. Therefore, the expression
1
Title Page
1
has the minimal value equal to 180 for a = 1 and b = − 16 . We can interpret this problem as the
problem of approximation of the quadratic function x2 by the function ax + b in such a way that it Contents
minimizes the approximation error.

9.18. We have to find minimum of the function ��
f ∶ R2 → R, f (a, b) = �(axi + b − yi )2 . � �
n
i=1
Coordinates of its stationary point (ā, b̄) satisfy the system of equations:
Page 287 of 298
ā � x2i + b̄ � xi = � xi yi , ā � xi + b̄n = � yi .
n n n n n Go Back
(10.2)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
Full Screen
The function has one stationary point (ā, b̄):

Close
n ⋅ ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ⋅ ∑ yi
n n n
1 n 1 n
ā = i=1 i=1 i=1
2 , b̄ = � yi − ā � xi , Quit
n⋅ ∑ − � ∑ xi �
n n n i=1 n i=1
x2i
i=1 i=1
� n 2 n �
at which
� ∑ xi ∑ xi �
� �
f (ā, b̄) = �� i=1
′′ i=1 �.
�
� ∑ xi n �
n
� i=1 �
� �
Given the assumptions in the part a) of the theorem 9.26 we conclude that f attains its local Home Page
minimum for a, b computed in 10.2. Indeed, if at least two among x1 , . . . , xn are diÄerent, then at
least one is diÄerent from 0 so ∑ x2i > 0. Furthermore, observe that for every t ∈ R the expression
n Title Page
i=1
∑ (xi − t)2
n
is positive (the reader should argue why). Therefore, Contents
i=1
��
0 < �(xi − t)2 = nt2 − 2t � xi + � x2i .
n n n
i=1 i=1 i=1

� �
We deal with quadratic function (of the variable t) with only positive values. Therefore, the discri-
minant should be negative. We obtain the inequality: Page 288 of 298
2
Â = 4 �� xi � − 4n � x2i < 0,
n n
Go Back
=1 =1
which is equivalent to det f ′′ (ā, b̄) > 0. The fact that f attains its minimum at the stationary point
Full Screen
is quite obvious intuitively. We leave the proper argumentation to the reader.

Close
9.19. Hint. Assume that f has a local maximum at x̄. Note that if g is increasing, then the
inequality f (x) ≤ f (x̄) is equivalent to the inequalityg (f (x)) ≤ g (f (x̄)). The thesis follows directly
Quit
from the definition of a local maximum. The case of a local minimum is analogous.
9.20. Maximal and minimal values are equal respectively:
a) f (0, 3) = 15 and f (1, 0) = −1.
b) f (−1, 0) = f (1, 0) = 1, f (0, −1) = f (0, 1) = −1.
c) f (2, 0) = 4, f (0, 1) = −3;
√ √ √
e) f ( 2, − 2) = 2 2, f (0, 2) = −2;
Home Page
f) f (0, 3) = f (0, −3) = 18, f (0, 0) = 0.

