OUMH1603 Learning Skills For 21st Century - Cdec19 PDF

OUMH1603
Learning Skills for 21st Century
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

OUMH1603
LEARNING SKILLS
FOR 21ST CENTURY
Assoc Prof Dr Nantha Kumar Subramaniam
Dr Gurcharan Singh Bishen Singh
Dr Harvinder Kaur Dharam Singh
Dr Raziana Che Aziz
Dr Thirumeni Subramaniam
Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman
Majumin Hanum Abdul Samad
Noor Zuleika Zulkipli
Oo Cheng Keat

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Nantha Kumar Subramaniam

Dr Raziana Che Aziz
Dr Thirumeni T Subramaniam
Noor Zuleika Zulkipli
Oo Cheng Keat
Moderators: Prof Dr Siti Aishah Hashim Ali

Assoc Prof Dr Baharudin Aziz
Assoc Prof Dr Safiah Md Yusof
Nor Aslina Abd Jalil
Oo Cheng Keat
Sarah Waheeda Muhammad Hafidz
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2019

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2019, OUMH1603
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ixăxiv
Topic 1 Being a 21st Century Learner 1

1.1 Skills for the 21st Century 2
1.2 Roles of the 21st Century Learner 5
1.3 21st Century Learning Environment 7
1.4 Characteristics of 21st Century Learner 9
Summary 11
Key Terms 12
References 12
Topic 2 Study Skills 13

2.1 Essay Writing Skills 14
2.1.1 Steps for Writing Essay 14
2.1.2 Structure of an Essay 16
2.1.3 Avoid Plagiarism 24
2.1.4 APA Referencing Style 25
2.1.5 Common Faults in Essay 27
2.2 Strategies For Exams 29
2.2.1 Preparing for Exams 29
2.2.2 Memorising for Exams 30
2.2.3 Types of Exam Questions 31
Summary 34
Key Terms 35
References 35
Topic 3 Numeracy Skills 36

3.1 Numeracy 37
3.1.1 The Importance of Numeracy Skills 39
3.1.2 Innumeracy 39
3.2 Fundamental Skills in Numeracy 40
3.2.1 Reasoning 41
3.2.2 Problem Solving 43
3.2.3 Decision Making 46

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.3 Numeracy Continuum and Everyday Life Practices 49

3.3.1 Numbers and Operations 49
3.3.2 Patterns 51
3.3.3 Fractions, Decimal Numbers and Percentages 53
3.3.4 Interpreting Statistical Information 54
3.3.5 Measurement 55
3.3.6 Multiples, Factors and Primes 57
Summary 59
Key Terms 59
References 60
Topic 4 Digital Literacy 86

4.1 ICT Literacy 64
4.2 Information Literacy 70
4.2.1 Information Literacy Framework 72
4.3 Technology-Enhanced Learning 75
4.3.1 Tools Used in TEL Environment in the Context 79
of OUM
4.3.2 Mobile Learning 84
4.4 Media Literacy 88
Summary 91
Key Terms 92
References 92
Topic 5 Creativity and Innovation 94

5.1 The Concept of Creativity and Innovation 98
5.2 Characteristics of Creative People 112
5.3 Creativity, Innovation and Learning 115
5.4 Design Thinking as a Strategy for Innovation 117
5.5 Tools for Creativity and Innovation 120
Summary 122
Key Terms 123
References 123

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 6 Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills 125

6.1 The Need for Critical Thinking 126
6.1.1 The Twin Pillars of Knowing and Thinking 126
6.1.2 A Working Definition of Critical Thinking 127
6.1.3 Changing How People Think: Should It Be Done? 128
6.2 Empirical Evidence that Critical Thinking can Be
Improved 129
6.2.1 Becoming a Better Thinker: The Quick and Easy 131
Way
6.2.2 Two Types of Thinking ă Fast and Slow 131
6.3 Skills of Critical Thinking and Reasoning 133
6.3.1 CAF: Consider All Factors 133
6.3.2 APC: Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices 134
6.3.3 Focus and Purpose 135
6.3.4 AGO: Aims, Goals and Objectives 136
6.3.5 Deductive Reasoning 137
6.3.6 Inductive Reasoning 138
6.4 Assessment of Critical Thinking 140
Summary 141
Key Terms 142
References 142
Topic 7 Communication Skills 143

7.1 Communication in Our Daily Lives 144
7.2 Functions of Communication 148
7.2.1 Functions of Verbal Communication 148
7.2.2 Functions of Nonverbal Communication 150
7.2.3 The Importance of Listening 154
7.3 How to Be an Effective Communicator? 158
7.4 Barriers to Effective Communication 159
Summary 160
Key Terms 161
References 161

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 8 Collaborative Skills 162

8.1 Definition of Collaboration and Collaborative Learning 163
8.2 Benefit of Collaborative Skills 165
8.3 Similarities and Differences between Collaborative 167
Learning and Cooperative Learning
8.4 Emprical Studies on Collaboration 169
8.5 Assessment of Collaborative Skills 171
8.6 Enhancing the Collaborative Learning 173
Summary 175
Key Terms 176
References 177
Topic 9 Global Citizenship Education 180

9.1 Global Citizenship Education and Its Importance in the 181
21st Century
9.2 Is the State „Powerless‰ in Globalisation? 189
9.3 International Conflicts 193
9.4 Gender Equality in the 21st Century: Case Studies in 197
Malaysia
Summary 201
Key Terms 202
References 202
Topic 10 The Environment and Us 206

10.1 Why Should We Care about the Environment? 207
10.2 Global Environmental Issues 210
10.2.1 Changing Land Cover and Water Surfaces 211
10.2.2 Climate Change 211
10.2.3 Loss of Biodiversity 212
10.2.4 Population and Development 213
10.2.5 Pollution 213
10.2.6 Urbanisation 214
10.3 Green Technology and Environment 215
10.4 Sustainable Development Goals 217
10.5 Ecological Footprint and You 219
Summary 221
Key Terms 222
References 222

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
OUMH1603 Learning Skills for 21st Century is one of the courses offered at
Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and
should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students undertaking any programme with OUM.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.

x  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 5
Study the module 60
Attend 3 tutorial sessions 9
Online participation 14
Revision 15
Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe using examples the expected characteristics and literacy levels of a

21st century learner;
2. Demonstrate Creative Thinking and Critical Thinking Skills;
3. Demonstrate Communication Skills and Collaborative Skills; and
4. Display characteristics of a global citizen capable of creating a greener and

sustainable environment.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into ten topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 discusses the skills expected for 21st century, roles of 21st century
learner, their learning environment and characteristics that make learners a 21st
century learner.
Topic 2 provides tips and strategies that will help learners write better essays in
assignments and examinations. In this topic, learners will be guided on how they
can apply their critical thinking, creative, communication and collaborative skills
in completing the assignment and preparing for examinations.
Topic 3 introduces the definition of numeracy skills and discuss the importance
of numeracy in todayÊs world. Besides, the relationship between numeracy and
mathematics will also be discussed in this topic. Learners will be introduced to
the term innumeracy and exposed to the three fundamental aspects of numeracy;
mathematical reasoning, problem solving and decision making. Learners will
learn to discover the numeracy continuum and discuss some ideas on everyday
life practices on numeracy.
Topic 4 begins with the description of the meaning of digital literacy and how
learners may develop their digital proficiency. In addition, the topic provides
proficiencies in digital literacy. Furthermore, learners are expected to adopt and
apply all the best practices and expectations highlighted in each of the
proficiencies.
Topic 5 introduces the meaning of creativity, innovation and design thinking.

Next, learners are expected to describe the relationship between creativity and
innovation with learning. In fact, in this topic, learners will learn to design
thinking as a strategy for innovation. Final subtopic of this topic will be related to
how to adopt and apply tools for creativity and innovation.
Topic 6 starts with the definition of critical thinking, followed by explaining how
critical thinking skills can be improved. Besides, in this topic, learners will also be
exposed to the skills of critical thinking as well as the knowledge to distinguish
between deductive and inductive reasoning. Through this topic also, learners
will be able to classify the ways to assess critical thinking skills.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 7 assists learners to gain communication skills and also how to become an
effective communicator. Learners will learn the essence and barriers of effective
communication.
Topic 8 looks at collaborative skills through the discussion on collaboration and

collaborative learning. There will also be discussions on the similarities and
differences between collaborative learning and cooperative learning. Empirical
studies on collaborative learning will also be presented in the ensuing part of this
topic followed by discussion on the assessment of collaborative skills.
Topic 9 discusses on Global Citizenship Education and its importance in the 21st
century. Next, this topic will focus on the roles of the state in globalisation.
International conflicts in the post-Cold War era will also be explained. Gender
equality in the 21st century from the political and economic aspects will mark the
end of this topic that relate to themes of the Global Citizenship Education.
Topic 10 begins by discovering the environment, its benefits and the importance
of conserving it. Moreover, in this topic, learners will learn about the concepts of
„green‰ and „green technology‰ which are needed in order to make informed
decisions. In addition, learners will have the opportunity to explore the concept
of sustainability and the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs).
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course. There is no prior knowledge needed.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Cabral, L. (2006). Twenty-first century skills for students: Hands-on learning
after school builds school and life success. New Directions for Youth
Development, 2006(110), 155ă161.
de Bono, E. (1994). Teach your child how to think: Help them survive and thrive.
London: Penguin Book.
Dietrich, A. (2015). How creativity happens in the brain. (1st ed.). UK: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Eunson, Baden. (2016). Communicating in the 21st century. Qld, Australian: John
Wiley & Sons.
Moore, S. (2010). The ultimate study skills handbook. England: McGraw-Hill

Education. (Available in EBSCOhost Database, OUM Digital Library)
Rachel, S., & Graham, G. (2013). Teaching adult numeracy: Principles and
practice. Maidenhead, Berkshire: McGraw-Hill Education.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic  Being a
21st Century
1 Learner
harvinder@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the skills required by the 21st century learner;
2. List down the roles of a 21st century learner;
3. Describe the 21st century learning environment; and
4. Identify your characteristics as a 21st Century Learner.
 INTRODUCTION
Do you know that you are living in the 21st century in accordance to the Gregorian
calendar? It started on January 1, 2001 and will end on December 31, 2100. So what
is the big deal about this century? It is in this era that digital revolution is
continuously taking place with instantaneous and infinite ways of using the
Internet. The Internet access is expanding widely. The majority of people in the
developed world have access to the Internet. A large number of the worldÊs
population owns mobile phones. With the surge of smart phones getting more
affordable, there are emerging trends in social media networking. I am sure you
have at least used WhatsApp, Twitter, Facebook, SnapChat, Instagram, Pinterest
and/or YouTube, which are among the popular social media apps for modern
digital communication.

2  TOPIC 1 BEING A 21ST CENTURY LEARNER
The advancement of technology has impacted our lives. The world is increasingly
living in a globalised society through the digital social networking. There is an
accelerating change in economy and technology in the society we live in.
Technology has penetrated our work place, learning institutions, social circles,
and in many varied ways. As such, government, educators and major employers
realise this and have identified key skills that are needed by learners for meeting
the demands of the changing workplace and society.
It is necessary that we equip ourselves with the right skills that will eventually help
us in meeting the demands of the 21st century. In the following subtopics of this
topic we will discuss the skills expected for 21st century, roles of 21st century
learners, their learning environment and characteristics that make you a 21st century
learner.
1.1 SKILLS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

In the introduction, we have discussed briefly the way technology influenced our
lives. With the changes taking place in the employment market, it necessitates us
to be flexible and adaptable to fit in the different roles of career fields. In view of
that, education institutions are rapidly innovating and designing their learning
spaces and content in the digital era. Instructors have also changed their
instructional deliveries with the support of the educational technologies.
In the past, teachers presented information and learners absorbed the information
as part of their knowledge. Today, such practice will not be viable for learners in
the digital era. So, what should todayÊs learners do? Learners must take active role
in creating their knowledge and learning experiences. Technology has influenced
the way we learn, acquire information, think and interconnect. As a learner, you
are expected to have competencies in how to acquire, integrate and use the new
knowledge for solving problems and be able to apply the new knowledge in
different contexts. In a nutshell, you must have 21st century learning skills.
What are the 21st century learning skills? 21st century skills comprise skills,
abilities and qualities to be successful in 21st century society and workplaces.
Many of these skills are also associated with higher order thinking skills, which
are based on analytic reasoning, complex problem solving and teamwork. These
skills are useful in mastering knowledge in your academic content.

TOPIC 1 BEING A 21ST CENTURY LEARNER  3
There are several frameworks discussing 21st century skills, but for the purpose
of this topic, we will focus on four dominant categories of 21st century skills
which are partially adapted from Framework for 21st Century Learning
(http://www.p21.org/our-work/p21-framework). These categories are Learning
and Innovation, Digital Literacy, Career and Life Skills and Metacognitive Skills
as shown in Figure 1.1. Metacognitive skills were not present in the said
framework but it is included in our discussion because it is important for learners
to be mindfully thinking of their own thinking process. And, this skill can be
acquired through reflective thinking exercises and practising self-directed learning
strategies. Each of these categories has various types of skills as listed in Table 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Dominant categories of 21st century learning skills
Table 1.1: 21st Century Skills
Category of Skills Type of Skills

Learning and  Critical thinking skills ă ability to analyse and solve problems.
Innovation Skills  Creative skills ă ability to innovate solutions.
 Collaborative skills ă ability to work as a team for achieving a
common goal.
 Communication skills ă ability to comprehend through reading
and express ideas logically through writing and verbally.
Digital literacy  Technology literacy
 Information literacy
 Media literacy

Career and Life  Numeracy skills ă able to reason with numbers and
Skills comprehend fundamental arithmetic or other mathematical
concepts and to apply these concepts in a range of contexts to
solve problems.
 Global awareness ă a conceptual understanding based upon an
applicable knowledge of global and cultural perspectives such
as but is not limited to, environmental, social, cultural, political,
and economic relations.
 Financial literacy ă possession of the set of skills and
knowledge that allows an individual to make informed and
effective decisions with all of their financial resources.
 Health literacy ă the ability to obtain, understand, and use
healthcare information in order to make appropriate health
decisions and follow instructions for treatment.
 Environmental literacy ă understanding of the environment
and the conditions affecting it to make responsible decisions
that consider oneÊs relationships to natural systems, in
particular air, climate, land, food, energy, water and
ecosystems.
 Social skills ă ability to interact and communicate message
both verbally and non-verbally, through gestures, body
language and our personal appearance.
 Visual literacy ă ability to interpret, negotiate, and make
meaning from information presented in the form of an image,
and interpretation of a written text.
Metacognitive  Reflective thinking skills ă ability to know what has been
Skills learned and know what needs to be learned.
 Self-directed learning skills ă ability to know which strategy to
be used to acquire knowledge.
A quick search on the Internet on 21st century skills often shows greater
importance given to the four core competencies, popularly known as 4Cs of
21st century skills which include, critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and
communication. A simple understanding of these skills are:
(a) Critical thinking: you are able to solve problems.
(b) Creativity: you are able to innovate ingeniously or think outside the box.
(c) Collaboration: you are able to work together and interact to achieve a
common goal.
(d) Communication: you are able to convey ideas in the best manner.

