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DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF VARIABLE MVAR OUTPUT
SHUNT REACTORS WITH ON LOAD TAP-CHANGER.
OPERATION EXPERIENCE IN AFRICA
by
G. BERTAGNOLLI A. BABARE
ABB Trasformatori Consultant on Power
Legnano (Milano) Transformers, Milano
(Italy)
Summary1
The technical requirements of charging power compensation
of long lightly loaded HV lines are at first discussed.
The concept and special design criteria of shunt reactors
with variable Mvar output obtained by means of tapped
windings and on-load-tap-changer are presented. The feasible
Mvar regulation range and size of steps, as a function of reactor
rated voltage and power, are discussed.
The analyses are reported of voltage regulation quality,
voltage stability and overvoltages containment for a 161 kV long
radial system compensated with variable Mvar output shunt
reactors.
A comparison is made of the cost and losses of the novel
shunt reactors, of conventional reactors and of thyristor
controlled reactors.
The 10-year operation experience of four 161 kV variable
Mvar output shunt reactors in Ghana is reported. At last,
recommendations are made for the specification and testing of
the novel type of shunt reactors.
Keywords:shunt compensation, reactor design, regulation, on-
load-tap-changers, voltage stability, overvoltages.
1. Introduction
Vast regions of many developing countries still lack electric
energy, or only the major towns are supplied by diesel driven
generators, the operation of which is both expensive and
unreliable.
In several cases, low costs and reliable electric energy
supplies are available in hydroelectric or thermal power plants,
located some hundreds of kilometers from the loads to be
served. The problem that has to be solved is the transmission of
small amounts of power over distances which are very large
compared with the power involved. The required long lightly
loaded high voltage lines (LLLHV lines) may be up to 600-700
km in length and the initial loading may be only 5 to 30 MW.
*) Department of Electrical Engineering- University of Rome
"La Sapienza", via Eudossiana 18 - 00184 ROMA, Italy
Session 1998
© CIGRÉ
F. ILICETO*) F.M. GATTA
University of Rome "La Sapienza"
Roma
The long transmission distance requires the choice of a HV,
say in the range of from 110 kV to 220 kV. Consequently, the
LLLHV lines transfer initially only a fraction of surge
impedance loading (SIL). The 3- phase short circuit power can
be of the same order of magnitude as the line charging power.
This occurs at both the terminals if the LLLHV line originates
from a very small power plant. If the power source is strong, it
occurs at the receiving end of very long lines. Consequently, line
no-load energization and operation at low load, may require a
compensation of the line charging power close to 100%,
reasonably distributed along the line, to limit the injection of
charging power into the feeding source and obtain an acceptable
voltage profile.
Part of the necessary shunt reactors must be controllable,
continuously or in steps, as a function of line load variations and
load power factor. Other requirements for shunt compensation
equipment to be installed in isolated regions of developing
countries are low initial and operation costs, and simplicity of
operation and maintenance.
Use of shunt reactors with Mvar output controllable in steps
may also be of interest for the compensation of EHV lines, in
order to make infrequent the need for switching on and off
reactors and to reduce the associated voltage jump.
2. Applicable shunt compensation equipment of LLLHV
lines
A feature of LLLHV lines is that for many years of operation
there is no need of capacitive Mvar generation at the substations
supplying the loads or in the distribution networks, because the
residential-agricultural-commercial loads generally have a
natural p.f. that is not low (frequently close to 0.9 at the HV
busbars) and the required Mvar can be supplied by using the
charging power of the long HV lines, loaded below SIL (say, at
0.25 - 0.75 SIL). Then in the initial operation, only shunt
reactors with suitable control capability of their Mvar output, in
steps or continuous, are required.
In developing regions, load may undergo large daily
variations; the minimum load can be less than 50% of the peak
load. Large induction motors are used in water pumping
stations, saw mills, and some times in rock crushing plants, or
 2
crop and food processing plants. Individual motors have a rated
power generally not exceeding 200 kW, are scattered in small
groups at different locations and are started by means of
delta/star commutation or through an autotransformer, to allow
start-up from local diesel generators. The prevailing loads are
lighting and other domestic-commercial-rural appliances.
An important peculiarity of these loads is that they do not
cause sudden and repeated large variations of active and
reactive power demand and therefore in normal operation they
do not require a fast response of the Mvar compensators, as is
needed by certain large industrial or electric traction loads.
Shunt reactors can be applied as follows:
A. Conventional shunt reactors split in small units, most of
which are individually switchable with a circuit breaker, to
allow Mvar control in large steps. The acceptable Mvar rating
of shunt reactors is limited by the voltage jump at switching
on and off, readily calculated with the known formula:
∆Vi%=100 (∆Qi/Psc,i ), (2.1)
where ∆Qi is the reactor Mvar rating at operation voltage
and Psc,i is the short circuit power at node i. Psc,i can be
calculated by assuming constant voltage at the nodes with fast
acting regulation equipment: power plant busbars, if their
Mvar regulation capacity exceeds ∆Qi and their voltage
correction time is neglected (usually, it is less than 1 s).
The acceptable voltage jump, ∆Vi, depends on the frequency
of its occurrence in operation and on the required quality of
service to consumers. In highly electrified countries, a rule
for good service is ∆Vi%≤3% for daily switching of shunt
reactors or capacitors. In developing countries, the ∆Vi limit
can be raised, say up to 4-5% for daily switching and up to 7-
8% for very infrequent switching.
B. Use HV shunt reactors with variable Mvar output in steps, by
means of tapped windings and on-load-tap-changer (OLTC),
firstly proposed in [1] [2] . As justified in par. 4, the Mvar
regulation range can be from 40% to 100% for HV reactors
(BIL of 650 to 950 kV) and from 30% to 100% for MV
reactors. Then the need to switch these reactors on or off
(with OLTC set for minimum Mvar output prior to switching)
becomes infrequent. Part of these reactors may be required to
be always in service (at minimum Mvar output at peak load).
C. Use thyristor controlled reactors (TCRs), which provide
continuous fast var control. The TCRs are usually connected
to the HV line terminals via an HV/MV step-down
transformer, and should be preset to absorb the line charging
power, prior to energization as one block with the
compensated line. This requires special circuits, because no
synchronized driving voltage is available at the line receiving
end. Even if TCRs allow a very fast var control, the actual
control speed is to be limited to avoid voltage instability,
because the short circuit power may be very low in LLLHV
lines.
An objection to the application of TCRs in isolated regions
of developing countries is that they need specialists for
troubleshooting and repair. Drawbacks of TCRs are high cost
and high losses compared with conventional or tapped windings
shunt reactors (see par.9), and their generation of some
harmonic currents.
By considering the application of a var shunt compensator
every 150 to 250 km of LLLHV line operated at 50 Hz, with
rated voltage in the range 110-220 kV, the 3-phase charging
power to be absorbed by each compensator may range from 7.5
to 35 Mvar. At rated voltages of 380-500 kV, with a var
compensator every 200 to 300 km of line, the 3-phase charging
power to be absorbed by each shunt compensator may range
from 50 to 200 Mvar at 50 Hz.