g) f (0, 2) = 4 and f (0, 0) = 0.
Title Page
9.21. Let x1 , x2 denotes daily portions in kg (bought and consumed) of the food A and B
respectively. Their total cost is equal to 12x1 + 15x2 z≥. The pair (x1 , x2 ) can be considered as the
Contents
daily consumption of the dog. It has to satisfy the condition given in the exercise: daily consumption ��
is not greater than 2kg. (i.e. x1 + x2 ≤ 2). The content in mg of micronutrients m1 and m2 equals
respectively 10x1 + 15x2 and 30x1 + 20x2 . Therefore, we get the conditions 10x1 + 15x2 ≥ 15 and � �
30x1 + 20x2 ≥ 30. Conditions of non-negativity x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0 have the obvious meaning in this case.
The problem is to find the minimal value of the function f (x1 , x2 ) = 12x1 + 15x2 on the set defined Page 289 of 298
by the above conditions. The solution is (x̄1 , x̄2 ) = ( 35 , 35 ). The minimal value of f , i.e. the minimal
cost of daily dog’s consumption, equals f ( 35 , 35 ) = 815 = 16, 20 z≥.
Go Back
a) Taking the taxation into consideration results in the increase of costs by 22% which corre-
sponds to finding minimum of the function 1, 22f (x1 , x2 ) on the set defined by the same conditions.
Full Screen
The solution does not change, only the cost of consumption increases.
Close
b) The decrease of the price of the pet food B is reflected by changing the cost function to
g(x1 , x2 ) = 12x1 + 14x2 . The solution does not change either, only the total cost decreases.
9.22. a) The function is continuously diÄerentiable and f ′ (x) = [ 2x1 + 3x2 + 1, 3x1 + 4x2 − 1 ].
Quit
therefore, f ′ (1, 2) = [9, 10]. Applying the theorem 9.39 we obtain ∇h f (1, 2) = 9 ⋅ 3 + 10 ⋅ 2 = 47.
b) ∇h f (x̄) = f ′ (x̄)h = e.
c) The directional derivative ∇h f (x̄) does not exist because the limit lim f (t,−t)−f t
(0,0)
= lim �t�t
t→0 t→0
does not exist.
Home Page
9.23. Consider the partial derivative with respect to x1 . In the example 9.13 we have shown
that fx′ 1 (0, 0) = 0. The sequence xn = ( n1 , n1 ) converges to the point (0, 0). The simple calculation
shows that for any n ∈ N we have
Title Page
�
� n1 + t, �
n −f
� n1 , n1 � �( n1 + t) n1 � − n1
Contents
1
f 1
fx′ 1 (xn ) = lim = lim = ,
t→0 t t→0 t 2 ��
which means that lim fx′ 1 (xn ) = ≠ fx′ 1 (0, 0) = 0. Therefore, the derivative fx′ 1 is not continuous at
1
2
(0, 0). The case of fx′ 2 is analogous. � �
n→∞
9.24. We can easily show that the partial derivatives of the first order of all functions considered
Page 290 of 298
here are continuous.
9.25. h is the vector of: a) increase, b) increase, c) decrease, d) increase, e) neither increase
Go Back
nor decrease.
Full Screen
Close
Quit
Index Home Page
Title Page
antiderivative, 105 commuting matrices, 144
asymptote continuity of a function
Contents
horizontal, 72 at a point, 70
slant, 72 in the set, 70 ��
vertical, 72 contour line of a function, 177
coordinates � �
basic form of a system of equations, 167
of a vector, 125
basis of the vector space, 137
of the point, 123 Page 291 of 298
bijection, 26
Cramer’s rule, 173
Cartesian coordinate system, 123 Cramer’s system, 173 Go Back
coeÖcients of the linear combination, 134

cofactor, 159 de Morgan’s law, 8 Full Screen
column of the matrix, 141 complement of an infinitary intersection, 16

comatrix, 159 complement of an infinitary union, 16 Close
combination linear, 134 complement of sets intersection, 12

common diÄerence, 56 complement of sets union, 11 Quit
common ratio, 56 conjunction negation, 8

disjunction negation, 8 elementary row operation
universal quantifier negation, 14 of the first type, 147
derivative of the second type, 147
directional, 200 of the third type, 148
Home Page
left, 78 entry of the matrix, 140
of a function at the point, 78 equation
Title Page
of the first order, 78 of a hyperplane, 130
of the second order, 93 of a line in general form, 124
Contents
partial, 201 of a line in the slope-intercept form, 124
of the second order, 189 of a plane, 128 ��
partial of the order m, 205 equivalence class, 19
right, 78 Euler number, 62 � �
derivative matrix, 203 extremum, 192
derivatives Page 292 of 298
factorial, 55
mixed, 189
first derivative, 78
determinant Go Back
formula, 6
of a matrix, 153
function, 25, 29 Full Screen
of the system, 173
m-times continuously diÄerentiable, 206
diÄerence quotient, 78
argument, 30 Close
distance, 124, 131
average cost, 83
elasticity coeÖcient, 84 bijection, 38 Quit
element of the matrix, 140 composite, 46

composition, 46 one-to-one, 36
concave, 94 onto, 37
constant, 39 range, 30
continuous, 182 real-valued of a real variable, 30
Home Page
continuous at a point, 181 strictly concave, 94
continuously diÄerentiable, 202 strictly convex, 94
Title Page
convex, 94 superposition, 46
decreasing, 39 surjection, 37
Contents
decreasing with decreasing rate, 97 total cost, 83
decreasing with increasing rate, 97 twice continuously diÄerentiable, 93 ��
diÄerentiable, 78 twice diÄerentiable, 93
diÄerentiable at the point, 77 function � �
domain, 30 one-to one correspondence, 38
increasing, 38 Page 293 of 298
gradient of a function, 187
increasing with decreasing, 97
graph of the function, 177
increasing with increasing rate, 97 Go Back
injection, 36 half-plane, 127