Basically, these skills are intended to help you keep up with the 21st century pace.
Each skill is unique in how it helps you, but they all are essential in the age of the
Internet. You will be using most of these skills while doing the learning activities
of your academic courses. However in reality, there is no one skill that could be
applied in solo. You will soon notice that in order to solve a particular problem,
you will be applying a conglomeration of multiple sets of skills. In addition, certain
sets of skills will help you develop other skills as well. We will discuss more on
how you can develop and apply some of these skills in the coming sub topics of
this course. It will be meaningless to be informed about the skills and not apply it
in your learning.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Explain how each of the 21st century skills will benefit you in todayÊs
classroom.
1.2 ROLES OF THE 21ST CENTURY LEARNER

It is clear that due to the demands of technology and societal changes, the
21st century classroom has to be different from that of the 20th century. Your
instructors or teachers are facilitators of your learning and will not be the sole
knowledge source. This means that your role as learner will be different in this
century. You are required to develop skills that you may need currently or in
future. In addition, the right skills will help you to carry out your roles effectively
as a 21st century learner. Let us find out how many of the following roles do you
fit in:
(a) Curious to Find Out

Do you have a curious attitude? Sometimes you need to discover about
things beyond your areas of expertise. With a vast amount of information
available on the Internet, there is no excuse for not quenching your thirst for
knowledge.
(b) Pursue Learning

Do you pursue understanding diligently? A few things can be easily
understood but often you will need to make effort and be willing to put in
time to search for information, read, analyse and evaluate information that
you have found. In the process, you will discuss with others and think about
the matter. You will need to be persistent and not give up easily.

(c) Create Knowledge

Do you make your own knowledge? You will use your knowledge to
construct and build to create new additions. In the process you will build a
better knowledge structure to connect in meaningful ways with what you
already know.
(d) Ask Questions

Do you always ask questions? You should never be satisfied with how
much you know about anything. You are expected to seek answers to your
questions. This also helps to monitor your understanding.
(e) Share Information

Do you share what you have learned? You should be willing to share
knowledge with others through writing or talking about it. Knowledge
that is not passed on will be lost. You are expected to explain, translate,
paraphrase and give examples of what you know in ways that makes sense
to other learners.
(f) Be Independent
Do you learn autonomously? You are totally responsible for your decisions
related on your learning process. As an independent learner, you should be
aware of what strategies work, how to get resources and assistance in your
learning.
(g) Get Ahead in Self-management

Do you feel stressful in completing your task? There are times you will feel
down, stressed and overwhelmed with work. It is vital to be able to make
decisions on how to manage your activities and yourself. You need to set
goals, create a plan in achieving the goals, manage your time smartly,
effectively manage your stress, motivate yourself and develop learning
strategies that will be useful.
(h) Passionate to Learn

Are you afraid of failing? Nobody wants to fail in exams but learning is not
all about scoring marks. The learning process can sometimes be boring and
is not fun especially when repeating learning tasks. However, the love for
learning will push you to continue seeking for information and putting the
pieces together. When you finally understand the content, it is one special
thrill. No doubt there will be failures in the process but ultimately it will be
beneficial.

(i) Concern to Humankind

Are you aware of the political, economical and global environmental issues?
While thinking and having knowledge in global issues are important, it is
even more crucial to emphatise and behave responsibly in the world. We
need to have civic responsibilities as a member of this world and feel concern
about our surroundings and our way of living in the environment. DonÊt be
aloof. We should be sensitive towards human induced climate change and
its effect on air, water, soil, plants and animals, etc. Our lifestyle should
attempt to reduce our use of earthÊs natural resources. This can be achieved
by altering our way of transportation, energy consumption and diet. Besides
that, embracing cultural diversity and acknowledging peopleÊs rights are
equally vital for humanity. I cannot emphasise enough the importance of
deliberately taking active role towards a peaceful and sustainable world.
These are some of the many roles that will equip you to obtain educational benefits
in the 21st century. You are most likely to be involved with more than one of these
roles at any point of time during your learning. Let us reflect on the possible roles
you have taken while reading this topic. Can you identify them?
ACTIVITY 1.2
What are the roles a 21st century learner should be practising? Can you
think of roles other than those listed above?
1.3 21ST CENTURY LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT
Past teaching environments such as lecture are not effective anymore in meeting
the above roles. We need 21st century learning environment that will help todayÊs
learners to learn and improve themselves. What is a 21st century learning
environment? The term learning environment suggests place and space such as a
school, a classroom, virtual, online learning management system, etc. Learning
environments will inspire us to attain the knowledge and skills that are demanded
by the 21st century.

Traditionally, we were expected to memorise our subjects to score well in exams.

But, studies have shown that these methods are ineffective for mining learnersÊ
creativity, indulging into critical thinking or engaging interactions. It will not be
useful in the world we live today. What we need is, learners experiencing the
environment in which they will enter as modern day workers. They need to
develop their problem solving, thinking skills, creativity and innovation skills,
effective communication skills and collaborative skills, while being proficient in
digital literacy and other skills that they will need as a 21st century workforce.
Our society is a mixture of many different beliefs and cultures. Globalisation has
opened up the world and allowed us to connect in new ways. We view the world
and create our beliefs through our life experiences. Learning is about discovery,
not memorising facts.
For these reasons, elements of learning environment such as teaching and learning
activities and assessment methods should provide the platform that is more
centred on learners. An environment that excites learners to explore, understand,
experiment, develop and express their knowledge and beliefs.
As such, your instructor will be facilitating your learning by creating effective

learning environment. Often, Internet and educational technological tools will be
used in the teaching and learning. The 21st century learning environment in your
forthcoming courses will:
(a) Help to create learning practices in achieving learning outcomes through 21st
century skills.
(b) Facilitate application of 21st century skills into classroom or online learning.
(c) Integrate technology tools and media rich resources for teaching instructions,
learning activities and assessment.
(d) Support learning communities that enable you to collaborate with your peers
and teacher.
(e) Enable you to learn in a real world context through projects or case studies.
(f) Measure accomplishment and not time spent on the topic.
(g) Provide flexibility on how we acquire knowledge.

Essentially, the facilities and infrastructures as well as other resources and

technological tools should also be in place for supporting the desired learning
environment. For instance, the classroom has to have good Internet connectivity
and both teachers and learners need to have the software and hardware as well as
the resources that are required for the learning activities.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Have you experienced 21st century learning environment? Discuss how

it has benefitted you.
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF 21ST CENTURY

LEARNER
How do you learn? How do you think deeply about your learning? Is your
learning enduring and continuous? These are some questions that will make you
think of qualities or characteristics that you need to possess and cultivate to be an
effective learner.
You may wonder why it is important to know about the kind of actions that you
will be taking for learning. Well, as briefly introduced to you earlier in this topic,
this course will create awareness of the kind of skills that are essential for your
academic and lifelong success in the 21st century. Table 1.2 lists some of the key
characteristics of the 21st century learner. To make learning happen, you will take
responsibility and ownership of your learning while harnessing your capabilities
academically, socially and emotionally.
Do you consider yourself as a 21st century learner? Let us find out the key
characteristics that you may possess in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: 21 Characteristics of the 21st Century Learner
No. My Actions for Learning ⁄ Tick if True

1 I analyse facts to make decisions.
2 I am imaginative while seeking for answers.
3 I can convey information clearly from one person to another.
4 I work together in team projects.
5 I am savvy with technology.
6 I know where to find information.
7 I can easily use social media apps.
8 I have respect for otherÊs culture.
9 I see value in protecting the environment.
10 I ensure my well-being is taken care.
11 I keep track of my financial expense.
12 I am not afraid of completing difficult tasks.
13 I see challenges as a way of keeping my interest.
14 I make sure the task is completed successfully despite difficulties.
15 I create my own ideas based on new ideas from other sources.
16 I create and share information digitally.
17 I like to check my understanding by asking questions.
18 I will use the available resources to accomplish my learning on my
own.
19 I can cope with stress using effective strategies.
20 I think about what I really need to learn before I begin a task.
21 I am aware of what strategies I use when I study.
These 21 characteristics in Table 1.2 will somewhat make you be more aware of
your attitude towards learning. If you want to prepare your success in education,
work and life, learning 21st century skills are essential.

Be mindful of your strengths and weaknesses and take appropriate actions to

maximise your learning. In the upcoming topic, we will learn more about how to
sharpen our 21st century skills. However, do take note that you will actually be
practicing these skills when they are incorporated into a course content in
meaningful ways. Thus, it will allow you to build upon your skills development.
Skills development happens over time as it is an on-going process. Your tutors and
course instructions will explicitly indicate about which skill or skills are being
addressed. The ultimate goal of your learning journey is empowering you to be a
21st century learner.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Explain the various types of skills a 21st century learner is expected
to have.
2. What are the roles of a 21st century learners?
3. Describe the 21st century learning environment by relating it to

your learning activities.
4. What characteristics should you have to be considered as a 21st

century learner?
Ć There are four dominant categories of 21st century skills, which include:
ă Learning Skills and Innovation Skills;
ă Digital Literacy;
ă Career and Life Skills; and
ă Metacognitive Skills.
 As a 21st century learner you need to understand and fulfill your roles in order
to obtain educational benefits. However, you can only effectively play your
roles by applying the 21st century learning skills.

 The 21st century learning environment is essential to prepare learners in

developing their 21st century learning skills which further helps them to be
ready for the 21st century workforce.
Ć In order to be an effective 21st century learner, you need to be able to identify

and relate the characteristics of 21st century learner to yourself.
21st century learning Creativity

Collaboration Critical Thinking
Communication
Cabral, L. (2006). Twenty first century skills for students: Hands on learning
after school builds school and life success. New Directions for Youth
Development, 2006(110), 155ă161.
Framework for 21st Century. (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/our-

work/p21-framework

Topic  Study Skills
2
harvinder@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Apply essay writing skills; and
2. Apply the tips and strategies of studying for examinations.
 INTRODUCTION
In learning, a learner will be assessed either through coursework and/or
examinations. Do you know why your learning need to be assessed? Because
assessment will indicate whether you have mastered the intended learning
outcomes. You and your instructors should know how much you have learn! Are
you aware that your coursework which may include assignments, quizes, portfolio
etc. is prepared based on the learning outcomes embedded within your course?
The most common form of assignments is essay writing which is not an easy task.
Some learners have difficulties in completing a good essay. They are not sure what
is to be written in the essay and they are not aware of the importance of
referencing. Another challenge to a learner is sitting for an examination. Have you
ever felt that you have studied or prepared well for an exam, but the final results
is disappointing? Why does this happen?
In view of that, this topic aims to provide tips and strategies that will help you do
better in essay writing and exams. You will be guided on how you can apply your
critical thinking, creative, communication and collaborative skills in completing
the assignment and preparing for exams. In the following subtopics of this topic,
we will discuss the strategies of writing essay and preparing for exams.

14  TOPIC 2 STUDY SKILLS
2.1 ESSAY WRITING SKILLS

Writing is an essential skill that is required in many situations throughout life.
However, academic writing is rather different from personal writing because it
abides by the following set of rules and practices:
(a) Ideas are organised in a formal order or structure.
(b) Facts are supported by references from academic literature.
(c) Write-up discusses the theories and causes of a given topic.
(d) Write-up tone uses concise, formal, and objective language.
(e) Adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar and spelling.
The majority of your courses may require you to write academic essays for
assignment. Writing an academic essay can be dreaded by many learners. Do you
feel the same? Let us change this mind set through these tips and skills.
2.1.1 Steps for Writing Essay

Learning to write an essay is a skill that will definitely be useful in the 21st century.
You will use the skill throughout your life in one way or another. Many learners
face difficulties when they are asked to write university-level essays. However,
these steps will systematically guide you to write an essay in an organised manner:
Step 1: Select the Topic

Choose the topic that you are comfortable with, one that you know something
about. Sometimes this step is not relevant when the instructor assigns the topic
to you.
Step 2: Analyse the Topic

Ask yourself what are the main issues and supporting issues. Understand what
each terms means by referring to the dictionary or the Internet. Find out what
the topic requires you to do. Does it ask you to explain, elaborate, discuss,
analyse, etc.?

TOPIC 2 STUDY SKILLS  15
Step 3: Prepare an Outline

The basic outline of your essay should consist of Introduction, Main Content,
Conclusion and References. Briefly write the key points under each of these
headings in the outline. This will give you a guide of what should be written
under each of this section. This outline contains all the information you need to
write your essay.
Step 4: Search for Information

Use the digital library or the Internet to search for information related to your
essay topic. Evaluate and select information that is relevant to the main issues
and supporting issues. Make sure you have enough information that covers the
topic well.
Step 5: Read and Make Notes from the Information

Read and make notes of the information. Make sure the notes cover all aspects
of main issues and supporting issues.
Step 6: Write the Essay

Use simple and clear language. A good essay should have a stand on the issues
related to the topic, argue out the reasons and provide reliable evidence to
support your arguments. The arguments must be logically explained. Essay
structure or format should have headings and sub-headings to show
relationship and connectivity of issues. The ideas and arguments should flow
smoothly from one paragraph to another. Provide in-text citations whenever
you include another authorÊs idea.