This paper deals mostly with the shunt compensation of
LLLHV lines with use of tapped windings variable output shunt
reactors (TWVO-SRs). As justified in the following paragraphs,
this compensation scheme has the following features:
- with the usual number of taps of commercial OLTCs, it allows
an almost continuous var-voltage control in normal operation
(see par. 7);
- with appropriate var ratings, location, design and, where
required, switching of TWVO-SRs, it allows trouble-free
transient behaviour of LLLHV lines (see par. 8);
- use of HV TWVO-SRs is the least costly among Solutions A,
B and C, for the LLLHV lines with rated voltage in the range
from 110 kV to 220 kV (see par.9).
The conceptual design and Mvar variation range of TWVO-
SRs are examined also for the EHVs, up to 525 kV
3. Conception and design of HV and MV TWVO-SRs with
OLTC
3.1 Basic concepts on conventional shunt reactors
There are two basic designs of shunt reactors: namely
coreless and gapped-core. For technical reasons, in most cases
preference is given to gapped-core reactors. At a quick glance,
the core-and-coil structure of a gapped-core reactor looks quite
similar to that of a core type transformer, with the obvious
difference that in the reactor there is only one winding per
phase. The main peculiarity lies in the physical structure of the
core limbs bearing the coils, which hold built-in non-magnetic
gaps along their length (see Fig.1). The gaps are needed for
increasing the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and decreasing
the inductance of the winding proportionally.
Each gapped limb consists of a number of cylindrical core
sections piled up one on top of the other, separated by spacers
made of a very stiff and inert material, like ceramic or slate,
forming the gaps. The core sections are built in the form of
cylindrical blocks of radially laminated core steel sheets
arranged in a wedge shaped pattern. Each block is moulded in
epoxy resin to a solid piece, which includes the spacers glued at
the top surface of the block. The radial configuration of the
laminations is such that a laminated surface is presented to all
of the fringing flux crossing the gaps. This is highly effective for
minimizing the losses caused by eddy currents at the end parts
of the core sections, and enables the subdivision of the required
total gap length into a relatively small number of fairly wide
gaps instead of many thin gaps.
Yoke
Spacer
Outer leg
Core section
Fig. 1- Magnetic circuit of a single-phase gapped-core shunt
reactor
 3
A peculiarity of a gapped-core reactor is that there are
pulsating attraction forces at twice the power frequency acting
within the core structure because of the different permeabilities
of the materials of gapped limbs: core steel laminations and
spacers. In gapped-core reactors it is necessary to design the
core parts so that they are strong, stiff and sufficiently
prestressed to handle the force without excessive strain or
displacement of the parts. The mechanical arrangement shall
then be adequate to compress each core column with the due
force, attaining some hundreds kN in large units. A well
designed mechanical structure is essential for assuring small
vibration amplitudes in the various parts of the reactor and a
low acoustic emission.
Finally, the winding and the main insulation structures of
reactors do not differ significantly from those of power
transformers, with one exception: as shunt reactors do not
undergo any short-circuit events, the mechanical requirements
for the windings are far less stringent in reactors compared with
transformers.
3.2 Reactor design fundamentals
From the magnetic circuit theory and Hopkinson's law, the
following expression is applicable to reactor magnetic circuits:
N i = Φ Rm [A],
where: N i is the magnetomotive force (amperturns) [A]; Φ is
the magnetic flux [Vs]; Rm is the reluctance [H-1].
In the unsaturated state, the reactor is a linear circuit, the
inductance of which is:
L = N Φ / i [H],
where N is the number of the turns of the winding.
The two above equations yield:
2
N • the mass and the volume of the winding are calculated upon
L= (3.2.1)
Rm
The inductance is proportional to the square of the number
of turns. The reluctance Rm depends only on the geometrical
properties of the flux path within the winding space, as the
reluctance of the external ferromagnetic path can be
disregarded. There are two paths in parallel in the winding
volume, one through the gaps and another through the
cylindrical duct between the core limb and winding, and in the
winding itself. The flux densities are quite different in the two
spaces. According to the equation:
N i µ0
B= [T],
h - variation of the gap volume
⋅10 − 6 [H m-1] is the permeability of air, both
where µ 0 = 1256
.
flux densities are proportional to the magnetomotive force N i
produced by the winding. The induction in the gaps, Bg, is
inversely proportional to the total length, gt, of the gaps, and the
induction in the duct, Bd, is inversely proportional to the axial
length of the winding.
The energy in the reactor, E, is:
E=
1
2
2
Li =
2 µo
1
(B 2
g Vg
2
+ B d Vd ) [J],
where i is the value of the current [A], Vg=Ag gt is the total
volume of the gaps [m3], and Vd is the total volume of the
cylindrical duct and of a part of the winding [m3].
With a sinusoidal voltage excitation at frequency f [Hz], the
current is also sinusoidal:
i =Im sin (ω t), where ω= 2 π f
and the energy E(t) stored in the circuit at time t is:
1
E( t ) = L I m sin ( ω t )
2 2
[J]
2 insulation as allowed by the grounded neutral (solidly or
The time derivative of energy is the instantaneous power,
p(t), exchanged with the source:
dE 1
p( t ) = = ω L I m sin( 2ω t ) [W]
2
dt 2
The reactive power, or rated power, QN, of the reactor is the
peak value of p(t):
2
U
QN = ω L I = X I = = U I [VAr] , (3.2.2)
2 2
X
where I=Im/√2 is the r.m.s. value of current [A], U is the r.m.s.
value of the AC supply voltage [V] and X =ωL is the reactance
of the reactor [Ω ].
Energy is stored mainly in the gaps (70%-90%, depending on
the reactor voltage) and the rest in the cylindrical duct and in
the winding. The reactive power in the reactor is shared in the
same proportion. If, for sake of simplicity, the gap volume only
is considered, the following considerations can be made:
• for a given flux density in the gap region, the gap volume is:
2 µ0 Q N
Vg = [m3];
ω Bg
2
• by selecting the cross sectional area for the gaps, Ag [m2],
the total gap height can be calculated;
• the number of turns of the winding is:
L gt
N = ;
Ag µ0
• the total height of the winding is calculated on the basis of a
reasonable value of the magnetic field intensity and of
dielectric requirements;
setting the current density value;
• the total gap height is subdivided into a number of gaps of
equal height, not too large, to avoid problems due to the
fringing of the flux in the gap region.
3.3 Gapped-core shunt reactors with variable Mvar output
If one disregards the possibility of exploiting the non-linear
magnetic properties of the steel laminations - which would
entail problems and negative effects - the equations of par. 3.2
give evidence that variable Mvar outputs can be achieved by
means of each one of the following measures:
- variation of the number of turns in the winding
The change of the gap volume achieved by altering the gap
length, is actually adopted in a few cases: for example in arc
suppression coils (Petersen coils), where any tuning of the
inductance is achieved by means of a plunger or sliding core
moved by a motor drive. However, such arrangements are
restricted to the lower reactive power range (some thousands
Kvar) and are impractical for larger continuous ratings, due to
the problems associated with the magnetic flux control in large
gaps and with the overall mechanical behaviour of the device.