Full Screen
inverse, 48 half-space, 131
marginal cost, 83 Hessian, 189
Close
monotonic, monotone, 39 hyperplane, 130
non-decreasing, 39
Quit
non-increasing, 39 image of a set, 26
image of the set, 44
indeterminate form, 64 local maximum, 41, 193
injection, 26 local minimum, 41, 192
integral logical operator, 6
definite, 111 bivariate, 7
Home Page
geometric interpretation, 112 conjunction, 7
indefinite, 106 disjunction, 6
Title Page
interior point, 77 equivalence, 7
implication, 7
Laplace expansion, 155 Contents
negation, 6
length of a vector, 124
univariate, 7 ��
lexicographic ordering, 217
logical value, 6
limit
� �
improper, 63 main diagonal of the matrix, 141
improper of a function mapping, 25, 30
Page 294 of 298
at a point, 68 inverse, 27
left- and right-hand of a function one-to-one, 26 Go Back
at a point, 68 one-to-one correspondence, 26

of a function onto a set, 26 Full Screen
at a point, 67 superposition, 27
in infinity, 68 truncation, 25 Close
of a sequence, 59 mappings
line, 124 composition, 27 Quit
local extrema, 41 matrices

equal, 141 neighborhood of the point, 177
matrix, 140 nullspace
adjugate, 159 of the matrix, 166
augmented, 165
ordered pair, 17 Home Page
coeÖcient, 164
cofactor, 159 parametric equation
Title Page
column form, 144 of a segment, 127, 132
diagonal, 141 of the line, 126, 132
Contents
equivalent, 148 partial elasticity of a function, 187
partial ordering, 19
identity, 141 ��
inverse, 145 partition, 19
lower triangular, 141 plane, 128 � �
non-singular, 145 point
of partial derivatives of the second order, 189 inflection, 95 Page 295 of 298
singular, 145 interior, 177

skew-symmetric, 142 isolated, 67 Go Back
square, 141 limit, 67

symmetric, 142 stationary, 87, 194 Full Screen
transpose, 142 predicate, 12

Close
upper triangular, 141 preimage of a set, 26
minor, 159 preimage of the set, 44
Quit
principal, 159 primitive function, 105
product
of a matrix and a real number, 142 transitive, 18
of matrices, 142 row basic form
product of a vector and a number, 125, 131 of a matrix, 150
row of the matrix, 140
quantifier, 13 Home Page
existential, 13 Sarrus’ scheme, 154

universal, 13 second derivative, 93 Title Page
rank of a matrix, 145 segment, 124, 132

real function sequence, 54 Contents
of k variables, 177 arithmetic, 56

��
relation, 17 bounded, 58
from above, 58
antisymmetric, 18 � �
domain, 18 from below, 58
equivalence, 19 constant, 55
Page 296 of 298
inverse, 18 convergent, 60
left-unique, 25 decreasing, 55 Go Back
non-reflexive, 18 divergent, 60
non-symmetric, 18 to infinity, 63 Full Screen
range, 18 geometric, 56
reflexive, 18 increasing, 55 Close
right-unique, 25 monotonic, monotone, 55

symmetric, 18 non-decreasing, 55 Quit
total, 18 non-increasing, 55
set of a line, 124
complement, 11 solution
empty, 9 basic, 171
finite, 9 general of a system of equations, 165
Home Page
integer numbers, 10 of a system of equations, particular, 165
natural numbers, 10 space
Title Page
open, 177 two-dimensional, 124
quotient set, 19 vector, 130, 131
Contents
rational numbers, 10 statement, 6
real numbers, 10 subset, 10 ��
universal set, 11 sum of matrices, 142
set, sets, 9 sum of vectors, 125, 131 � �
sets surjection, 26
Cartesian product, 17 system Page 297 of 298
diÄerence, 11 linearly dependent, 135

equal, 10 linearly independent, 135 Go Back
indexed collection of subsets, 15 system of equations