Step 7: Review and Edit

After writing the essay, you need to review and improvise it accordingly. You
may want to check on these questions: Are all the main issue and supporting
issues dealt with? Is the content relevant and sufficient? Is there adequate
supporting evidence to uphold your views and ideas? Do the paragraphs
connect well? Are the quotations and paraphrasing appropriately conveying
the ideas? Are the in-text citations properly cited? Are all the references cited
in the essay properly recorded in the reference list? Are the illustrations
properly labeled? Is the language clear? Is the paper free of spelling and
grammar errors? Does the essay make sense?
How to plan the essay writing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
FgsHJdFoXvY&feature=youtu.be
ACTIVITY 2.1
What are the steps involved in writing an essay?
2.1.2 Structure of an Essay

An essay should have these four sections:
(a) Introduction;
(b) Main Content;
(c) Conclusion; and
(d) References.

Every section is important and all sections should be written in an essay. We will
now look into what should be written under each section.
(a) Introduction
Your essay should start with an Introduction. Under Introduction paragraph,
you should provide an overview or a brief background on the topic of the
essay. Then, state the purpose of the essay and also the scope. The purpose
is to provide the reader the objective of your essay. And, the scope will briefly
tell the reader what you have written in the Main Content. An example of an
Introduction is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Sample for introduction
How to write an „Introduction‰ for the essay

kgV_zjnWpBU&feature=youtu.be

(b) Main Content

The Main Content or the Body Paragraph of the essay should contain your
ideas, opinions, arguments and facts, explained systematically and logically.
Each idea, point, issue or argument should flow smoothly from one to
another. Each paragraph should contain only one main point or main idea,
with supporting details or information and given a sub-title.
The paragraphs should be interconnected throughout the Main Content.

Make sure that when an issue is raised in one paragraph, it is carefully and
systematically followed through in the following paragraphs before raising
another issue. Use numbering system for each issue. This will show
relationship or interconnectivity between issues in more organised manner.
An example of Main Content is shown in Figure 2.2.
The writing process of the essay will involve many of the 21st century skills
that you will learn in the coming topics. You will be required to think
critically on issues that you would like to address in the essay. Most likely,
you will need to search for information and review the content critically. You
will also need creative elements in the presentation, perhaps, through
writing style and graphics. The way the message is conveyed will involve
communication skills.

Figure 2.2: Sample for main content
How to write a „Body Paragraph‰ of the essay

YzhGYHxmsa0&feature=youtu.be

(c) Conclusion
The Conclusion should be the summary of your essay. Do not write new
ideas under Conclusion. A good conclusion should provide the reader with
a sense of completion or closure of the essay topic. The conclusion must show
progress in the development of the topic from the introduction and through
the main content. An example of a Conclusion is shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Sample for conclusion
How to write a „Conclusion‰ of the essay

rgyeAeE3DGI&feature=youtu.be

(d) References
(i) The main reasons for referencing are:
 To enable your essay reader to follow up on the References and find

the sources.
 To demonstrate to your essay reader that you have read widely a

range of opinions by other authors.
 To enable your essay reader to check the accuracy of the

information you have given.
 To avoid accusations of plagiarism.
 To avoid losing marks. You will lose marks if you do not

acknowledge sources.
(ii) There are two components of Referencing:
 In-text citation (Figure 2.4) ă You need to include in-text citation to

acknowledge the parts that you cite from other sources
(information taken from other authors) in your essay.
 Reference list (Figure 2.5) ă You need to write the list of all sources
cited in the text in your essay. The Reference list is written at the
end of your essay.
References that are cited in the text should also be written in the Reference list and
vice-versa. Both in-text citation and reference list should be written according to
APA (American Psychological Association) citation style. Besides APA citation
style, the other referencing styles are: MLA (Modern Language Association),
Oxford, Harvard and Chicago.

Figure 2.4: Sample for APA in-text citation style
How to do In-Text Citation in APA format

qzKlb7E7ERc&feature=youtu.be

Bernstein, B. (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity: Theory, research, critique
(revised ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.
Binkley, M., Erstad, O., Herman, J., Raizen, S., Ripley, M., Miller-Ricci, M., &
Rumble, M. (2012). Defining twenty-first century skills. In P. Griffin, B. McGaw,
E. Care (Eds.) Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills (pp. 17–66).
Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2324-5 210.1007/978-94-
007-2324-5
Cheng, K. M. (2017). Advancing 21st century competencies in East Asian education

systems. Asia Society, Centre for Global Education. Retrieved from
http://asiasociety.org/sites/default/files/21st-century-competencies-east-asian-
education-systems.pdf
Deng, Z., Gopinathan, S., & Lee, C. K.-E. (2013). Globalization and the Singapore
curriculum: From policy to classroom. Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media.
Economic Development Board. (2017). Future ready Singapore. Retrieved from

https://www.futurereadysingapore.com/index.html
Florida, R. (2002). The rise of the creative class. NY: Basic Books.
Freeman, C. (2004). Income inequality in changing techno-economic paradigms. In

S. Reinert (Ed.), Globalization, economic development and inequality (pp. 243–257).
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Figure 2.5: Sample for reference list in APA style
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. What information should be included under Introduction of an
essay?
2. Write an introduction for an essay on a topic of your choice.

2.1.3 Avoid Plagiarism

Do you know that if the idea in your essay comes from another author and you
did not cite it in the reference, it will mean you are plagiarising the authorÊs idea?
Plagiarism means to represent the words, thoughts, ideas, arguments or facts of
another person as oneÊs own. In a laymanÊs term, plagiarising is considered as
stealing another personÊs ideas. It is considered a serious offence and can be
heavily penalised and marks can be deducted.
In this age, there are a lot of information available on the Internet which can be
accessed easily and freely. Unfortunately, some learners misuse it and copy other
authorsÊ writings in their essays. Copying another studentÊs essay is also called
plagiarism. Now that you know what plagiarism is, how can you avoid it?
Plagiarism can be avoided by:
(a) Paraphrasing
Re-writing the ideas using your own words and acknowledge the author for
the ideas.
(b) Using Quotation

Copying the exact words but within quotations marks („⁄‰) and
acknowledge the author for the ideas. However, quotations should only be
used when you need to discuss the exact words in detail or it has been
phrased most effectively. Too many quotations can be distracting and you
will not have your own voice in the essay.
(c) Acknowledging the Author

Acknowledge the author whose ideas or work is cited in your essay by
writing both in-text reference and reference list according to the APA
Citation Style.
Referencing ă APA Method

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0X3iqxWr47s

2.1.4 APA Referencing Style

You will probably be citing information from many different types of resources
such as books, e-books, journal articles, articles in the websites, newspaper articles,
etc. for your essay writing. Do you know how to cite these resources? The
referencing style for each of these resources is different. The references are also
written differently between one author and more than one; differently between
print and digital material. Figure 2.6 shows APA citation styles for various
resources. Do watch the videos on APA Referencing and In-text citation styles.
You may use systems that automatically generate APA citation for your references,
such as:
(a) Citation Machine;
(b) bibMe; and
(c) Microsoft Word > References > Insert Citation> Bibliography.

Figure 2.6: Referencing and citation style: APA 6th

Source: https://libguides.library.usyd.edu.au/c.php?g=508212&p=3476096

APA Referencing Style Guide

https://aut.ac.nz.libguides.com/APA6th/referencelist
ACTIVITY 2.2
Cite the APA referencing style for the following book.

Book Title: The 21st century learner
Book Author: Beverly Sheppard
Book Publisher: Institute of Museum and Library Services
Publication Year: 2001
2.1.5 Common Faults in Essay

It is not an easy task to write a proper essay. If learners think that they do not need
to put much thought and effort in writing their essays, well, that can potentially
lead them to making numerous terrible mistakes. However, learners can write
good quality essays if they avoid the following mistakes:
(a) Writing Out of Topic

Do not include things that are not relevant. Focus on the topic.
(b) Content is Shallow

Do not write superficial content which does not provide detail information
nor examples on the essay topic. Write sufficient content that fully addressed
the issue in the topic. Provide examples, support your arguments with
evidence. You will definitely need to search and read more information to be
able to write more comprehensively.

(c) Badly Organised and Lacks Flow

Do not miss important sub-headings or haphazardly write the essay. The
essay should have introduction, main content, conclusion and references in
the correct order. Under the main content, each point should be written in a
paragraph. Link your points from one paragraph to another. All sections and
sub sections should be given headings and sub-headings accordingly.
(d) Poor Fluency of Language

Do not misspell and make grammatical mistakes. Check spelling,
punctuation and grammar. Avoid making these errors. The sentences should
use simple language and keep to the point.
(e) Poorly Written Introduction

Do not ignore to introduce the topic of the essay. Make sure you provide
overview of the topic and explain how you are approaching the topic.
Introduce the topic and put it in perspective.
(f) Poorly Written Main Content

Do not write wishy washy essay and overlook on the key points. The main
content should have all the issues/points written clearly with examples and
supporting evidence/information. Organise the points in paragraphs so that
they make sense to the reader and there is flow of thoughts. Include in-text
citation to acknowledge another authorÊs ideas.
(g) Poorly Written Conclusion

Do not neglect to synthesise your essay write-up. Make sure you conclude
by summarising and providing the answers or solutions to the issues in the
essay.
(h) Lack of In-text Citations and References

Do not forget to include in-text citations and references. Essay should include
in-text citation and these should be cited in references. Reproducing content
word for word without citations constitutes plagiarism.
(i) Boring and Dull Essay

Do not write dreary and unexciting piece. Be creative and passionate in
delivering your message in the essay. A good essay should be interesting. It
should arouse the curiosity of the reader, keep the reader engrossed and
make them want to keep reading the essay.

SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. How to avoid plagiarism?
2. Which of the following is a fault in an essay?
(a) Too many in text citations in the essay.
(b) Provide a new point in the conclusion.
(c) Use quotations sparingly in the essay.
2.2 STRATEGIES FOR EXAMS

Now that you have completed your assignment, it is time to get ready for exams.
Definitely, it is not going to be any easier than doing assignments, but some good
strategies will help you to excel in exams.
2.2.1 Preparing for Exams

In preparing yourself for examinations, you should have a good set of notes, know
how to memorise the facts, and have a good study plan. Do not do last minute
revision. Always have a good rest before sitting for exams, your well-being is
important. Do remember to bring enough stationery and your ID or other
necessary documents that are needed into the examination hall.

2.2.2 Memorising for Exams

To do well in exams, you must be able to understand and remember facts. There
are several strategies for improving your memory. Here are some of the useful
methods:
(a) SQ3R Reading Technique

SQ3R reading method is an active and systematic way to read academic
material analytically and critically.
In SQ3R, you will do the following:
S = Survey ă You need to get an overview of the chapter by surveying the

content
Q = Question ă Ask yourself questions on what you want to know from

the text
R = Read ă You read the text analytically and critically to look for the
answers to your questions that you have asked.
R = Recite ă You recall your understanding by reciting (aloud) what you

have read. This is done for every sub-section of the main chapter.
R = Review ă You review or check your own understanding of the whole

chapter by consolidating and integrating information of all parts of the
sub-sections.
(b) Mnemonics
Mnemonics is a device such as formula, rhyme or acronym to help you
remember facts or ideas. For example, the mnemonic of the rainbowÊs seven
colours (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet) could be written
as: Read Out Your Good Book In Verse.
(c) Vivid Association

It is interesting how our mind relates things with our past events, like life
experiences, stories or images. Try to pair up the course facts or ideas with
story, music, images or anything you like.
(d) Visual Memory

We will remember better if the information is shown in mind maps,
diagrams, tables, pictures, cartoons, graphs, drawings, etc.

(e) Say It Loud

The act of reading text aloud is a more effective way to remember facts than
reading it silently or just hearing it loud. Besides that, you can have group
discussion with your peers. Another good way to improve your memory is
to teach another person.
(f) Practise Answering Questions

Your revision process is not complete without applying and using the
knowledge that you have learnt. One of the best ways is by practising
answering questions.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Explains five ways of memorising facts that are effective for you.
2.2.3 Types of Exam Questions

Examination papers contain different formats and types of questions. Before you
start studying for exams you must be familiar with the exam paper format and
what type of questions you will be answering.
The exam paper format includes parts in the paper and number of questions to be
answered under each part. For example, a particular exam paper may contain
3 parts: Part A (Answer all questions), Part B (There are 5 questions, answer any 3)
and Part C (There are 2 questions, answer only 1 question). Each part will have its
own instructions.
There are several types of questions which can be categorised into (a) Objective
Questions and (b) Subjective Questions as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Objective and Subjective Questions
Objective Questions Subjective Questions

True-false questions Short answer questions
Multiple choice questions Essay type of questions
Fill in the blanks
Some exam papers may have a combination of different types of questions. For
example, Part A comprises short answer questions and Part B comprises essay type
questions.

How will you know what is your course format and what type of questions will
be asked? Check the course information on assessment available in myINSPIRE or
ask your tutor.
The common types of questions are Short Answer Question, Essay Type Question
and Multiple-choice Question. Both short answer and essay question are referred
to as subjective questions and multiple-choice question is classified as objective
question.
(a) Short Answer Questions

Short answer question requires a short answer. It can be between a few words
and a paragraph. The marks allocated gives an indication of how much you
should write.
How to study for short answer question
 You should concentrate on what types of questions could be asked.

Usually, the questions will focus on names, facts, terminologies, concepts
and theories, similarities and differences, and examples for all these
information.
When answering short questions:
 Plan your answers by making notes of what will be written.
 Keep the answer short and specific.
 Mark the question that you are not sure and re-visit the question later.
 Answer all questions.
(b) Essay Type Questions

Essay type questions require an answer that is structured in the same way as
an essay. Your answer can be anything from a few paragraphs to a few pages
depending on the requirement of the question and marks allocated for it.
How to study for essay type question
 You should look for possible questions that could be asked for
each topic/chapter. It will be related to the learning outcomes of the
topic/chapter.
 Identify the important concepts in every chapter.