The other alternative relies on the variation of the number of
turns in the winding, and is accomplished in the same and very
reliable way which the manufacturers of power transformers
have been adopting for decades, that is by switching in or out,
by means of an OLTC, the turns of a tapping winding supplied
purposely in addition to the main winding. The maximum Mvar
output corresponds to the minimum number of turns inserted
and vice versa. As shunt reactors for HV and EHV applications
are star connected and the neutral terminal has graded
 4
through a neutral grounding reactor), the most suitable electrical
location of the tapping winding is at the neutral side. This
arrangement allows the use of three-pole star point OLTCs in
three-phase reactors.
The reactor's inductance is substantially proportional to the
square of the number of turns (see par. 3.2, equation (3.2.1)).
The minimum number of turns giving the maximum Mvar
output is assumed to be the unit reference value for the turns.
Let us define the required ratio of the TWVO-SRs:
Minimum Mvar output
K= ; over selector implying a coarse-fine tapping winding
Maximum Mvar output
then the winding turns, ∆T, to be added in order to attain the
minimum Mvar output, expressed in p.u. of the above reference
value, are (see diagram in Fig.2):
1
∆T = − 1
K 4.2 OLTC maximum rated step voltage
It is easy to recognize that, starting from K=0.6 downwards,
the p.u. turns, ∆T, to be added increasingly exceed the usual
tapping ranges adopted in power transformers. This has an
impact on the following quantities:
- number of tap positions needed for the OLTC
- OLTC step voltage
- physical size of the tapping winding
- differential voltage across the whole winding (fixed part +
tapping winding) and across the tapping part when lightning
and switching overvoltages are applied to the TWVO-SRs
with different tap positions of OLTC
- voltage to ground caused on the tapping winding by the above
overvoltages
- differential voltages originated by lightning and switching
surges across the various parts of the OLTC affecting its
internal insulation requirements
- difference of the Kvar steps within the range of variable
outputs
∆T 1/K -1 [p.u.]
0.8
0.6
0.4
Q min
0.2 K [p.u.]
Q - maximum rated through current [A]
N
0 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Fig. 2- Turns to be added, ∆T [p.u.], to the minimum winding
turns versus ratio of min. to max. Mvar output
One final factor to be considered is the physical layout of the
tapped part of the winding and its geometrical position with
respect to the fixed part. In this respect, the rated voltage of the
reactor plays an important role. Reactors for MV applications
allow more flexibility in selecting the location of the tapping
winding and its subdivision in taps. On the contrary, HV and
EHV applications set more stringent conditions on this and also
on some other aspects.
4. Feasible Mvar regulation range and step size of TWVO-
SRs as a function of rated voltage
For the assessment of the feasible regulation ranges of
TWVO-SRs the quantities listed in par.3.3 should be considered
individually. When setting values for feasibility, one has to bear
in mind that the service reliability of the TWVO-SRs shall not
be affected at all with respect to conventional fixed-output shunt
reactors.
4.1 Number of OLTC tap positions
The minimum number of taps should be chosen, if
compatible with other constraints, like the capabilities of
standard type OLTCs and the allowable busbar voltage change
at the installation site consequent to a tap changing operation. If
one excludes any special OLTCs, the products commonly
available on the market are built with a number of steps ranging
from 9 to ±17, resulting in 10 to 35 tap positions. Especially
when a high number of taps is required, the use of a change-
arrangement or a polarity reversal applied to a fine tapping
winding allows the number of contacts needed on the OLTC tap
selector to be halved (see Fig.3). The chosen number of tap
positions shall fall within the limits set above.
This is one of the most important factors to be considered when
setting the feasible regulation range of a TWVO-SR. All
calculations shall be based on the specified maximum
continuous operating voltage of the reactor which usually
exceeds the rated voltage of the network by 5 or 10% .
1 2 1 3 2 1 2
a) b) c)
Fig. 3- Basic tapping connections: a) without change-over
selector; b) with coarse tap selector; c) with reversing
switch - 1) main winding; 2) fine tap winding; 3)
coarse tap winding
The performance limits of the OLTC diverter switch are set
for three quantities, namely:
- maximum rated step voltage [V]
- rated switching capacity [KVA]
These three quantities are interdependent. In a typical
voltage vs. current graph (see Fig.4), we can identify three
regions. A low current region (a) in which the limit is set by the
maximum rated step voltage. A region (b) with higher but less
than rated current in which the limit is set by the switching
capacity of the diverter switch. Finally, the last part (c) of the
graph where the limit is the maximum rated through current,
which defines the thermal limit also for the selector switch
contacts.
Ui
U
im a
b
c
I um I
Fig. 4- Correlation of step-voltage, Ui and through current, I;
Uim= max. rated step voltage; Ium= max. rated
through current
When dealing with MV applications, the maximum rated
step voltage is never a limiting factor. On the contrary, for HV
and EHV applications, the step voltage is almost always the
 5
controlling parameter of the minimum number of steps needed
in order to cover the required range of variable Mvar output. In
fact, the rated through-current values of standard OLTCs in
general significantly exceed the rated current of the equipment
under consideration.
Two reputable manufacturers of OLTCs list on their
catalogues the following maximum rated step voltage limits,
Uim:
Production Range Uim
Manufac. A Manufac. B
Lower range 3500 V 3300 V
(300 A - 600 A)
Upper range 5000 V 4000 V to
(1000A-2000A and above) 5000 V
The minimum number of taps consistent with the above
limits is to be selected, with due regard also to the cost of the
OLTC. In this context, it is advisable not to use for example an
OLTC of the upper range simply to reduce the number of taps, if
the current requirement is fully compatible with the lower range
equipment.
As a first estimate, the minimum number of taps, Nmin, to
be foreseen in the fine tapping winding can be calculated by
means of the following expression:
n max − n min
N min = U m , into two parallel parts and the HV terminal is close to the upper
2 n min U im
where: Um is the maximum continuous phase-to-ground
operation voltage [V]; nmax and nmin are the maximum and
minimum number of turns; Uim is the OLTC maximum rated
step voltage [V]; the factor 2 in the above equation accounts for
the use of a coarse-fine or a polarity reversal tapping
arrangement.
4.3 Physical size of the tapping winding
The physical size of the tapping winding is directly
dependent on the extension of the tapping range with respect to
the fixed part of the winding. This factor is more important in
HV and EHV applications because the dielectric requirements
for the tapping windings are more severe and result in more
stringent conditions when selecting the winding configurations.
One should avoid tapping windings consisting of more than two
or three physical parts (shells).
4.4 Differential transient voltages within single windings,
between windings and OLTC parts, and to ground.
This is a rather complex matter, affecting the physical layout
of the tapping windings and their location with respect to the
fixed part of the winding. The amplitude of the tapping winding
or windings in terms of turns and their performance in terms of
lightning impulse voltage distribution, are both important
factors in HV and especially in EHV applications. The tapping
windings shall be designed for high internal capacitance so as to
reduce the amplitude of the voltage transients during lightning
and switching surges. Any presence of large voltage swings
would require heavy and complicated insulation structures for
their containment. The calculation of the impulse voltage
distribution must be carried out for different tap positions and
the worst condition should be considered for design purposes.