Full Screen
infinitary intersection, 15 consistent, 165
infinitary union, 15 equivalent, 167
Close
intersection, 11 homogeneous, 165
union, 10 inconsistent, 165
Quit
slope coeÖcient matrix form, 165
non-homogeneous, 165 transposition, 142
scalar form, 164
universal set
vector form, 165
partially ordered, 19
tautology, 8 totally ordered, 19 Home Page
contraposition law, 8
variable
term of the sequence, 54 Title Page
basic, 170
theorem
nonbasic, 171
arithmetic of improper limits, 64 Contents
vector
arithmetic of limits, 60
bound, 124 ��
Cauchy, 157
free, 125
de l’Hospital’s rule, 84
of decrease of the function value, 202 � �
diÄerentiation rules, 80
of increase of the function value, 202
integration by parts, 109
of the right-hand side, 165 Page 298 of 298
integration by substitution, 110
of variables, 165
Kronecker-Capelli, 165 Go Back
opposite, 131
necessary condition for extremum, 87
unit, 138
Schwarz, 190 Full Screen
zero, 131
selected properties of limits, 61
vectors
squeeze theorem, 61 Close
linearly dependent, 135
suÖcient condition for extremum, 87, 93
linearly independent, 135
total ordering, 19 Quit
versors of the Cartesian coordinate system, 138
transformation, 30

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Contents Title Page

1 Elements of mathematical logic and set theory, relations and mappings

2 Properties of functions (Monika DÍdys) 29 Full Screen

2.3 Monotonicity of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.5 Image and preimage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3 Sequences (Maria Ekes) 54

3.2 Convergence of sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4 Limit and continuity of a function (Maria Ekes) 67

4.2 Continuity of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5.2.1 Geometric interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5.2.3 Economic interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6 Integrals (Monika DÍdys) 105

7 Vector space Rn (Jacek K≥opotowski) 123 � �

7.1 Points and vectors in R2 and in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

8 Matrices (Jacek K≥opotowski) 140

9 Multivariable functions (S≥awomir Dorosiewicz) 176

9.3 Partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

9.5 Appendix. Directional derivatives. DiÄerentiability

10 Solutions and answers 210

10.2 Solutions and answers to chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

10.9 Solutions and answers to chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Chapter 1 Title Page

Elements of mathematical logic and set Contents

1.1. Logical statements

complex formulae using simple statements.

statement p; the statement p ∨ q, which should be read p or q, is called disjunction of statements

p q ∼p p∨q p∧q p⇒q p⇔q

We can see that:

• disjunction p ∨ q is true if at least one of statements p, q is true;

• conjunction p ∧ q is true only if both statements p, q are true; Close

• implication p ⇒ q is false only in case where p is true, and q is false; Quit

• equivalence p ⇔ q is true if the logical value of both statements p, q is the same.

Example 1.2. We will prove that the formula

1.2. (?) Check whether the following formulae are tautologies:

1.2. Set operations Full Screen

composed of n elements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is written as {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. A set which has no elements is

A special notation is adopted for the following sets of numbers.

We write then A ⊂ B. In the opposite case, if A is not a subset of B, we write A ⊂� B.

We write then A = B. Observe immediately that A = B ⇔ A ⊂ B ∧ B ⊂ A. Page 10 of 298

The union of sets A, B is the set A ∪ B defined by the condition

The diÄerence of sets A, B is the set A − B given by the condition

so it is the set of those elements of A which do not belong to B.

Example 1.3. We will prove that Page 11 of 298

Solution. Applying de Morgan’s law for disjunction negation we obtain

Example 1.5. If A ⊂ X, Ï (x) ≡ x ∈ A, then {x ∈ X ∶ Ï (x)} = A.

Example 1.6. The expression x2 − 1 < 0, x ∈ R, is a predicate. Substituting x = 0 we get a true

given set X as follows:

We often use logical operators when formulating definitions or theorems. We say

for every x ∈ X the conditionÏ (x) holds,

there exists x ∈ X satisfying the condition Ï (x).

� Ï (x) is true in case, where

Example 1.7. We will prove that

(de Morgan’s law of universal quantifier negation).

so the statement � ∼ Ï (x) is false too.

which means that the statement � ∼ Ï (x) is true as well. Close

x∈X Â(x) x∈X

Solution. Observe that A0 = {x ∈ R ∶ 0x < 1} = R. If t > 0, then Quit

At = {x ∈ R ∶ tx < 1} = �x ∈ R ∶ x < 1t � = �−∞, 1t � .

Solution. Applying de Morgan’s law of general quantifier negation, we get

1.9. (?)Prove that

(de Morgan’s law of existential quantifier negation). Close

1.4. Relations Title Page

Figure 2.3: Graphs of selected functions ��

Figure 2.5: Graphs of selected functions ��

Figure 2.8: Injective function - example 2.4 ��