 Make notes of important concepts that will answer any of these question
instructions: explain, describe, discuss, compare, analyse, etc. Basically,
it will help you plan an answer for a possible question in the exams.
When answering essay type question:
 Read and analyse the question carefully. Make sure you understand the
requirement of the question.
 Plan your answer by jotting down key points, perhaps by using mind
map. Write a few key words under each point.
 Write out the answer in the exam answer sheet. Use a new paragraph for
each main point.
 Use numbering system for sub-points for better organised answer.
 For each point include examples to provide clarity on your explanation.
 It is a good practice to leave a few lines in between each paragraph, as

you may want to add more information later.
 If you run out of time, at least write down your key points so that you
may get a few marks rather than leaving it blank.
 Do not write in the margins of the exam answer sheets.
 Write neatly and proof read as you write. Examiner will not be able to
give marks if he/she cannot read your handwriting.
(c) Multiple-choice Question

Multiple-choice question consists of a question (stem), and a number of
possible answers (options). Usually, each question will have 3 or 4 options.
You have to choose one correct answer from these options.
How to study for multiple-choice question
 You should focus on: names, facts, terminologies, concepts and theories,
similarities and differences.
When answering Multiple-choice Question,
 Select the best answer. Read the question and all the options. All the
answers might be right, but there is only one best answer.

 Eliminate the wrong answer. Start by identifying the wrong answer

rather than looking for the right one.
 Look out for negatives. For example, „Which of these ⁄. is NOT ⁄.?‰
 Be cautious of „All the Above‰ and „None of the Above‰. If you can find
one wrong answer, you can immediately eliminate the „All the Above‰.
If you think at least one of the answers is correct, then you can eliminate
„None of the Above‰.
 Mark the question that you are not sure and re-visit the question later.
 Answer all questions. Do not leave any question unanswered.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. What are the mistakes you should avoid in your essay writing?
2. How will you prepare for the various types of examination

questions?
 It is important for 21st century learners to master essay writing skills and
prepare well for exams.
 An essay includes Introduction, Main Content, Conclusion and References.
 There are 7 steps involved in writing an essay effectively.
 Plagiarism can be avoided through paraphrasing and quotation and

acknowledging the authors by citing them in references. Your essay should cite
references according to the APA citation style.
 There are several strategies that can help you do well for examinations, such
as know how to prepare yourself, apply effective memorising methods and be
familiar with the exam formats and type of questions.
 As a learner you need to know how to study for and answer the 3 common
exam types of questions namely, short answer question, essay type question
and multiple-choice question.

American Psychological Paraphrasing

Association (APA) Citation Style Plagiarism
Essay Type Question Quotation
Multiple-Choice Question (MCQ) Short Answer Question
Objective Questions Subjective Questions
Exam Questions: Types, Characteristics, and Suggestions (2017, June 27).

Retrieved from
https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-
resources/teaching-tips/developing-assignments/exams/questions-types-
characteristics-suggestions
Manoukian, J., & Chubb, J. (2013, November 20). Study Tips: Top 5 Memorisation
Techniques.
Retrieved from https://www.dal.ca/news/2013/11/20/study-tips--top-5-
memorization-techniques.html
Moore, S. (2010). The ultimate study skills handbook. England: McGraw-Hill

Education. (Available in EBSCOhost Database, OUM Digital Library)
Trinity College Dublin. (n.d.). Essay Writing Strategies. Retrieved from

https://www.tcd.ie/Student_Counselling/student-
learning/assets/docs/old/Essay_Writing_Strategies.pdf

Topic  Numeracy
Skills
3 Dr Raziana Che Aziz
raziana@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the term numeracy and innumeracy;
2. Discuss the importance of numeracy in todayÊs world;
3. Describe the fundamental aspects of numeracy; and
4. Apply numeracy in basic day to day problems using appropriate
mathematical methods.
 INTRODUCTION
The topic on numeracy skills is introduced to adult learners with the aim to
provide quality numeracy instruction and help them achieve the mathematical
knowledge and skills that will enable them to adjust to this growing societal
demand. All facets of adult life including family, education, employment and
community has made numeracy as an essential skill for 21st century success.
Adults with good numeracy skills are able to function responsibly in everyday life
and contribute effectively to the society. The current high level of interest in
promoting STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) has also
raised awareness of the importance of developing numeracy skills in the
population. We begin this topic by introducing the definition of numeracy and
discuss the importance of numeracy in todayÊs world. Later, we will discuss the
relation between numeracy and mathematics. Learners will be introduced to the
term innumeracy and exposed to the fundamental aspects of numeracy;
mathematical reasoning, problem solving and decision making. This topic will

TOPIC 3 NUMERACY SKILLS  37
further discuss the two types of mathematical reasoning; deductive and inductive
reasoning, PólyaÊs four stages of problem solving and the seven processes
involved in decision making. At the end of this topic, the concept of numeracy
continuum and everyday life practices are further explained. We will discuss some
examples of real life problems and learners should get some ideas and good
understanding on the numeracy in their daily life activities and hence, able to solve
them using appropriate techniques or methods using numeracy skills.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
How does numeracy complement literacy?
Why does literacy and numeracy matter in the 21st century learning?
3.1 NUMERACY
Numeracy is a way of connecting literacy and scientific principles. It is also known
as „the mirror image of literacy‰. Numeracy is defined as the ability to understand
and work with numbers (Oxford Dictionaries, n.d.). Numeracy is considered as
fundamental mathematical skills which include the ability to understand and
analyse numerical information, express ideas based on numerical information and
to make the right conclusions and decisions. Fundamental arithmetics including
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are considered as basic skills in
numeracy. The important aspects of numeracy also include numbers and
operations, computation, measurement, geometry, statistics and probability.
The concept of numeracy and its relation with mathematics is depicted in

Figure 3.1. Mathematics is formally taught in school and it is one of the core
subjects in primary or secondary school curriculum. Most people would suggest
that mathematics is arithmetic, geometry and algebra, maybe statistics or calculus.
Numeracy does overlap significantly with a subsection of what is taught in

school. Children are indirectly introduced to numeracy such as shapes, numbers,
time and patterns in daily classroom mathematics especially when applying
mathematical problems in real-life situation. Numeracy seems to reflect the way
in which children approach their mathematics, valuing the confidence in and
understanding mathematics.

38  TOPIC 3 NUMERACY SKILLS
Figure 3.1: Numeracy and mathematics

Source: https://www.thinknpc.org
ACTIVITY 3.1
Do you know that numeracy skills are useful not only for children in
the school but also for your job application? Discuss with your friends
the importance of numeracy skills and list 5 occupations (excluding
mathematics teachers) that definitely need at least some basic numeracy
skills.

3.1.1 The Importance of Numeracy Skills

Numeracy skills are essential in every aspect of our lives. We use these skills in
everyday activities at home, workplace, shopping mall, hospitals and many more.
When we go shopping or planning a holiday, we use numeracy. When we are
deciding on taking a bank loan or mortgage, we use numeracy. Many decisions
made in our life are habitually based on numerical information.
With good numeracy skills, it helps us to function responsibly in everyday life and
contribute effectively to the society. Numeracy skills increases our opportunities
within the domain of work and creates foundations which can be built upon
through lifelong learning.
Working with numbers trains our mind to think logically and critically. Basic
numeracy by fact, is a logically derived system. When you are learning to
manipulate basic numbers, it will give you an entry into the thought processes that
critical thinking is built upon. Numeracy allows people to make comparisons in
their everyday life. „Can unplugging appliances when you are not using them
reduce your utility bill?‰
Furthermore, numeracy helps us in understanding statistical information such as

data, charts, graphs, infographics and risk statements. It also helps us in making
decisions in our lives like when buying our first car, our first house or going for a
vacation. By having better numeracy skills, we become more capable of making
more reliable decisions in our daily lives.
3.1.2 Innumeracy
Innumeracy is defined as a lack of ability to understand and use numbers in
calculations (Cambridge English Dictionary, n.d.). The effect of innumeracy on
peopleÊs lives is much less self evident than illiteracy. Innumeracy is commonly
seen in those suffering from poverty, poor education experience and childhood
deprivation of numeracy. Other studies have associated innumeracy with age,
gender and race. Research has shown that older adults have been associated with
lower numeracy skills compared to younger adults. Being innumerate affects
peopleÊs confidence and self-esteem.

3.2 FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS IN NUMERACY

There are various aspects of numeracy as shown in Figure 3.2. They include
numbers, handling information, shape, space, measures, operations and
calculations. A person who is numerate should be able to apply mathematical
reasoning, problem solving and decision making skills in every aspect.
Figure 3.2: Fundamental skills in numeracy

Source: https://www.nationalnumeracy.org.uk/essentials-numeracy

3.2.1 Reasoning
Reasoning is a process of thinking information in a logical way in order to form a
solution or conclusion. It is required to help us to develop mathematically and
allow us to think critically. There are two types of reasoning in numeracy;
deductive and inductive reasoning. The process involved in deductive and
inductive reasoning is depicted in Figure 3.3.
Based on Figure 3.3, in general, deductive and inductive reasoning thinking

process moves in opposite direction. Deductive reasoning moves from generalised
theory to a true and specific conclusion while inductive reasoning moves from
specific theory into a generalised conclusion.
Figure 3.3: Inductive and deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning and involves making a

logical argument, drawing conclusions, and applying generalisations to specific
situations. For example, „All OUMH1603 learners passed the exam. Amy is an
OUMH1603 learner. Therefore, Amy passed the exam.‰ In deductive reasoning, if
something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of
that class.

Inductive reasoning is the opposite of the deductive reasoning. It involves looking

for patterns and making generalisations. For example, „Ten can be divided by two.
Ten is an even number. Therefore, all even numbers can be divided by two.‰
Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate hypotheses and theories whereby

the deductive reasoning allows them to apply the theories to specific situations.
Let us take a look at an example of inductive reasoning. After we examine the

inductive reasoning, we will flip it and see what it looks like in the form of
deductive reasoning.
Example 3.1
Inductive Reasoning
The first pen I took from my bag is black. The pen I took from my bag is black.
Therefore, all pens in my bag are black.
Deductive Reasoning
The first pen I took from my bag is black. All pens in my bag are black. Therefore,
the second pen I take from my bag will be black too.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. Make a conclusion by using inductive reasoning for each of the

following:
(a) Zain is an excellent swimmer and his family has a swimming

pool. Zain has a sister, Maria.
(b) The chair in the dining room is brown. The chair in the
bedroom is brown.
(c) Razak is a football player. All football players in the school

have body weight more than 60kg.
2. Deduce the following situation.
(a) All first semester students in OUM must take Learning Skills
course and Azman is in the first semester.
(b) All dolphins are mammals and all mammals have kidneys.
(c) Red meat has iron in it and beef is red meat.

3.2.2 Problem Solving

Problem solving is a mathematical process in numeracy skills. It permits us to use
the skills in a wide variety of situations. According to George Polya (1945), there
are four stages of problem solving, the details of every stage are shown in
Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: PólyaÊs four stages of problem solving
In the first stage, we need to understand the problem. Then, state the problem
using our own words, identify the objective of the problem and find the
information from the problem.
In selecting an appropriate solution, we need to devise a plan. In this second stage,

we need to identify the pattern based on the information gathered in stage 1. We
then study the related simple problem to apply to the selected method and then
derive the equation or create a table or a diagram.
The third stage of Polya is carrying out the plan. This step is usually easier than
devising the plan. We will apply strategies as we defined in stage 2, check each
step of the plan as we proceed and record our work.

The fourth stage is look back. During this stage, we need to check the results of the
original problem, interpret the solution in terms of the original problem and
determine whether there is another method of finding the solution. This will
enable us to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems.
Most real life problems are normally written in text. Word problems often confuse
learners since the background information on the problem is presented as text
rather than in a ready-to-solve mathematical equation. It requires practice in
translating verbal language into algebraic language. If we are able to comprehend
the mathematical concepts addressed, then we can solve the problem. In solving
word problems, we need to translate the wording into a numeric equation and
then solve the equation using appropriate mathematical methods.
Let us apply the PólyaÊs four stages in solving the following word problem.
Example 3.2
Afiq, Zila and Maria were picking strawberries. Afiq picked twice as many
strawberries than Zila and Maria picked 2kg more than Zila. Together the three of
them picked 30kg of strawberries. How many kilograms of strawberries did each
of them pick?
Solution:
Stage 1: Understanding the Problem

We translate the wording into a numeric equation.
From the question, we extract the following information in words:
(a) Afiq picked twice as much strawberries than Zila.
(b) Maria picked 2kg more than Zila.
(c) Three of them picked 30kg of strawberries.
We assume that x = number of strawberries (in kg) picked by Zila.

Stage 2: Devise a Plan

We can translate the wording into numeric notation as shown in Table 3.1:
Table 3.1
Mathematical
Information In Words
Expression
Afiq Afiq picked twice as many strawberries than Zila 2x
Zila x
Maria Maria picked 2kg more than Zila x+2
Total Three of them picked 30kg of strawberries 30
Stage 3: Carry Out the Plan

Now we solve the equation using appropriate mathematical operation and
technique.
To know how many strawberries picked by each of them, we need to find the value
of x first,
We know the total picked by all three is 30kg.
 Amount picked   Amount picked   Amount picked 

     Total amount
 by Afiq   by Zila   by Maria 
So, 2x + x + (x + 2) = 30
We solve for x:
2x  x   x  2   30
4x  2  30
4x  28
x7

Stage 4: Look Back

To verify whether the value of x is correct or not, we must substitute x = 7 into the
mathematical expression column in Table 3.1. Thus, we will obtain the following:
Zila : x=7
Afiq : 2  (7) = 14
Maria : (7) + 2 = 9
Adding up all the strawberries picked by three of them => 7 + 14 + 9 = 30.
Therefore, Afiq, Zila and Maria picked 14, 7, 9kg of strawberries, respectively.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. Pak Karim discovers some old tiles (1 feet by 1 feet) in his kitchen.
He starts to make different rectangles with them. He wonders what
are the biggest and the smallest perimeters that he can find for
rectangles with areas equal to 100 square feet. Help him.
2. Emilia and Alicia are comparing their heights. Emilia is 1.5 metres
tall and Alicia is 15 centimetres taller than Emilia. What is AliciaÊs
height in centimetre (cm)?
3.2.3 Decision Making

Decision making is the process of making choice by identifying problem, collecting
information, evaluating the alternative resolutions and selecting the best solution.
Applied mathematics fields like statistics, optimisation, probability, game theory,
modeling and operations research apply decision making technique entirely in
their fields. Those fields are essential in strategic management, health, economy,
public policy and law.
There are seven steps involved in the decision making process, shown in
Figure 3.5. Using a step-by-step decision making process can help us make more
deliberative, thoughtful decisions by organising relevant information and defining
alternatives.