At least in the EHV TWVO-SRs, the use of metal oxide
varistors [MOVs] connected across taps, as applied on power
transformers, is worth considering for a better control of the
overvoltages. It is essential also to check the compatibility of the
absolute and differential voltage values calculated for the
windings, with the various rated withstand voltages of the
OLTC.
It is known that the interwound spiral regulation winding is
inherently exposed to high oscillatory overvoltages originated by
the lightning and switching surges, because it is not sufficiently
antiresonant as is an interleaved main winding. The application
of MOVs connected across the taps increases the series
capacitances, owing to the high dielectric constant of the
material, and therefore improves the distribution of transient
overvoltages, even in the region of low conductivity of MOVs
(normal operation with low leakage current).
Another important aspect is the physical location of the
tapping windings with respect to the main winding, which also
influences the transient voltage behaviour. The problem is
negligible for MV applications. On the other hand, for EHV
applications (400 kV and 500 kV), the feasibility of placing the
tapping windings in the duct between the gapped limb and the
main winding should at least be checked carefully, as this layout
is well consistent with the splitting of the main winding in two
parallel parts axially superimposed, with the EHV line terminal
at the centre. Inner side tapping windings lead to an increase of
the size of the duct between core limb and main winding, as
well as of the mass. However, the enlargement of the duct also
provides a benefit in terms of increase of inductance.
In the HV TWVO-SRs, when the main winding is not split
yoke, the regulation winding should be placed externally. This
solution simplifies the insulation, makes the tap connections
very easy, and could be realized with a progressively increasing
number of the turns per step so that the Kvar steps are equal or
almost equal (see par.4.5). An outer regulation winding is still
feasible if the main winding has the HV terminal at the center;
however in this case it must be realized in two parallel parts as
the main winding, and insulation is more complex.
In conclusion, the electrical design of the tapping winding
and connection leads is a key aspect as regards TWVO-SRs.
4.5 Difference of amplitude of the Kvar steps within the variable
output range
Winding tapping arrangements based on equal or fairly
equal numbers of turns per step, as is customary in power
transformers, produce in TWVO-SRs uneven reactive power
steps at subsequent tap changings. The Kvar output change for
the various taps differs according to the position of OLTC, it
being the largest when the minimum number of turns is inserted
(position of max. Mvar output).
Graph a of Fig.5 shows the ratio max. to min. Kvar step as a
function of the design ratio K of TWVO-SR when the tapping
range consists of 16 steps with a constant number of turns per
each step. It is evident that the Kvar difference becomes large, if
K is lower than 0.5.
∆ Q max
∆ Q min
4
3
a
2
b
1 c Q min
K
Q
N
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Fig. 5- Ratio of max. to min. Kvar step across the tapping
range, versus ratio K; OLTC with 17 positions; a): with
 6
equal number of turns per step; b): by connecting any
second spiral end to selector for part of winding; c):
with steps of progressively increasing number of turns
Based on service requirements, arrangements resulting in
even or fairly even steps Kvar are far more preferable (∆Qmax/
/∆Qmin≅1; graph c in Fig.5) . The solution is to consider tapping
windings with steps of progressively increasing number of turns
per step. Such a layout can be accomplished fairly easily in MV
applications, where the dielectric constraints are less stringent.
Layer type windings with taps brought out radially at increasing
intervals is a simple solution.
In the HV range each case shall be considered separately.
For example, when interwound spiral taps (loop layer winding)
are adopted, as the turns per spiral cannot differ mutually by
more than one turn, a solution is to still connect all spirals in
series, bringing any second spiral end to the OLTC selector
contacts for a part of the winding. With this arrangement some
steps will have double the number of turns compared with the
remaining ones. However, in this case the voltage across two
spirals in series shall be checked so they are still compatible
with the OLTC max. rated step voltage. Graph b in Fig.5 shows
how this arrangement can reduce the ratio of max. to min. Kvar
steps across the tapping range.
Another means for reducing the Kvar steps unevenness
consists of equipping the OLTC motor drive unit of the TWVO-
SR for the automatic jump over of positions across the end part
of the tapping range.
In EHV applications there are more restrictions for adopting
steps consisting of a high difference in the number of turns. On
the other hand, EHV applications are also those for which low
values of the K ratio cannot be attained (see sub-par.4.6) and
therefore unevenness of Kvar steps is reduced (Fig.5).
4.6 Feasible Mvar regulation ranges of TWVO-SRs as a
function of voltage and rated power
An attempt has been made to condense the various technical
issues connected with the design of TWVO-SRs into a graph
(see Fig.6), showing the feasible regulation range of such
devices as a function of their rated or maximum continuous
operating voltage. Any reference to the maximum rated power
has been omitted intentionally, as power in itself does not set
any limits, at least in the range of usual applications.
The graph is a guide and is not intended to be exhaustive. In
the area above the dashed part, feasibility is basically taken for
granted. It the area below the dashed part, more or less severe
restrictions are to be expected. The dashed zone covers
applications where more detailed investigations are required in
each individual case.
Q min
K condition;
Q
0.6 N - an acceptable transient performance of the transmission
0.5
0.4
0.3
110 525
0 100 200 300 400 500 U m [kV]
Fig. 6- Feasible regulation ratio, K, of TWVO-SRs versus the
highest operation voltage
In laying down the graph, the authors have tried to take into
account different aspects in a general view and to make a
judgement, bearing in mind that what can be considered still
technically affordable is not always economically convenient
too.
For MV applications, K ratios down to 0.30 can be
considered still achievable.
TWVO-SRs with output variable from 7.2 to 18 Mvar at 161
kV (K=0.4) in 20 steps, are planned for application in a new
LLLHV line in West Africa.
4.7 Remarks concerning the OLTCs
The switching conditions of OLTCs equipping TWVO-SRs
differ from the those occurring on power transformers, the
reason being that in shunt reactors the load current has a 90° lag
referred to the voltage. This does not affect the behaviour of the
OLTCs, as ten years of positive operation experience has
demonstrated (see par.10). Being the total current during a
switching operation the sum of the load current and of the
temporary current flowing through the transition resistors, and
owing to the phase shift of these two components, a lower total
current value is attained and the switching operation is
somewhat relieved.
The conclusion is that the conventional and thoroughly
tested OLTCs are ideally well suitable for application on
TWVO-SRs. In this context, it appears premature to consider
other types of OLTCs, like for example static electronic tap
changers, which would have the advantage of an extremely fast
response time. Such devices are suitable in terms of current
performance, but are still deficient in terms of step voltage and
insulation performance, at least in comparison with the standard
types.
5. Planning of shunt compensation schemes of LLLHV
lines by means of TWVO-SRs
The LLLHV lines may require a shunt compensation close
to 100%, to limit the injection of charging power into the
feeding source at no-load and low load, and to allow the
emergency line no-load energization and operation even with
one shunt reactor out of service for repair or maintenance.
When the length of a radial HV line exceeds 300-400 km,
part of the shunt compensation should be connected to the
receiving end, and part to one or more intermediate stations, in
order to allow for:
- an easy line no-load energization, by switching on the line
sections one by one in succession, with a preconnected shunt
reactor, possibly located at the receiving end of each long
section;
- a good (flat) voltage profile along the line in any operation
system, in particular: limitation within acceptable values of the
temporary overvoltages caused by line energization, load
rejection, unsymmetrical faults to ground, etc.;
- good steady state and dynamic voltage stability;
- feasibility of line single-pole high-speed reclosure.