Figure 3.5: Decision making process
Let us consider a simple situation in daily life.
Example 3.3
Let us say we need to buy a pair of shoes. We go to the store and see three pairs
that we like. The price tag for Pair A is RM220. Pair B and Pair C are RM320 and
RM250, respectively. The brand for Pair B is more well known than the other two
and has 30% discount . Which pair of shoes should we buy?
In making our decision, we can go through the decision making processes shown
in Figure 3.5. Let us see how we go through the steps.
Step 1: Identify the Problem

Problem: Which shoes to buy?

Step 2: Gather Information
(a) Price Information : Pair A = RM220

Pair B = RM320
Pair C = RM250
(b) Brand for Pair B is better than Pair A and Pair C.
(c) Pair B has 30% discount.
(d) Pair A is cheaper than Pair B and Pair C.
(e) Pair B is a good brand with discounted price at RM224.
Step 3 and 4: Identify Alternatives and Evaluate the Alternative Solutions

Buying a cheaper pair of shoes may save us money. However, the shoes may not
last and we may have to buy again. If we spend more for a better brand, the shoes
may last longer. Well known brand shoes fit better and are more comfortable.
Stage 5: Select the Best Solution

We choose Pair B.
Stage 6 and 7: Implement Decision and Evaluate the Result

Purchase Pair B.
ACTIVITY 3.2
You want to buy some cereal in the supermarket. A small box containing
500g of cereal costs RM8.50. A larger box containing 1,000g cereal costs
RM15. Which box of cereal should you buy?

3.3 NUMERACY CONTINUUM AND EVERYDAY

LIFE PRACTICES
Highly numerate people should be able to apply numeracy skills across a variety
of real life aspects and are able to function responsibly in everyday life and career.
Recognising the place of mathematics in our environment is important as it
delivers the fundamental in exploring mathematics applications in real life.
3.3.1 Numbers and Operations

It is essential for us to be able to work adaptably with numbers and number
operations in our everyday life practices. Real numbers, natural numbers, integers,
rational and irrational numbers are the most basic types of numbers taught in our
classroom mathematics. The four basic operations which can be performed on all
real numbers are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Now let us consider this situation. You are organising a birthday party for your
son and ten people are invited to attend the party. All of your guests must get
enough of each food item. You need to calculate the total number of people and
serve your guest equal portions of the cake. In this case, you are using natural
numbers and division to ensure all people get enough food. Another example
would be when you do budgeting for your household. Numbers and operations
are very essential in adding and subtracting income and expenses.
Example 3.4
Encik Zamri is a beekeeper. Last year, he harvested 1,452kg of raw honey. This
year, he bought some new hives and increased his honey harvest by 2,385kg. How
many kg of honey did Encik Zamri harvest this year?
Solution:
From the information, En Zamri increased his honey harvest by 2,385kg this year.
„Increased‰ means added to. Thus, we use addition to find the answer.
Total kilograms of honey harvested this year => 1452kg + 2385kg = 3837kg.
Therefore, En Zamri harvested 3837kg of honey this year.

Example 3.5
In an entrepreneurship workshop, there are 1500 participants with 875 of them are
female, how many are male?
Solution:
We have the total number of participants. Some of them are female. To find the
number of male participants, we use subtraction.
Number of male participants = Total number of participants ă number of female

participants
= 1500 ă 875
= 625
Therefore, 625 male participants attended the workshop.
Example 3.6
Zainal filled 50 plates with cookies. He put 5 cookies on each plate. How many
cookies did Zainal use?
Solution:
We can use multiplication to find the total number of cookies used.
Total number of cookies = Number of plates x Number of cookies on each plate

= 50  5
= 250
Thus, Zainal used 250 pieces of cookies.
Example 3.7
Pak Ali picked 350 guavas from his farm. He needs to divide the guavas into bags
to sell at the market. Pak Ali wants to put the same number of guava in 70 bags.
How many guavas can Pak Ali put in each bag?

Solution:
The problem states that Pak Ali needs to divide the guavas equally into 70 bags.
We can use division to solve the problem.
Total number of guavas = 350
Total number of bags = 70
Total number of guavas 350

Number of guavas in each bag =  5
Total number of bags 70
Therefore, Pak Ali can put 5 guavas in each bag.
3.3.2 Patterns
Patterns and number patterns are the foundation in mathematics because they are
considered as the building blocks in understanding numbers. Recognising and
understanding number sequences help us to generate algebraic formulae. With
patterns, we can learn to predict the future and discover new things and hence
better understand the world around us.
Consider the following sequence of numbers:
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, . . .
It is recognised that each number has a difference of 3 in the sequence.
The pattern is continued by adding 3 to the last number each time.

Example 3.8
This example shows the use of patterns. Let us say it costs RM20 for admission to
a paintball game and an additional RM5 for every round of balls. This relationship
can be represented by the expression 5b + 20. Use this pattern rule to complete the
table of values below.
Number of Rounds Total Cost (in RM)

1 25
2
3
4
5
Solution:
Since the relationship can be represented by the expression 5b + 20, we verify first
the total cost for round 1 as follows:
b = number of rounds
if b = 1, Round 1 : 5 (1) + 20 = 25
Now using expression 5b + 20, we calculate the total cost for each round as
presented in the following table:
Number of Rounds Calculations Total Cost (in RM)

1 5(1) + 20 25
2 5(2) + 20 30
3 5(3) + 20 35
4 5(4) + 20 40
5 5(5) + 20 45

3.3.3 Fractions, Decimal Numbers and Percentages

A fraction represents a part of a whole and it is recognised by the slash that is
written between the two numbers. We have a top number, the numerator and a
bottom number, the denominator. For example, ¾ is a fraction.
Fractions are regularly used in our everyday life situations. Let us say we went to
a department store to buy a new shirt and we see some deals giving half price
offers. In mathematical notation, the half can be written as ½; a fraction. We also
use fractions when we are using recipes in cooking and baking. For example we
may need ¾ cup of sugar, ¼ cup of butter and ½ teaspoon of salt.
Decimal numbers are important in money and measurement conversion. They are
also essential in understanding what proportion of a whole is represented.
Decimals are used when we require more precision values than the whole numbers
can provide. We use decimal numbers in our everyday life when we are dealing
with money, area, weight, length and many more. For example, we may say a
person has RM5.50 or a person is 74.5kg.
What does percent mean? The word percent comes from the phrase „per cent‰.
Cent is a root that means one hundred, so „per cent‰ literally means per one
hundred. It is used in various contexts in everyday life. We often see special deals
in stores such as 50% discount or 25% mark down. The capability of interchanging
between a fraction, decimal number and percentage is a skill that allows us to solve
problem in different ways.
Example 3.9
Alif works as a salesman in a property firm. If the commission rate is 4%, how
much commission does he make on property sales worth RM300,000.00?
Solution:
To find the commission, we will multiply the amount of sales by the commission
rate by 4%.
Therefore, commission = 4% of RM 300,000.00

4
=  RM300,000.00
100
= RM12,000.00

SELF-CHECK 3.4
Imagine you bought four items costing RM36.99, RM22.99, RM16.85 and
RM8.25 from an online shop and the postage is RM10.90. Round these
prices to the nearest RM and estimate for the total cost.
A group of 480 adults were asked to provide reasons why they decided
to enrol as OUM learners. Of the 480 learners, 240 learners justified they
want to enhance their career, 160 signed up with OUM due to its
flexibility and 80 enrolled because of the affordable fees offered.
Calculate the percentage for each group.
3.3.4 Interpreting Statistical Information

In everyday life, data and statistics are presented in the news and media on various
topics, such as in health, education, economics, politics, environmental issues
and many more. Interpreting the statistical information including charts and
infographics allows us to make conclusions and decisions. Consider this situation,
you want to buy a can of drink. You can read on the food label that provides the
data on the content of the drink. You can see the amount of calories, fats, sugar,
protein, etc. This information allows you to make an informed choice whether to
buy the drink.
Example 3.9
The following infographic shows the population of Malaysian citizens by ethnic
group for the year 2017 and 2018.
Source: https://www.dosm.gov.my

Calculate the population of Malaysian citizens in the year 2017 and 2018. Comment
on the difference.
Solution:
Based on the infographic,
The population of citizens for 2017 = Bumiputera + Chinese + Indian + Others

= 20.07 million + 6.67 million +
2.00 million + 0.29 million
= 28.74 million
The population of citizens for 2018 = Bumiputera + Chinese + Indian + Others

= 19.78 million + 6.69 million +
2.01 million + 0.29 million
= 28.77 million
The difference between 2018 and 2017 = 28.77 million ă 28.74 million
= 0.03 million
Thus, the population increased by 0.03 million in 2018 as compared to 2017.
3.3.5 Measurement
Measurement provides a standard for things and processes in everyday life. It is
essential in science and technical fields and to almost all everyday activities.
Calculations involving weight, height, area, volume, time are required in real life
contexts and enable us to work out accurate amounts. If we want to bake a cake,
we need to know how many grams of butter required in the recipe and definitely
we will use kitchen scale to measure it accurately. When we are monitoring our
body mass index (BMI), we need to measure our own body weight and height
using measurement tools accurately.

Example 3.11
Mary buys a reel of thread for sewing. There are 10 metres of thread on the reel.
She uses 210 centimetres. How much is left on the reel in centimetres?
Solution:
Use metric conversion 1 metre = 100 centimetres
Thus Total thread on the reel = 10  100 = 1000 centimetres.
Mary used 210 centimetres means we need to subtract 210 centimetres from
1000 centimetres.
Therefore the thread left on the reel = 1000 ă 210
= 790 centimetres.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Waist circumference is an indicator of health risk associated with excess

body fat around the waist. Let us measure our waist circumference using
this simple steps:
(a) Find the top of your hip bone and the bottom of your ribs.
(b) Place the tape measure midway between these points and wrap it
around your waist.
(c) Check your measurement.
Your health is at risk if your waist size is:

Men Over 94cm (about 37 inches)
Women Over 80cm (about 31.5 inches)
Source: https://www.heartfoundation.org

3.3.6 Multiples, Factors and Primes

Understanding multiples and factors help us to easily navigate number
relationships in the real world without relying on our calculator or phone to do
the work for us. We can apply multiples of 10, 20 and 50 when counting coins,
calculating area of a space and compute the compound interest on the principal
amount of a loan. We can use also factors in travelling by calculating how many
hours it would take to get to the destination.
A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 whose only factors are 1 and
itself. It is considered as the building block of the number system. In real life
application, it is often used to encrypt information via communication networks
by mobile, to encode information that is sent wirelessly when making transactions
on our credit cards, debit cards, computers and many more.
Example 3.12
Florence the florist has 24 white, 42 red and 36 yellow roses. What is the greatest
number of identical bunches she can make that uses all of the flowers?
Solution:
We use the greatest common factor to find the identical bunches.
The greatest common factor (GCF) is the greatest factor that divides two numbers.
To find the GCF of three numbers:
(a) List the prime factors of each number
(b) Multiply those factors that all numbers have in common. If there are no
common prime factors, the GCF is 1.
Prime factorisation of 24 : 2  2  2  3
Prime factorisation of 36 : 2  2  3  3
Prime factorisation of 42 : 2  3  7
The prime factors common to 24, 36 and 42 are 2 and 3.

We multiply the numbers : 2  3 = 6
The greatest number = 6
Therefore, Florence can make 6 identical bunches by using all the flowers.

SELF-CHECK 3.5
1. Assume that the full marks of a mathematics test is 80 marks, and

learners need to achieve at least 45 per cent to pass. How many
marks guarantee a passing grade?
2. Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat based on body

mass and body height that applies to adult men and women. It is
calculated by dividing the body mass with the square of the body
weight. AlinaÊs weight is 65kg and her height is 146cm. Calculate
her body mass index (BMI) and state whether AlinaÊs BMI is in
healthy range or not? Given that the healthy range is between
18.5kg/m2 ă 24.9kg/m2.
3. If you travel 720km on a vacation, you need to know how many

hours you must drive to plan your trip. At an average speed of
120km/h, how many hours would it take to arrive at your
destination?
4. The following figure shows the nutrition label of a packed food.

Based on this, how would you help your friend with high blood
pressure? How can your friend use this information to make
healthy and appropriate food choices?
5. A cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption

in cryptography. Given the following simple substitution cipher of
26 letters:
plain alphabet : abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
cipher alphabet : phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb
Find the encryption of cipher text: epxxw nipkfafm

 Numeracy is defined as the ability to understand and work with numbers.
 Innumeracy is defined as a lack of ability to understand and use numbers in

calculations.
 Being numerate allows us to function responsibly in everyday life and

contribute effectively to society.
 The fundamental aspects of numeracy are mathematical reasoning, problem

solving and decision making.
 Inductive reasoning involves looking for patterns and making generalisations.
 Deductive reasoning involves making a logical argument, drawing

conclusions, and applying generalisations to specific situations.
 The four stages in PolyaÊs problem solving: understanding problem, devise a

plan, execute plan and look back.
 There are seven main processes involved in decision making.
 Several daily life practices involves numbers and operations, patterns, fraction
and decimal numbers, measurement and multiple factors and primes.
Decision making Measurement
Deductive reasoning Numeracy
Inductive reasoning Numerate
Innumeracy Patterns and relationship
Mathematical reasoning Problem solving

Brooks, M; Pui (2010). Are individual differences in numeracy unique from general
mental ability? A closer look at a common measure of numeracy. Individual
Differences Research. 4. 8: 257ă265.
Current Population Estimates, Malaysia, 2017ă2018 (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.dosm.gov.my
INNUMERACY | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved

from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/innumeracy
National Numeracy. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.nationalnumeracy.org.uk/
Numeracy | definition of numeracy in Engish by Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.).
Paulos, John Allen. Innumeracy: Mathematical illiteracy and its consequences.