In most LLLHV lines, intermediate substations for the
supply of important loads along the line route are necessary.
However, these stations are generally not evenly distributed
along the line. For example, the initial LLLHV line of Northern
Ghana [2] (see Fig.8) was 526 km long (750 km from power
source to remote end) with one lateral line and two intermediate
transformer stations subdividing the line in three sections of 119
km, 248 km and 159 km, respectively.
 7
If the load is concentrated at the line receiving end, total
load rejection is a credible event. If the load is distributed along
the line, the load rejection at the same instant in all the
substations is very unlikely and the partial load rejection
overvoltages are much reduced.
For an assigned total Mvar capacity of shunt compensation,
the choice of the rating of each TWVO-SR should be based on
the following requirements:
(i) The minimum Mvar output (see Fig.6) shall not exceed the
value, ∆Qi, calculated by formula (2.1), by entering for
∆Vi% the voltage jump permitted for very infrequent
switching, say 6% to 8%;
(ii)The permitted size of the Kvar steps of the OLTC should be
calculated again using formula (2.1), by entering for ∆Vi% a
value of 1-1.5%, as normally accepted for the steps of
OLTCs of power transformers. In fact, it is expected that the
OLTC of TWVO-SRs may run through the full regulation
range twice in a day (1 up + 1 down) to compensate for the
day-to-night load demand variations, with one or two
possible additional partial runs during the daylight hours.
The 1-1.5% voltage change limit normally does not impose
an increase of the number of taps available on commercial
OLTCs, which is more strictly controlled by the need of
limiting the step voltage on regulation windings and OLTC
(par.4).
(iii) If possible, the TWVO-SRs to be installed along a LLLHV
line, should be identical for the sake of standardization.
If the number of TWVO-SRs arrived at with criteria (i), (ii)
and (iii) is lower than the number of sections in which the line
is divided by the transformer stations, some reactors may be
located so as to compensate adjacent short lines. If the required
TWVO-SRs exceed the number of line sections, two reactors
should be installed in substations where long lines terminate.
6. Switching procedures of TWVO-SRs and LLLHV lines
HV TWVO-SRs can be connected to the line terminals or to
the substation busbars. Connection to the line terminal,
preferably at receiving end, allows the energization of the line
and associated reactor as one block. By adjusting the OLTC,
prior to energization, for a Mvar output about equal to line
charging power, the energization is achieved without any
voltage jump at the energizing busbar. This is useful when the
network has a low short circuit power at the node of supply, and
in particular when the last section of a long radial line is
energized. Energization of TWVO-SR terminated lines also
reduces the switching overvoltages (see par. 8).
It should be noted that, in a radial transmission system with
power supply from one terminal only, the connection of a reactor
to the substation busbar (Fig.7a) instead of to the line end
(Fig.7b), makes no difference as far as line no-load energization
is concerned, because the substation is de-energized when the
line is out of service on the power source side. Therefore the
reactor can be preconnected to the line end prior to energization
by closing both the line and reactor circuit breakers (CB1 and
CB2 in Fig. 7a).
CB1
Optional CB
CB2
a) b)
Fig.7- Connection to the network of TWVO-SRs: a) to
substation busbar; b) to line end
If the line is loaded below SIL, some TWVO-SRs will need
to be always in service, also at peak load demand, with the
OLTC set for low or minimum Mvar output. In this case, a
TWVO-SR can be solidly connected to the line end, without a
CB, simply by means of a disconnecting switch. Of course, with
this arrangement the protection of TWVO-SRs requires a
reliable telecommunication channel, for the fast transfer tripping
of the line at the sending end in the case of fault in the reactor.
As justified in par. 8, power transformers located at the end
or in intermediate substations of a LLLHV line where the short
circuit power is low, should never be energized in a block with
the supply line, to avoid the risk of ferroresonance overvoltages.
Time delay undervoltage relays should be installed in each
substation, to trip out all the power transformers and all the
associated MV feeders in case of outage of the supply line. Each
transformer will be re-energized at no-load, following busbar
voltage restoration, and MV feeders will be picked up one by
one thereafter.
Energization or de-energization of a TWVO-SR is required
only in infrequent cases. This is to be made by adjusting the
OLTC for minimum Mvar output prior to switching, such as:
- voltage jump is minimized;
- inrush current is negligible, since with all the turns in the
circuit the flux density in the core is very low and TWVO-SR
behaves like a linear reactor;
- the electrodynamic stresses in the windings are negligible;
- saturation of core and any harmonic distortion thereof is
avoided, also in substations where short circuit power is very
low.
Operation of OLTCs of the various TWVO-SRs of a LLLHV
line is to be carried out in a consistent manner, in order to keep
a flat voltage profile along the line in spite of load variations, as
shown in par.7.
It is necessary to avoid a possible interference and hunting
of the OLTCs of reactors located in different substations, among
them and with the OLTCs of power transformers, liable to cause
unnecessary wear of OLTCs. This can be achieved by manual
control of reactor OLTCs, by local operators if substations are
manned, or by manual remote control from the Network Control
Center if substations are unmanned. Alternatively, if the
LLLHV line is supervised by a SCADA system, a computer
program can be implemented for the on-line coordinated
automatic control of the OLTCs of the various reactors; the
busbar voltages, the busbar loads where appropriate, and the
actual positions of OLTCs of reactors in service should be
telemeasured from the various substations to the Control Center
and input to the programme.
In any case, the OLTCs of transformers can be operated
automatically by the AVR in each substation, as usual.
In case of load rejection at the remote end of a LLLHV line,
or simultaneously in more than one substation, two simple
automatic protection schemes can be applied, as follows:
(i) Switch-on the TWVO-SRs that are out of service, by means
of overvoltage relays with a time delay of 1-1.5 s. This
requires operation of the reactor CB under potential on line
side in open position, an operation mode well acceptable for
modern SF6 CBs. The OLTC of stand-by reactors can be
preset for max. Mvar output, if appropriate.
(ii)If provision (i) is deemed to be not fast enough, trip-out
instantaneously, at sending end by transfer tripping, the long
line sections that happen to be operated open ended.
Transfer tripping, on available telecommunication links, is
to be initiated at the line section receiving end,
instantaneously by the load rejection (line open-ended).
 8

7. Analysis of normal operation of a long radial 161 kV line V [kV] V [kV]

compensated with TWVO-SRs. Steady-state and 160
160
dynamic voltage stability
Kumasi
The results of the analyses are reported for the 161 kV Bol 17 10.6 8.5 0 0 140
LLLHV line of Northern Ghana, represented in Fig.8. The Tam 17 All SRs
15.9 13.8 15.9 8.5 outaged
circuits represented with solid lines have been in operation at Tec 11.1 15.9 8.5 8.5 9.6 Sawla
161 kV for about 10 years. The circuits represented with dotted Saw 11.3 9 9 9 0 Sunyani 120
lines, at present in operation at 34.5 kV, will be up-rated to 161
Tamale
kV in 1998-2000. a
100 Bolgatanga 100
Tumu Bolgatanga ~ ~
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Ptot [MW]
40 VCPI Mvar
Mvar
b
Q [Mvar]
Tamale Kum
Sawla 20
Yendi VCPI
0

Q Kum
-20

-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 P [MW]
tot
Techiman
30
θ [o] c
Sunyani 20 P [MW]
Kumasi θ
10
P

Fig. 8- Single-line diagram of the 161 kV LLLHV radial system
of Northern Ghana supplied from the node of Kumasi
Results of analyses are here summarized for operation of all
the lines at 161 kV in radial configuration, shunt compensated
by 5 TWVO-SRs, each rated 8.5 to 17 MVAR, with 16 steps,
located as shown in Fig.8. One of the TWVO-SR is redundant
(installed spare).