Hill and Wang. p. 4. ISBN 0-8090-7447-8.
Rachel, S., & Graham, G. (2013). Teaching adult numeracy: Principles and
practice. Maidenhead, Berkshire: McGraw-Hill Education.
Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/numeracy
Statistics Canada. Building on our competencies: Canadian results of the

international adult literacy and skills survey. Statistics Canada. p. 209.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27.
Succeed with maths ă Part 1. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/succeed-
maths-part-1/content-section-overview
The Importance of Literacy and Numeracy Skills. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.kangan.edu.au/students/blog/importance-literacy-and-
numeracy-skills
The importance of numeracy and mathematics. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://education.gov.scot/parentzone/Documents/ImportanceNumMat
hs.pdf

Topic  Digital Literacy
4
nanthakumar@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the meaning of digital literacy and how you may develop
your digital proficiency;
2. Explain the proficiencies that form digital literacy; and
3. Adopt and apply all the best practices and expectations highlighted
in each of the proficiencies.
 INTRODUCTION
Computing and communication technologies are now becoming an
increasingly important part of our daily life. This has created a digital
world where all are available at the touch of a screen. As a student, are
you confident enough to deal with digital technologies in your
learning? As a student, how would you enhance your proficiency to use the
digital technologies in an effective manner?
With the advancement of computing and communication technologies, things

around us continue to get faster, smarter, more connected, and increasingly digital
regardless of the functional fields (i.e. business, education, entertainment, etc). The
following video demonstrates on how technology has impacted our life (scan the
QR code below through your phone OR just click the hyperlink).

62  TOPIC 4 DIGITAL LITERACY
https://youtu.be/E_2pVrl87Nc
You need to have a good digital literacy or proficiency level in order to survive in
this digital world as depicted in the following video.
https://youtu.be/p2k3C-iB88w
 The term „digital literacy‰ was first introduced by Paul Gilster, way back
in 1997. Gilster has defined digital literary as „ability to understand and
use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it
is presented via computers‰ (Gilster 1997).
 Recent definitions on „digital literacy‰ may have some variations as

compared to the above definition. For example, Cornell University
defines digital literacy as „the ability to find, evaluate, utilise, share,
and create content using information technologies and the Internet.‰
(https://digitalliteracy.cornell.edu/).
There are various definitions on digital literacy. Interestingly, all these definitions
put emphasis on computing and ICT (including Internet) components which are
the backbones of digital literacy. Digital literacy, by these definitions, encompasses
a wide range of skills. All these skills are important and necessary to succeed in
this digital world. Learners who lack the skills of digital literacy are at a
disadvantage as those who cannot write or read. You, as a student, have already
use digital technologies such as computers, tablets and smartphones. In fact, many
of you already know how to navigate and search information on the web and share
images on Facebook (which is a social media platform).

TOPIC 4 DIGITAL LITERACY  63
Remember that true digital literacy goes beyond these fundamental skills. It
is interesting to note that the term „literacy‰ is about development. Thus,
understanding digital literacy from this perspective is important as proposed by
Beetham and SharpeÊs (2010) in their digital literacy development framework. This
framework describes digital literacy as a „development process from access and
functional skills to higher level capabilities and identity‰.
Figure 4.1: Digital Literacy Development Framework by Beetham and Sharpe (2010)
This framework has four levels in which the lower portion of the hierarchy must
be satisfied before individuals can attend to the higher up needs. Thus, as a
student, you must develop from the base of the pyramid to its peak. In fact, you
may treat this development model as MaslowÊs „Hierarchy of Needs‰.

Digital literacy are the capabilities required in order to be a responsible and an

effective participant in a digital society. However, digital literacy is not a stand-
alone proficiency, but in fact it consists of multiple set of proficiencies as listed
below (Llida review, 2009).
(a) ICT Literacy (which include Computer Literacy)
(b) Information Literacy
(c) Technology-enhanced Learning (i.e. Digital Learning/E-Learning)
(d) Media Literacy
All of the above proficiencies will help you to reach the upper portion of the digital
literacy development framework (refer to Figure 4.1).
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. State the meaning of Digital Literacy.
2. What are the components that form Digital Literacy?
3. Explain all the levels indicated in the digital literacy development

framework by Beetham and Sharpe (2010).
Now let us go through each of these proficiencies in more detail.
4.1 ICT LITERACY

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a familiar term to you. ICT
represents the collection of activities and technologies that fall into the IT and
communication technologies combined (ets.org). Hardware, software, data and
the people who use them collectively lead to ICTÊs system set-up. It typically
includes communications technology such as the Internet. But you must remember
that computers and ICT are not the same thing. Computers are the hardware that
is often part of an ICT system.

Many people have the misconception that computer literacy and ICT
literacy are the same. Actually, computer literacy refers to a person's
ability to use information technology devices and software. On the other
hand, information literacy refers to a person's ability to find and critically
evaluate resources to find quality information. Thus, computer literacy is a
subset of ICT proficiency (Bruce, 1998).
Figure 4.2: The components of a computer
You may refer to https://view.genial.ly/5c19d9c407be570d177a727e for the

explanation on these components
By the way, do you think that your knowledge on how a computer works is
enough for your ICT Literacy?

Now, let us focus on the definition of ICT Literacy.
ICT literacy is using digital technology, communications tools, and/or

networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information in
order to function in a knowledge society (International ICT Literacy Panel,
2007).
The need to acquire information through the application of technology and

advantageous use of information through the use of technology have given birth
to the concept of ICT literacy. The use of Internet and its applications such as
e-mail and the World Wide Web (WWW) especially for information retrieval
and dissemination is now considered to be components of ICT literacy (Oliver &
Towers, 2000). Accessing, managing, integrating, evaluating and creating
information in the context of technology are the FIVE main components that can
be seen in the ICT literacy definition above. These components are essential for us
to function effectively in a knowledge society (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: The FIVE components of ICT literacy in a knowledge society

Source: Digital Transformation: A Framework for ICT Literacy, A Report of the
International ICT Literacy Panel
These FIVE components represent a range of skills and knowledge. These

components are presented in a sequence with increasing cognitive complexity.
These FIVE components are explained below.
(a) Access ă knowing about and knowing how to retrieve and/or collect
information.
(b) Manage ă applying an existing organisational or classification scheme.
(c) Integrate ă interpreting and representing information. This may involve

comparing, summarizing and contrasting.

(d) Evaluate ă making judgments about the quality, usefulness, relevance, or

efficiency of information.
(e) Create ă generating information by adapting, designing, applying,

inventing, or even authoring information.
The components shown in Figure 4.3 are the foundational tasks that will lead to
ICT literacy. The International ICT Literacy Panel has further expanded this model
to more fully represent the complexity of ICT literacy as shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 depicts the basic set of skills and knowledge that form the basis of ICT
literacy: ICT, cognitive and technical proficiencies.
Figure 4.4: The basic set of skills and knowledge that form the basis of ICT literacy
Source: Digital Transformation A Framework for ICT Literacy, A Report of the
International ICT Literacy Panel
These THREE proficiencies are explained below.
(a) Cognitive Proficiency ă the foundational skills required at school, at home,

and at work. Problem solving and numeracy are examples of cognitive
proficiency. As a student enrolled in higher education, you need to have a
good grasp of knowledge in your field of study which is also considered as
cognitive proficiency.
(b) Technical Proficiency ă the foundational element of digital literacy. It

encompasses basic knowledge of hardware, networks, applications software,
and other components of computing. As a student, you need to have at least
the following computer proficiencies.

1. Basic skills to operate a computer. You may refer to the link below
for more information on computer:
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Computers_for_Beginners/The_B
asics
2. Good proficiency on the following application software:
*Software
Purpose Resource
Type
Microsoft This a word https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/
Word processing Computers_for_Beginners/The_Basics
program that
users can type
with. It allows
users to type,
edit and save
documents.
Microsoft This software is https://www.tutorialspoint.com/
PowerPoint used to create powerpoint
presentation
files.
Microsoft It allows users https://www.tutorialspoint.com/
Excel to organise, excel/
format and
calculate data
with formulas
using a
spreadsheet
system.
*You may use any other suitable applications besides the above. There are
many open source applications that can perform the above tasks. The
choice is yours!
(c) ICT Proficiency ă the application and integration of technical and cognitive
skills will lead to ICT proficiencies. ICT proficiencies can be considered as
enablers that allow individuals to maximise the capabilities of technology.

ICT proficiencies will result in individual transformation and innovation. This

approach to ICT literacy includes both cognitive and technical proficiencies. For
example, in order to successfully perform an ICT task such as searching the
Internet to find and compare best management practices, an individual must apply
reading and critical skills (cognitive) and be able to access information on the
Internet using a search engine such as Google which include knowing on how
to operate the computer (technical). Cognitive and technical proficiencies are
considered as distinct domains although both are important components of ICT
literacy. Both proficiencies are independent domains in which the associated
knowledge and skills act together to influence ICT literacy.
We may expect that individuals with low cognitive proficiency but with high
technical proficiency would be able to perform particular technical tasks in which
they had been trained. However, they would probably not possess the kind of
generalisable skills or knowledge that could help them work with new
applications or perform novel tasks and they would most likely not be able to
acquire such skills independently.
On the other hand, people with high cognitive proficiency but low technical
proficiency would require technical training in order to develop ICT proficiency
but would be expected to do so and once engaged with ICT would be able to
acquire new skills and knowledge in a rather short time and independently.
Are you confused? DonÊt worry. Information about ICT literacy and the five
components of ICT literacy described earlier is given in the following video with
examples.
https://youtu.be/Io2A6dVsHVQ

SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. State the definition of ICT Literacy.
2. What are the FIVE components of the ICT Literacy?
3. Differentiate the following: cognitive, technical and ICT

proficiencies. How these proficiencies are related to ICT literacy?
ACTIVITY 4.1
Some of the figures in this chapter have QR codes that enable you to
watch the videos or to view the external resources directly from your
phone. If you are yet to experience this, then please explore on how you
can use it through your phone. Remember that this will contribute to
your technical proficiency of the ICT Literacy.
4.2 INFORMATION LITERACY

„Information‰ is the result of data that has been given a meaning. New Oxford
American Dictionary defines information as „facts provided or learned about
something or someone‰. According to Li (2014):
(a) Information has a broad domain: the scope of information is very broad.
Information can have different meanings in different scopes; and
(b) Information exists in many different forms: information can be represented

as codes, colours, events, facts, graphs, images, letters, lights, numbers,
pictures, signs, signals, sounds, statistics, tables, texts, waves, and so on.
Information is essential to our experience of the world. It also shapes our personal
beliefs and opinions. Information can be seen from different perspectives, such as:
(a) Information as useful data;
(b) Information as subjective knowledge;
(c) Information as a resource; and
(d) Information as a commodity.

Why Information Literacy is Important for You as a Learner?

Consider this scenario: Doing research and additional reading are fundamental in
a universityÊs learning environment. One of the first challenges facing students at
the university is where to find the articles or books they need. The ability to do an
article or book search is an information literacy skill essential to surviving in
academic activities. Of course, you already know the answer: make use of the
university library! But wait, there are a number of other questions that need
addressing here:
(a) Which tools should you use to discover whether the library has the articles
or books that you need?
(b) Do you know the methods that you can use to search for the articles?
(c) What would be your options if the library does not have the articles or books
that you are looking for?
If you have no clue or answers for the above questions, then you really have to
improve your information literacy level. Information Literacy is a type of fluency
that you need to master ă not only by the student but everyone. The Presidential
Committee of the American Library Association (ALA; http://www.ala.org/)
pointed out that „Information Literacy is a survival skill in the Information Age‰
(ALA, 1989). This shows the importance of information literacy in this 21st century.
Now let us see the definition of information literacy.
ALA defines information literacy as „a set of abilities requiring individuals to

recognise when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate,
and use effectively the needed information‰ (ALA, 1989).
Information literacy relates to information not just print, but also spoken word,
digital content, images and data. Information Literacy may be deployed in
everyday life without you knowing that you are making use of it ă for instance, by
checking hotel reviews or travel review websites.
FIVE main action components of information literacy are identify, find, evaluate,
apply, and acknowledge. The following video elaborates more on these
components with examples.
https://youtu.be/1ronp6Iue9w

Information literacy is much more than discovering, accessing, interpreting,

analysing, managing, creating, communicating, storing and sharing information.
In fact, it concerns the application of the competencies, attributes and confidence
that are needed to make the best use of information and to interpret it thoughtfully.
It has critical thinking and awareness, as well as an understanding of both the
ethical and political issues associated with using information.
Information literacy forms the basis for lifelong learning. It enables learners to
master content, become more self-directed, and takes greater control over their
own learning. Information literacy is also related to information technology skills.
Information technology skills enable an individual to use computers, applications
software, databases, and other technologies to achieve a wide variety of academic,
work-related, and personal goals. It is interesting to note that information literate
individuals tend to develop some technological skills. This is because information
literacy activities such as understanding, finding, evaluating, and using
information may be accomplished effectively through information technology
tools or applications. Information literacy initiates, sustains, and extends lifelong
learning through abilities which may use technologies but are ultimately
independent of them.
4.2.1 Information Literacy Framework

In this 21st century, your level of information literacy will need to increase.
Whether at work, in university, or at home, there is an ever growing demand for
you to do the following:
(a) Determine the extent of information needed;
(b) Evaluate critically the information and its sources;
(c) Access the needed information efficiently and effectively;
(d) Incorporate the selected type of information in your knowledge base;
(e) Use the information effectively in order to accomplish a specific task or

purpose; and
(f) Use information ethically and legally; and at the same time understand the
economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use and access of
information.

Figure 4.5: The Internet through web is full of information.
However, merely using the Internet to access information does not make you an
information literate.
In higher education, information literacy is not just about learning how to search
for an information using search engine or search information in a library database.
In fact, the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, created by
the Association of College and Research Libraries in 2015, listed SIX frames that
act as gateway to understanding, thinking about and practicing information
literacy by students like you. These frames are the critical gateway through which
students like you must use to develop genuine expertise within a knowledge
domain or discipline. The SIX frames are listed below in alphabetical order:
(a) Authority is constructed and contextual;
(b) Information creation as a process;
(c) Information has value;
(d) Research as inquiry;
(e) Scholarship as conversation; and
(f) Searching as strategic exploration.

Each of these concepts is explained clearly in the following video.
https://youtu.be/hbe6xBibOL4
Each frame has TWO sections, namely knowledge practices and dispositions.
Knowledge practices demonstrates on how learners can increase their
understanding of these information literacy concepts. On the other hand,
dispositions address the affective or valuing dimension of learning. The following
web resource highlights the knowledge practices and dispositions for each of the
frames.
https://view.genial.ly/5bd9148f621f1111d30d1c06
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. State the definition of Information Literacy.
2. Explain all the FIVE components of the Information Literacy.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Identify all the SIX frames of the Information Literacy Framework.
As a student, explain how would you implement all these frames

effectively in your studies by considering the knowledge practices and
dispositions of the frames.