It should be noted that, to face the increasing loads, a new
line is planned between Kumasi and Sunyani. Then the here
reported analyses will apply for the contingency case operation,
with this new line outaged.
It is assumed that, as time goes by, the loads increase with
the same growth factor in all the substations, and with
unchanged power factor of 0.9 at the 161 kV busbars.
The results of the steady-state voltage stability analyses are
shown by the curve charts of Fig.9. Load flows have been run by
uniformly increasing in small steps all the loads and by reducing
in each stage the Mvar output of the TWVO-SRs by means of
OLTCs, until the minimum Mvar output has been reached and
reactor is switched-off in the subsequent load step.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Ptot [MW]
Fig. 9- Analysis of voltage regulation and voltage steady-state
stability of the 161 kV radial system of Fig.8,
compensated with TWVO-SRs, with lines Techiman-
Sawla and Tamale-Yendi operated at 161 kV
Ptot = total power distributed at 0.9 p.f. by the various
stations, as follows: 18% at Bolgatanga; 20% at
Tamale; 7% at Yendi; 20% at Techiman; 25% at
Sunyani; 10% at Sawla
a) Voltage at supply busbar of Kumasi and at some
receiving busbars, versus Ptot . The Mvar outputs of
TWVO-SRs in service are reported for six values of
Ptot , including no-load operation
b) Voltage Collapse Proximity Indicator, VCPI, and
Mvar flow at supply station, QKum, versus Ptot
c) Total transmission losses, ∆P, and electrical phase
shift, ∆θ, between Kumasi and Bolgatanga busbars,
versus Ptot
In Fig.9a the voltages at significant 161kV busbars are
plotted versus the total load distributed by the system. The
analysis has been performed by simulating the complete
network of Ghana, with voltage held constant in the power
plants that are not less than 220 km distant from Kumasi, the
supply station of the radial line. With the assumed loads' p.f. of
0.9, the voltage can be sustained to not less than 150 kV in all
the nodes, if total load does not exceed 73 MW. This condition
is close to voltage collapse however, and therefore the
practically transmissible power is somewhat lower.
The graphs of Fig.9a show that a good voltage regulation is
ensured, from no-load up to the maximum practically
transmissible power, with use of the OLTCs of the reactors and
on the assumption that load variation is rather slow, which is
realistic for developing countries. With a voltage variation at the
supply node of Kumasi from 153 kV to 157 kV, the variation is
kept from 156 kV to 159 kV at Bolgatanga (remote end), and
 9
from 157 kV to 159 kV at Sawla, i.e. line voltage profiles are
about flat.
In Fig.9b two significant parameters of voltage stability are
plotted versus total distributed power. The Voltage Collapse
Proximity Indicator (VCPI) is defined as the ratio of a reactive
power demand increase at the remote end (Bolgatanga in Fig.8)
and the corresponding increase of reactive power absorbed at
the supply node of the LLLHV line (Kumasi in Fig.8). The other
plotted parameter is the total reactive power flow at the sending
end of the radial line (QKum). The diagrams show that when
the total distributed power exceeds 70 MW the VCPI and Mvar
demand at the supply point increase rapidly. A reasonable rule
is that the VCPI should not exceed 3 and 5 Mvar/Mvar in
normal and emergency operation, respectively.
In Fig. 9c, the total transmission losses, ∆P, and the
electrical angle between the remote receiving end and the
supply node, ∆θ, are plotted versus total distributed power.
An additional analysis, not reported here for the sake of
brevity, has shown that the voltage change at any load busbar
does not exceed 3% for a sudden simultaneous load change of
10% in all the nodes, if the total distributed power does not
exceed 67 MW.
To appraise the dynamic performance of the long radial
system of Fig.8, a 3-phase short circuit has been simulated at
the sending end of the Tamale-Yendi 161 kV line. The analysis
has been performed with a transient stability program, by
simulating the loads at the various substations as follows:
- 33% motor load, by equivalent motors with constant loading
torque versus speed, H = 0.2s, Zsc = 0.07 + j 0.13 p.u.;
- 67% static load, by constant impedances.
ω [p.u.] V [p.u.] I [p.u.]
V Vmax = 2.55 p.u.; Vmean= 2.25 p.u.; σ= 0.16 p.u.
ω I
t [s]
Fig.10- Transient following a 3-phase short circuit at Tamale in
the Tamale-Yendi line, cleared in 0.2 s: V is the voltage
at Tamale 161 kV busbars; ω and I are the speed and
current of the equivalent induction motor connected to
the LV busbars at Tamale
The network is assumed to be in service at the maximum
load prior to short circuit (see Fig.9; Ptot= 71 MW). The
analysis has shown a satisfactory voltage recovery in all the
network busbars and speed recovery of all the equivalent
motors, with a short circuit clearing time of up to 0.2s. Some
results are plotted in Fig.10 for the Tamale substation.
8. Overvoltages in LLLHV lines compensated by
TWVO-SRs
By their conception, LLLHV lines seem to be more exposed
to internal overvoltages than conventional transmission lines of
the same voltage level. In the early applications, extensive
studies were therefore performed [1] [2], with the Electromag-
netic Transients Program (EMTP) and Transient Network
Analyser (TNA). Operation experience has confirmed the
viability of the measures adopted at the planning-engineering
stages.
As reported in par. 7, the power frequency overvoltages at
no-load energization are eliminated with the appropriate use of
TWVO-SRs. In systems with low short circuit power, the
TWVO-SRs, if designed for Xo=X1, are sufficient for drastically
reducing the power frequency overvoltages caused by the
unsymmetrical faults to ground, and for effectively grounding
the system neutral.
The line no-load energization and load rejection overvoltages
have been analysed with the EMPT for the 161kV radial system
of Fig. 8, including the dotted lateral lines Techiman-Sawla and
Tamale-Yendi operated at 161 kV. Only a few results are
summarized here for the sake of brevity.
The no-load energization of the longest line, Techiman-
Tamale, with a TWVO-SRs linear up to 1.3x161 kV, connected
at the line end prior to energization with the OLTC present for
the max. output of 17 MVAR, causes the following highest
switching overvoltages at the Tamale end:
- with a purely inductive source at Kumasi: Vmax= 2.4 p.u.;
Vmean = 1.98 p.u.; σ = 0.145 p.u.;
- with the real network fully simulated: Vmax = 1.7 p.u.;
Vmean= 1.37 p.u.; σ= 0.11 p.u..
The analysis has also been made of the extreme case of no-
load energization of all the radial network originating at Kumasi
(Fig.8) - which is of course not allowed in operation - with the
following two assumptions:
A) All the TWVO-SRs are connected prior to energization, with
the Mvar output of each reactor preset for an optimal no-
load system voltage profile and an almost nil reactive power
exchange at the energizing busbar. Switching overvoltages
are as follows:
The power frequency overvoltages are negligible.
B) All the TWVO-SRs are disconnected from the system; one
power transformer protected by 144 kV MOV surge
arresters is preconnected without load at the line remote end
(Bolgatanga, Fig.8).
Switching overvoltages are of same order as found in case
A). A large sustained overvoltage occurs (1.49 p.u.) with
harmonic distorsion, liable to damage the surge arresters
and the transformer.
The load rejection events have been analysed for a credible
case, i.e. rejection of the total load at anyone substation, and
also for an extremely unlikely case, i.e. the simultaneous
rejection of the loads of all the six substations. In both cases it is
assumed that the total system load prior to load rejection is 73
MW (close to the voltage collapse limit; see Fig. 9a), with all
the TWVO-SRs disconnected. The partition of the loads among
the various substations is shown in the caption of Fig.9.
To limit the duration of the temporary overvoltages, it is
assumed that in the substation(s) where load has been rejected,
TWVO-SR(s) preset for 17 Mvar output are automatically
switched on 1s after load rejection. Results of EMTP analyses
can be summarized as follows:
- Load rejection at Tamale or Bolgatanga MV busbars: the
temporary overvoltage is 1.1 p.u. or 1.08 p.u.; voltage is
restored at 1 p.u. shortly after insertion of one reactor.
- Load rejection at the MV busbars of all the substations, with
all the power transformers remaining energized at no-load: the
 10
temporary overvoltage at Bolgatanga is 1.39 p.u., with
considerable harmonic distortion; voltage is restored to about
1 p.u. in all the nodes a few seconds after insertion of four
reactors preset for full Mvar output.
As a summarizing comment, it can be said that the
appropriate application of TWVO-SRs, specified to be linear up
to at least 130% of rated voltage and to have Xo=X1 (no
magnetic coupling between phases), allows a safe limitation of
the temporary and switching overvoltages in LLLHV lines. The
possibility of 1-pole high speed reclosure has been explored in
ref. [2] and [3] .
9. Economic comparison of alternative static shunt
compensation equipment for LLLHV lines
The cost increase of a TWVO-SR in comparison with the
cost a conventional reactor depends on rated voltage, UN, on
ratio K and on rated power, QN. For UN=161 kV, K=0.5 and
QN=20 Mvar, the cost increase is about 30%. However, the
percent increase in total installed cost is much smaller, because
items such as HV switchgears, protections, civil engineering
works, transport, etc. are about the same for the two
alternatives.
A comparison has been made for a radial 161 kV line
equipped with single ACSR conductors of 350 sqmm in
triangular configuration, with a total length of 600 km, supplied
from a node of a network distant from the major power plants,
with a short circuit power of 500 MVA. It has been assumed
that the line is divided in at least 3 sections and it supplies an
initial load of 16 MW (0.25 SIL).
The charging power of the line, when energized at no-load
with a flat voltage profile of 161 kV, is about 44 Mvar.
The following three shunt compensation schemes have been
compared:
A. Conventional shunt reactors
An acceptable voltage jump ∆Vi ≤ 8% has been assumed for
infrequent reactor switching at the line remote end, and ∆Vi ≤
5% for frequent switching of reactors located up to 450 km from
the line supply node. With these conditions, formula (1) yields a
maximum acceptable rating of reactors of 5.5 Mvar.
To standardize construction and spares, 8 equal 3-phase reactors
rated 5.5 Mvar can be installed along the line. Initially, half of
the reactors need to be switchable. As the load increases, all the
reactors will have to be equipped with a CB.
Use of MV small reactors for part of the shunt compensation has
not been considered, because these reactors would have higher
losses and would cause additional voltage drops and losses in
the HV/MV transformers.
B. TWVO-SRs
The specified ∆Vi ≤ 8% for infrequent switching at the remote
end (Psc=90 MVA) requires a minimum output of the TWVO-
SRs of 7.2 Mvar. By specifying a regulation range of 40% to
100%, TWVO-SRs rated 7.2 to 18 Mvar can be applied, with a
21 position OLTC.
The compensation scheme may consist of 3 TWVO-SRs,
connected at the receiving end of long line sections, possibly at
about 1/3, 2/3 and 3/3 of the line length. Total shunt
compensation is 54 Mvar, i.e. redundant with the three reactors
in operation, and still acceptable in an emergency with one
reactor not available for operation. Initially, two TWVO-SRs
need to be switchable with a CB, to be provided also for the 3rd
reactor when line load increases.
C. TCRs
The compensation scheme can consist of 3 TCRs with an output
of from 0 to 18 Mvar, to be installed in the same substations
foreseen for the TWVO-SRs of Alt.B. Each TCR is connected to
the 161kV network via a 161kV/MV transformer and is pro-
vided with harmonic filters.
The total installed cost and power losses of the three shunt
compensation schemes are summarized in the following Table.
Costs include 161 kV CBs for 4 of the conventional reactors, for
2 of the TWVO-SRs and for each TCR. The losses are estimated
for 44 Mvar absorption, i.e. the total charging power of the line
(no-load operation) and for half of this Mvar value (light load) .
Total cost Total losses with output
Compensation (1998 prices) of 44 Mvar of 22 Mvar
scheme in million
U.S.$ [kW] | [kW]
8 conventional
SRs rated 4.6 250 125
5.5Mvar
3 TWVO-SRs 2.4 160 60
rated 7.2-18Mvar
3 TCRs 5.50 1020 290
rated 0-18 Mvar
The TWVO-SRs are the least cost and least power loss
alternative. Also, maintenance costs are the lowest, because the
maintenance of OLTCs is much less than the maintenance of the
larger amount of equipment required by Alt. A and of power
electronic equipment required by Alt. C.
10. 10-year operation experience of 161 kV TWVO-SRs in a
LLLHV line
Four TWVO-SRs with an output at 161 kV ranging from 8.5
Mvar to 17 Mvar, in 16 steps, have been in successful operation
in Ghana during about 10 years, for the shunt compensation of
the Kumasi-Techiman-Tamale-Bolgatanga 161 kV radial line
(Fig.8) [2]. The TWVO-SRs have been operated as described in
par. 6.
During normal operation, the daily voltage regulation at the
various substations is mostly performed by manoeuvering only
the OLTCs of the TWVO-SRs. Switching on and off of TWVO-
SRs with the 161kV CB has been relatively infrequent.
The operation time of OLTC, of about 5 s per step, proved
to be fully satisfactory in relation with the network demand of
voltage regulation speed.
In the early period of operation, with a total load of 10-15
MW, 3 or 4 TWVO-SRs had to be permanently in service. At
the time of writing, the total power distributed by the line has
exceeded 45 MW and 3 reactors are out of service at peak load,
ready to be switched on by the overvoltage relays if a sustained
temporary overvoltage occurs. Most of the reactors will be
required again in continuous service at partial output, when the
lateral 161 kV lines Techiman-Sawla, Tamale-Yendi and
Bolgatanga-Tumu will be energized at 161 kV (at the time of
writing these lines are operated at 34.5 kV).