We have covered the substantial concepts on digital literacy, ICT

literacy and information literacy thus far. You deserve a break now
before proceeding to the next sections!!
4.3 TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED LEARNING
Figure 4.6: Modern verses older classrooms. Observe the differences
The 21st century education is all about application of technology in teaching and
learning. The influence of technology on teaching and learning is remarkable (just
observe around you!). The video below highlights how technology has shaped
teaching and learning.
https://youtu.be/nA1Aqp0sPQo
Nowadays, many lessons are delivered in digital format including the online
learning via Web/Internet. You, as a learner at Open University Malaysia that uses
technology heavily in teaching and learning, need to have confidence and
motivation in order to engage in online learning or online classroom.

The term Technology-enhanced Learning (TEL) or also known as digital

learning is used to describe the application of information and communication
technologies in teaching and learning environments.
TEL is often used as a synonym for e-learning or digital learning. When TEL is
applied in web environment, then it becomes online learning. Technology
enhanced learning can provide learning opportunities that are unconstrained by
time or location, support wider and more relevant learning experiences and
provide opportunities for students to take greater control of their own learning.
Nowadays, TEL is delivered primarily as online learning. The use of technology
can add value to your learning by enabling:
(a) Connectivity to information and to others;
(b) Access to learning resources anytime, anywhere and anyhow;
(c) Greater choice over the time, place and pace of study;
(d) Alternative modes of study: distance, blended work-based, partially or

wholly campus-based;
(e) Knowledge-sharing and co-authoring across multiple locations;
(f) Opportunities for reflection and planning in personal learning spaces;
(g) More active learning by means of interactive technologies and multimedia

resources;
(h) Participation in communities of knowledge, inquiry and learning; and
(i) Development of skills for living and working in a digital age.

Figure 4.7 shows how some of the ever growing learning technologies that can
support the various aspects of learning, teaching and assessment via TEL. As a
student at Open University Malaysia (OUM), you will soon start using or applying
some of these tools.
Figure 4.7: Ever growing learning technologies that support the various aspects of
learning
Source: https://tel4dt.wordpress.com/2011/11/02/what-is-tel

You must strive to become an effective digitally capable learner or e-learner at

OUM. This capability will enable you to the do the following at ease:
(a) Participate in digital learning such as weekly e-lessons;
(b) Use digital learning resources, such as video lectures and online quiz;
(c) Use digital media to take part in learning conversations with tutors and your
coursemates;
(d) Use digital tools to organise, plan and reflect on learning;
(e) Record learning events/outcomes and use them for self-analysis, reflection
and showcasing of achievement through e-portfolio or learning blog;
(f) Use digital tools to take notes, review and revise learning;
(g) Undertake self-assessment;
(h) Submit your assignment though electronic submission via myINSPIRE LMS;
(i) Participate in other forms of digital assessment; receive and respond to such
as live forum;
(j) Manage learning time and tasks; manage attention, engagement and
motivation to learn in digital settings;
(k) Work collaboratively with other learners by using digital technologies where
appropriate; and
(l) Share digital know-how and expertise with others.

Technology-enhanced Learning is very much related to ICT literacy.

Do you know why? Refer to Figure 4.4 for the clue. You have learnt
that ICT literacy is influenced by cognitive, technical and ICT
proficiencies. You need to have a good technical proficiency such as
using the computer and the learning applications. You may use this
technical proficiency to enhance your cognitive proficiency. For example, you
may use the forum system to ask questions in order to clear your doubts or to
gain understanding on the subject matter. If you already have a good cognitive
proficiency on certain concepts of the subject matter, then you may help your
coursemates by engaging in the discussion. You may create „community of
inquiry‰ or „community of practice‰ in order to raise cognitive proficiency of
yours or your coursemates.
4.3.1 Tools Used in TEL Environment in the Context

of OUM
The following are the main tools used at OUM to support the online learning
component.
Learning Management System (LMS)

A learning management system (LMS) is an application software for the
administration, documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of educational
courses. LMS can be considered as a container that holds all teaching and learning
tools together. At OUM, myINSPIRE LMS (Figure 4.8) which is an enhanced
version of the open source Moodle LMS is used to support your digital learning
experience. The general structure of myINSPIREÊs course page is shown in
Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.8: Homepage of OUMÊs myINSPIRE LMS (inspire.oum.edu.my)
Figure 4.9: The structure of myINSPIREÂs course page

The benefits provided by myINSPIRE LMS are highlighted in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10: Benefits of using myINSPIRE
Detail manual on myINSPIRE is available on myINSPIREÊs main page (i.e.

dashboard).

Forum
Forum is an online discussion board where people can hold conversations in the
form of posted messages. A discussion forum is hierarchical or tree-like in
structure: a forum can contain a number of subforums, each of which may have
several topics. Within a forumÊs topic, each new discussion created or started is
called a thread, and can be replied to by many people. Forum is in the
asynchronous format (not real time), meaning it enables users to review and
participate in discussions with others at times convenient to them. OUMÊs
myINSPIRE has its own forum system that you can use to interact with your
coursemates and online tutor.
Figure 4.11: Forum system in OUMÊs myINSPIRE LMS

e-book
An electronic book (or e-book or eBook) is a book publication made available in
digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display
of computers or other electronic devices such as iPad or tablets. At OUM, e-book
is provided in the form of e-module through portable document format (pdf )
and accessible from various devices. The e-module can be viewed online or
downloaded into your device for offline viewing and printing.
Figure 4.12: e-module is accessible and downloadable from myINSPIRE LMS

Video Lectures
A video lecture is a recorded educational lecture posted in the course page of
myINSPIRE. Students may view the lecture online at a time which is convenient
for them.
Figure 4.13: Video lecture delivered via OUMÊs myINSPIRE LMS
4.3.2 Mobile Learning
Figure 4.14: Mobile learning has now become an important element in higher education

The terms „M-Learning‰ and „Mobile Learning‰ are usually used to refer to
teaching and learning with mobile technologies. Lately it has gained prominence
in the teaching and learning at the higher education.
OÊMalley et al. (2003) defined mobile learning as learning that take place when
the learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location, or when the learner takes
advantage of the learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies.
The „mobile‰ in „mobile learning‰ has two meanings:
(a) Learner mobility: learners are able to engage in educational activities without
the constraints of having to do so in a tightly delimited physical location.
It requires nothing more than the motivation to do so wherever the
opportunity arises ă from books, electronic resources, places and people; and
(b) Mobile devices: portable, lightweight devices that are sometimes small
enough to fit in a pocket or in the palm of oneÊs hand. Typical examples are
mobile phones, smartphones (like the iPhone), palmtops, and handheld
computers like the iPad or PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants).
The following factors have contributed to the effectiveness of mobile learning:
(a) Convenience ă all the required learning is at your fingertips;
(b) Duration ă short and concise courses that allows for broader participation;
(c) Focus ă courses are designed based on learning outcomes or course

objectives;
(d) Microlearning ă brief focused learning can be created easily; and
(e) Contents ă contents are engaging and interactive.

Mobile Learning via myINSPIRE

Mobile learning via myINSPIRE is supported through mobile website using the
Internet browser in your mobile phone (such as Chrome, Mozilla) as shown in
figure below.
Figure 4.15: myINSPIRE viewed from the phoneÊs mobile browser
Alternatively, you may download myINSPIREÊs mobile app (powered by Moodle)

from Play Store (Android phones) or App Store (iPhones) and install it in your
phone. The link to install this app is provided in the myINSPIRE main page.

Figure 4.16: myINSPIRE mobile app that supports both iOS and Android platforms
Mobile learning via myINSPIRE supports the „learner mobility‰ through the
learnersÊ mobile devices.

SELF-CHECK 4.4
1. Explain the meaning of Technology-enhanced Learning (TEL).
2. Explain how TEL would enhance your learning.
3. What would be the effect on digital learning experience if a learner

has:
(a) Low level of technical and cognitive proficiencies
(b) Low level of technical proficiency but high level of cognitive

proficiency
What initiatives can be taken by the learner to overcome the

problems/issues identified in the above scenarios.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Visit myINSPIRE LMS (inspire.oum.edu.my). Access one of the course

pages of your registered subject. Discuss how you would utilise
myINSPIRE to maximise your online learning.
4.4 MEDIA LITERACY
Figure 4.17: Media comes in various formats

Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education. It provides a framework

to access, analyse, evaluate, create and participate with messages in a variety of
forms ă from print to video to the Internet. The influence of media should not be
underestimated. We spend hours surfing the Internet, watching videos, listening
to the radio, and attending movies, and the mediaÊs effect becomes clear.
Media Literacy is defined as the ability to access, analyse, evaluate and create
media in a variety of forms (https://www.medialit.org/media-literacy-
definition-and-more).
European Commission (2007) defined media literacy as the ability to
access the media, to understand and to critically evaluate different
aspects of the media and media contents and to create communications
in a variety of contexts
(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0833&from=EN).
Regardless of the various definitions above, the goal of media literacy is to increase
awareness of many forms of media messages that we encounter in life. It should
help us recognise how the media filter our perceptions and beliefs, shape the
popular culture and influence personal choices. We need to provide critical
thinking skills and creative problem solving to become reasonable users and
information producers. Media literacy helps in:
(a) Promoting critical thinking;
(b) Understanding how media content affects culture and society;
(c) Identifying communication strategies;
(d) Recognition of the purpose of the creator of the media content;
(e) Recognition of misinformation and manipulation; and
(f) Creating and sharing your own media content.
There are FOUR important skills that help the viewer or reader to understand the
meaning of media literacy:
(a) Accessing media;
(b) Analyzing content;
(c) Being able to evaluate messages; and
(d) Being able to create media for self-expression and communication.

Media literacy typically lends itself to a deeper meaning and analysis of the work,
not necessarily just a direct understanding of fact represented in the work. Media
Literacy is the ability to access, analyse, evaluate and create media in a variety of
forms. Why media literacy is important? Watch the following video for the answer.
https://youtu.be/ZaMzYDe0taY
Media for Learning and in Classroom

We learn by doing. There are rich variety of media that allows you to understand
and express ideas regardless of the field of your study. Movies, radio, Internet,
photography, print, and all the other communication forms are available to us not
only as sources of information and pleasure, but as tools that can be used to
produce creative and innovative educational solutions. For example, you may use
your handphone to record your own presentation and upload it into myINSPIRE
LMS for the online tutor to view and eventually for grading.
The classroom (be it physical or online) is a place where active production in all
media is a natural way to learn. It is a place where learners solve problems, not
only through reading and writing, but also through producing media contents
through digital means. The world that we live in requires new competence in old
communication skills, as well as in merging various media.
SELF-CHECK 4.5
1. Explain the meaning of media literacy.
2. Discuss the importance of media literacy.
3. Nowadays, social media are flooded with „fake news‰. What are
the reasons for this and how could we minimise this phenomena?

ACTIVITY 4.4
Record yourself giving talk of no more than 3 minutes in length about

the importance of „media literacy‰. You may use any devices to record
your talk, namely phone, desktop or laptop. Share your video with your
coursemates in myINSPIRE.
ACTIVITY 4.5
You have learned all the proficiencies of digital literacy, namely ICT,
information, digital learning and media proficiencies. With all these
knowledge that you have gained, explain how you would achieve
the higher levels of digital literacy development framework (refer to
Figure 4.1)?
 Computing and communication technologies are now becoming an

increasingly important part of our daily life.
 This has created a digital world where all are available at the touch of a screen.
 The digital world has created the necessity for digital literacy.
 Digital literacy encompasses ICT literacy, information literacy, media literacy

and digital learning or technology-enhanced learning.
 Each of these proficiencies has its own requirements and expectations and you
as a learner must understand and adopt its best practices.

Digital Literacy Media Literacy

Digital Literacy Development Framework Mobile Learning
ICT Literacy Technology-enhanced Learning
Information Literacy
American Library Association. Presidential Committee on Information Literacy.

Final Report. (Chicago: American Library Association, 1989.)
Association of College and Research Libraries http://www.ala.org/acrl/
Beetham, H., & Sharpe, R. 2010. Digital literacy framework. JISC ă The Design
Studio. Retrieved from
http://jiscdesignstudio.pbworks.com/w/page/46740204/Digital%20litera
cy%20framework
Bruce, C. (1998). The phenomenon of information literacy. Higher Education and

Development, 17, 25ă43.
Gilster, P. (1997). Digital literacy. New York: Wiley Computer Publications.

Jenkins, H. (1992), Textual poachers: Television fans and participatory
culture. New York: Routledge.
Information Literacy is a survival skill in the Information Age. (ALA, 1989:

http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/presidential
International ICT Literacy Panel. (2007).

https://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/Information_and_Communication_Te
chnology_Literacy/ictreport.pdf)

Li, LiLi. (2014). Scholarly Information Discovery in the Networked Academic

Learning Environment. Chandos Publishing.
Llida Review. (2009). Thriving in the 21st century: Learning Literacies for the
Digital Age. The Caledonian Academy, Glasgow Caledonian University for
JISC.
http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/projects/llidaexecsumjune2009.
pdf
Oliver, R., & Towers, S. (2000). Benchmarking ICT literacy in tertiary learning
settings. In R. Sims, M. OÊReilly & S. Sawkins (Eds). Learning to choose:
Choosing to learn. Proceedings of the 17th Annual ASCILITE Conference
(pp 381ă390). Lismore, NSW: Southern Cross University Press.
OÊMalley, C., Vavoula, G., Glew, J. P., Taylor, J., & Sharples, M. (2005). Guidelines
for Learning/Teaching/Tutoring in a Mobile Environment.

Topic  Creativity and
Innovation
5 Majumin Hanum Abdul Samad
majmin@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the meaning of creativity, innovation and design thinking;
2. Describe the relationship between creativity and innovation with
learning;
3. Explain design thinking as a strategy for innovation; and
4. Adopt and apply tools for creativity and innovation.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic provides an introduction to creativity, innovation and design thinking.
We will learn the meaning of these words in the context of this module, how they
fit together, and introduce some useful approaches and tools relevant for the
subjects.
Do you know that educators today consider creativity as among the highest form
of learning? Creativity has moved up in the world. Psychologists consider it
among the highest forms of self actualisation. Business executives consider it
among the most critical characteristics of modern leadership. And most
importantly, creativity is one of the 4CÊs (collaboration, communication, creativity
and critical thinking) of the 21st century survival skills. It is now more important
than ever that we start cultivating creative thinking among our learners, our
employees, our families, our societies and of course ourselves.