The average number of operations of each OLTC has been
8000 per year, i.e. about 80000 in 10-year operation for each
TWVO-SR. The recent inspection of one diverter switch has
shown no appreciable wear.
The TWVO-SRs have been in service for most of the time
with less than maximum Mvar output: correspondingly, the
average mechanical vibrations, sound level, power losses and
oil/windings overtemperatures have been lower than at
 11
maximum output. The mechanical vibration level did not
increase after 10-year operation.
When reactors are energized at minimum Mvar output, the
inrush current is negligible (about 2 p.u., referred to peak rated
current) as in a reactor without magnetic core or shield. When a
reactor terminated line is energized, temporary overvoltages are
negligible and switching overvoltages generally do not exceed 2
p.u..
The gas chromatographic analysis of oil has been performed
as usual for large power transformers, with satisfactory results.
No major or minor failures have affected the four TWVO-
SRs so far. Maintenance expenses have been negligible and are
expected to be small in future.
11. Specification and testing requirements of TWVO-SRs
11.1 Specification
The specification requirements of TWVO-SRs are basically
identical to those of conventional shunt reactors, with the
addition of some specific requirements, associated with the
variable Mvar output and special application in LLLHV lines; in
particular:
- Min. and max. Mvar output at max. continuous operation
voltage
- Number of OLTC positions; max. Kvar size of the steps
- Type of magnetic core
- Range of linearity (in p.u. of max operation voltage)
- Zero-sequence reactance
- Inductance in the saturated part of the magnetic characteristic
- Max. mechanical vibration amplitude on external parts
- Max. asymmetry between phases
- minimum number of OLTC switching operations without need
for maintenance.
The following comments can be made on the items above:
•The ratio Qmin/QN should be consistent with the indications
given in par.4.
•Only the max. size of the Kvar steps should be specified and
the min. number of steps of the OLTC; the manufacturer shall
be allowed to increase the number of steps, if necessary.
•In HV star connected shunt reactors with neutral grounded,
the zero-sequence reactance, Xo, depends on the core arrange-
ment. In a three-phase unit Xo is low if the zero-sequence flux
has to find its way for reclosing through the air, as occurs in a
3-legged core. If use is made of a core consisting of five limbs,
the zero-sequence flux finds a low reluctance reclosure path
through the external unwound limbs, which results in Xo=X1
and decoupling of the phase limbs from each other, for the
values of zero-sequence voltage which can build up in
operation. If the line single-pole reclosure is foreseen and
reactor is connected to the line terminal (Fig. 7b), a 5-legged
core (or 3 single-phase cores) must be specified. The 5-legged
core is in any case recommended for grounded neutral star
connected reactors exposed to single-phase disconnection.
•The range of linearity on the tap at max. Mvar rating has an
impact on the cost of the equipment. The minimum
recommended value for TWVO-SRs to be used in LLLHV
lines is 1.3 p.u. An increase from 1.3 p.u. to 1.5 p.u. increases
the reactor cost by a few percent. The linearity range is
automatically extended on the taps at reduced power in an
inverse proportion to the number of turns connected in the
circuit.
•The inductance in the saturated part of the L-I characteristic
depends on the tap position and is basically proportional to the
square of the number of turns connected in the circuit.
•A standard value of max. peak-to-peak vibration amplitude is
100 µm with an average value not exceeding 30 µm.
•The IEC standard value of the asymmetry of the reactance of
one phase with respect to the average of the three phases is
2%; however values down to 1% or better can be easily
achieved .
•A reasonable number of OLTC switching operations without
maintenance may be specified as 100,000, or 10-year
operation.
11.2 Testing requirements
The testing procedures of TWVO-SRs do not differ
significantly for those applied to normal shunt reactors. The
same precautions shall be taken as regards for example the
determination of reactance and the measurement of loss. What
makes the real difference is the presence of taps, which suggests
adopting the following specific procedures:
•the determination of reactance and the measurement of loss
shall be carried out at least at the two extreme taps, that is at
max. and min. reactive power;
•for the dielectric tests the procedure specified for power
transformers having the same value of highest voltage should
be adopted. This means that lightning impulse tests should be
performed at different tap positions on the three phases,
including the two extreme taps. The tap with minimum
number of turns is normally the one giving the highest
dielectric stress in the windings;
•the temperature rise test shall be performed at max. reactive
power. However, this procedure might exclude the tapping
winding(s) from the circuit, as the test is carried out at the
minimum number of turns, unless a tapping arrangement
based on polarity reversal of a fine tapping winding is
adopted. This aspect should be considered when the procedure
for the temperature rise test is specified;
•the measurement of the sound power or sound pressure level
and of vibration should be carried out with three-phase
excitation at rated voltage or maximum operating voltage - as
agreed if the two values are different - on the tap
corresponding to the maximum reactive power. In any case,
for sake of comparison, it is interesting to repeat the
measurements also on the tap corresponding to the minimum
reactive power. Lower values of vibration and sound emission
are obviously to be expected at minimum reactive power.
Values of reactance, loss, sound pressure level and vibration
amplitude measured on the two extreme taps on the TWVO-SRs
rated 17-8.5 Mvar - 161 kV in operation in Ghana are given
below for reference (measurements performed at 161 kV).
Tap 17 - Tap 1 -
17 Mvar 8.5 Mvar
1562.5 3119.4
Reactance (Ω /phase)
Loss [kW] 75.5 23.9
Sound pressure level [dB-A] 74.4 69.7
Max. peak-to-peak vibration (µm) 96 34
Average peak-to-peak vibration (µm) 25 11
 12

12. Conclusions

The tapped windings variable Mvar output shunt reactors

have proved to be the least cost and least loss technically
appropriate shunt compensation equipment of the long lightly
loaded HV lines in developing countries. The reliability and
functional responsiveness are confirmed by the very good 10-
year operation experience of these novel reactors in Ghana.
Other reactors of the same type are being commissioned and
planned for installation in 220 kV-161 kV long transmission
lines in Africa.
The applicability of the novel shunt reactors in the EHV
networks, up to 525 kV, is also explored in the paper.

13. References

[1] Iliceto F.-"Lightly Loaded Long HV Transmission Lines.

Guidelines prepared at the request of the World Bank",
Washington D.C., 1982-83
[2] Iliceto F., Cinieri E., Casely-Hayford L.-"Long lightly loaded
HV transmission lines to expand electrification of
developing countries. Applications in Ghana", CIGRE paper
37- 11 of 1984 Session.
[3] Cinieri E., Iliceto F., Di Vita A.-"Overvoltages due to open-
phase occurrence in reactor compensated EHV Lines", IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS -
105, N°3, March 1984, pp.474-482.

14. Acknowledgement

The authors wish to thank the Volta River Authority for the
permission to publish the operation results of the TWVO-SRs in
Ghana. The authors also acknowledge the contribution of Mr. A.
Gallucci to the analysis of LLLHV lines, as part of his master
thesis work.