TOPIC 5 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION  95
Figure 5.1: 21st Century worker: Everyday innovators everywhere

Source: https://www.inovis.cc/innovation/68-creativity-design-and-design-thinking
Today creative thinking is becoming a necessity in every job. A recent study from
Oxford university economists Dr Carl Frey and Dr Michael Osborne (2015),
predicted the future impact of technology on nearly seven hundred jobs. The
analysis showed that computers will be taking over any job that does not require
a personal touch. This means just to hold a job, everyone will rely on their creative
intelligence ă their ability to think flexibly and deliver solutions outside of
standard operating procedures.
A new study from Adobe (2018) also showed that, compared to other job skills,
problem solving and creativity have gained the most value in driving salary
increases in the last five years.
Why do we as OUM learners need to be aware of all this information? This is

because we want to ensure that all our learners are prepared to thrive and succeed
in this competitive world ă a world where boundless opportunities await the
highly skilled individuals. ThatÊs YOU, OUM graduates of the future!
The good news for us is that since its inception as an instructional paradigm,
distance learning institutions like OUM has been characterised by creativity on the
part of the educators and administrators who strive to provide creative and
innovative learning experiences for their learners. At OUM, myINSPIRE LMS is
an example that technology can be influential in developing creativity amongst
learners and educators.

96  TOPIC 5 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Before we proceed any further, let us just take a brief look at what creativity,
innovation and design thinking are all about. In a nutshell, creativity is related to
„imagination‰ and innovation is related to „implementation‰. You can also say
that creativity is the ability to produce and innovation is the introduction of new
things.
How about Design Thinking? Have you heard about this term before? Chances are
most of you have not heard about it. If you have, kudos to you, meaning youÊve
been keeping abreast with the latest technology and thinking skills. In short,
Design Thinking is a solutions-based process that uses creativity to solve complex
or poorly-defined problems, validated by real-world learning.
Still confused? Need more clarity? Another take of these concepts as shown in the
box below.
Creativity, Innovation and Design Thinking ⁄ at a GLANCE.
(a) Creativity is the spirit, the attitude and bravery to try something new, to
be open to the unexpected.
(b) Innovation is the implementation of something new.
(c) Design thinking is the „how to‰, the approach, the mindset and
behaviours on the way.
We will delve deeper into each of these fascinating concepts in the subsequent sub
topics. But before that, let me entice you with a few quotes about the importance
of creativity as a 21st century skill. A lot of inspiring quotes, short stories from
artists, philosophers, scholars etc are shared throughout this topic to promote new
ways of thinking about creativity and innovation among us the learners of OUM.
President Obama has also recognised the critical need to measure twenty-first
century skills, calling on the nationÊs governors to: ... develop standards and
assessments that donÊt simply measure whether students can fill in a bubble on
a test, but whether they possess 21st century skills like problem-solving and
critical thinking and entrepreneurship and creativity.
(Obama, 2009)
Source: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/obamas-remarks-on-education/

Ensuring that all people have a solid foundation of knowledge and skills must
therefore be the central aim of the post 2015 education agenda. This is not
primarily about providing more people with more years of schooling; in fact,
thatÊs only the first step. It is most critically about making sure that individuals
acquire a solid foundation of knowledge in key disciplines, that they develop
creative, critical thinking and collaborative skills, and that they build character
attributes, such as mindfulness, curiosity, courage and resilience.
(Andreas Schleicher and Qian Tang
Universal Basic Skills: What Countries Stand to Gain [2015, p. 9])
Source: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/universal-basic-
skills_5js32nmfrb8q.pdf)
You may also visit the link below to view a short video on Creativity in Education
(21st Century Education). You may scan the QR code below with your mobile
device OR just click at the hyperlink.
Creativity in Education (21st Century Education)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJkOZ1mdx2A
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. What do you understand by the statement „Creativity has moved
up in the world‰?
2. Explain briefly the difference between Creativity and Innovation.
3. What is Design Thinking?

5.1 THE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY AND

INNOVATION
Figure 5.2: Concept of creativity, innovation, vision, creative process

Source: https://stock.adobe.com/images/concept-of-creativity-innovation-vision-
creative-process/120500947
The concept of creativity has always formed an important part of various

disciplines, with a strong root in the arts and psychology. In the early 20th century,
creativity was considered to be an inborn talent or an exclusive quality that only
certain people are lucky enough to possess it. Back then, creativity is generally
assumed to be associated with the arts. Today, creativity is no longer confined to
the world of arts and has since expanded to include science, technology and other
disciplines.

„Innovation is everywhere‰ ă is a modern day mantra! Indeed, innovation is

happening everywhere. It plays a significant role in many areas, especially in the
economic growth of the global economy today. Innovation is not a modern
concept, though, as the first recorded use of the word innovation was discovered
in the 1590s. Do you know that you could be in jail for being an innovator in those
days? The term Innovator was once considered as an insult! Thankfully, things
changed in the 19th Century with the industrial revolution and today, innovation
is often associated with enthusiasm and all things positive.
In the 21st century, both creativity and innovation are given prominence as a must
have skills of the future and fundamental to all academic disciplines and
educational activities.
The uncreative mind can spot wrong answers, but it takes a very creative mind
to spot wrong questions.
(Anthony Jay)
Source: http://creatingminds.org/quotes/being_uncreative.htm
If youÊre curious to know why the word Innovator was once considered as an
insult in the early days, check out the link below:
Meaning of Innovation ă A Timeline

https://www.wazoku.com/meaning-of-innovation-a-timeline/
Source: http://www.quotemaster.org/Creativity

Creative Differences
Ludwig van Beethoven is certainly one of the most creative composers who ever
lived with his most well-known creation, the Ninth Symphony. Another example
of creativity in action in recent years is Steve Jobs. Before his untimely demise in
2011, his passion for computers and connectivity led to the creation of Mac
computers and the iPhone. What about Marie Kondo? Have you heard about her?
She is the world-renowned tidying expert and famous for her KonMari Method
and „Spark Joy‰ catchphrase. She was selected as one of the Most Creative People
in Business for 2015!
These are three different individuals with three different types of creativity. You
might think before this, if youÊre creative in one area, youÊll be creative in all areas
too. However, thatÊs not how it works. According to Arne Dietrich, a professor of
cognitive neuroscience, in his research published in 2004 in Psychonomic Bulletin
& Review, he described four different types of creativity with corresponding
different brain activities. Think of it like a matrix (Figure 5.4).
Once you know about the „creativity matrix‰ as explained in detail in the
following Table 5.1, it will bring your understanding of the concept of creativity to
a whole new level. As such, please take your time to read and understand the
Creativity Matrix provided.
Figure 5.3: Three different individuals with three different types of creativity.
Source: https://media.wnyc.org/i/800/0/c/85/1/Ludwig_van_Beethoven-square.jpg
https://fineartamerica.com/art/drawings/steve+jobs
https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/422142165051113335

Types of Creativity
Why do you think it is important for us to know the different types of creativity as
identified by Dietrich? In order to foster creativity in all aspects of our daily life, it
is important for us to understand the different types of creativity.
According to Dietrich (2015), creativity can be either emotional, cognitive,

spontaneous or deliberate. Hence, he created 4 quadrants or matrix of creativity to
discuss the four types of creativity based on which part of the brain it comes from.
The visual representation of the matrix is shown in Figure 5.4 with corresponding
description for your easier understanding in Table 5.1
Figure 5.4: The creativity matrix

Source: https://www.robertplank.com/072-creativity/

Table 5.1: Description of Corresponding Creativity Matrix
Therapeutic Type of Creativity: Deliberate and Emotional Creativity

*AHA Deliberate and emotional creativity requires quiet time. This kind of
Moments creativity is related to taking control of your emotions ă even in stressful
situations.
Example:
Personal breakthrough/crisis (Eg: you had a relationship break-up) and
then had a flash of insight about yourself via *AHA moment, having to
do with feelings and emotions.
Brain Works: The cingulate cortex is the part of the brain that processes
complex feelings that are related to how you interact with others, and
your place in the world. And the cingulate cortex is connected to the
prefrontal cortex (PFC). These two brain areas are active with this type
of creativity.
In a nutshell: Set those things aside and allow yourself a block of time to
focus on the challenge.
*Discovery or sudden realisation of something.

Thomas Type of Creativity: Deliberate and Cognitive Creativity
Edison and Deliberate and cognitive creativity requires a high degree of knowledge
the Light and lots of time. The kind of creativity is related with working over a
Bulb long period of time in a specific discipline/task.
Example:
Thomas Edison is the first light bulb inventor in 1878. A feat he achieved
after numerous failures.
Brain Works: Creativity comes from the PFC in your brain. The PFC
allows you to do two things: pay focused attention and make connections
among information that you have stored in other parts of our brains.
In a nutshell: Spend focused time every day testing your knowledge by

running micro-tests to develop new solutions.

Artists and Type of Creativity: Spontaneous and Emotional Creativity

Musicians Spontaneous and emotional creativity cannot be designed. It is innate.
This creativity is the type related to great artists and musicians.
Example:
A creative and quite powerful moment such as an epiphany, religious
experience, great artists and musicians moment.
Brain Works: Spontaneous and emotional creativity come from the

amygdala in your brain. The amygdala is where emotions are processed.
When the conscious brain and the PFC are resting, then it is possible for
spontaneous ideas and creations to emerge.
In a nutshell: DonÊt be afraid to tap into your emotions and use passion
when working through a big challenge.
Isaac Type of Creativity: Spontaneous and Cognitive Creativity
Newton & Spontaneous and cognitive creativity requires you to stop thinking or
Gravity trying to solve problem, step away and do something else. This kind of
creativity does need an existing body of knowledge.
Example:
(1) The story about Isaac Newton thinking of gravity while watching a
falling apple.
(2) Imagine youÊre working on a problem or idea that you canÊt seem
to solve. Then you go to lunch and on the way back from lunch you
get a flash of insight about how to solve your problem.
Brain Works: Spontaneous and cognitive creativity involves the basal

ganglia of the brain. During this kind of creativity, the conscious brain
has stopped working on the problem, so the unconscious brain has had
a chance to work on it instead. By doing a different, unrelated activity,
the PFC is able to connect information in new ways via your unconscious
mental processing.
In a nutshell: Stuck on a problem? Opt for a short break or work on

something else.
Adapted from: https://www.mezmolife.com/2016/01/whats-your-creativity-type.html

Innovation
Innovation is everywhere and everyone can innovate. There are many innovations
in recent decades and in various areas (Eg. technology, education business etc) that
have brought significant changes to the modern world and make our lives so much
easier.
What is innovation then? WebsterÊs dictionary defines innovation as „the

introduction of something new‰ whereas Scott Berkun (2013) says „innovation is
significant positive change‰. Another definition of innovation worth sharing is
from Tim Kastelle (2012). According to him, innovation is „not just having an idea
ă but executing it so that it creates value‰.
Whichever definition you like best, it is important to remember that innovation

always requires a lot of hard work and dedication. Persistence, perseverance and
tenacity are among the skills sets you should have when you are „innovating‰.
Without it, many good ideas will remain a good idea, never follow through and
never developed into something substantial.
Source:
https://www.pioneermilitaryloans.com/blog
https://www.diygenius.com/innovation-is-doing-new-things-theodore-levitt/

Creativity versus Innovation

Do you agree with me that Creativity and Innovation are two words that we get
easily confused? We have a tendency to use both words interchangeably. Despite
relying on each other, there are fundamental differences between creativity and
innovation. They are similar but not the same thing.
Shawn Hunter (2013), author of "Out Think: How Innovative Leaders Drive
Exceptional Outcomes," defines creativity as the capability or act of conceiving
something original or unusual, while innovation is the implementation or creation
of something new that has realised the value to others.
Creativity is an active process and an important block for innovation. Creativity is

at the heart of innovation. But creativity alone is not enough to inspire new ideas.
In a nutshell, creativity is thinking and innovation is doing! If you are still confused
about creativity and innovation, do not worry! For a better understanding of both
concepts, do check out Figure 5.5 and Table 5.2 respectively.
Creativity versus Innovation
(a) Creativity is the bravery to try something new. Innovation is the

implementation of something new.
(b) Creativity is related to imagination and innovation is related to

implementation.
(c) Creativity is the ability to produce and innovation is the introduction of

new things.
(d) Creativity is bringing into existence an idea that is new to you. Innovation
is the practical application of creative ideas.
Figure 5.5: Creativity versus Innovation

Source: https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1388687
Table 5.2: Comparison Chart: Creativity versus Innovation
Basis for
Creativity Innovation
Comparison
Meaning Creativity is the bravery or the Innovation is the implementation
capability to try something new of something new or original.
or original.
Innovation is doing ă it happens in
Creativity is thinking ă it the world!
happens in your mind!
Process Imaginative Productive
Quantifiable No Yes
Related to Thinking something new Introducing something new
Monetary
No Yes
Requirement
Risk No Yes
Adapted from: https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-creativity-and-

innovation.html
If you feel the Comparison Chart in Table 5.2 is incomplete, still missing a few
salient points, you can add for yourself more basis for comparison. You may
discuss with your course mates and expand the table above to include your own
findings.

Let us move on to the benefits of creativity. Sylvia Duckworth (2016) created the
following sketch note stating 12 benefits of creativity.
Figure 5.6: Innovation and imagination: 12 benefits of creativity

Source: https://www.teachthought.com/learning/innovation-imagination-12-benefits-
creativity
Creativity Secrets: Connect the Dots

Creativity is about seeing the world in new ways, finding hidden patterns, making
connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and generating solutions.
It is the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality.
People who are good at having creative ideas are good at seeing connections.
By practicing yourselves to see connections, you enhance your ability to think

creatively. In short, creativity is about connecting the dots. Creative people collect
more dots, so they can connect them later.

What are Dots?

Dots are new experiences, ideas, information, people, environments and ways of
thinking. You can collect dots by reading, enrol in a course, going to museums,
traveling, experimenting, meeting new people, watching movies, listening to
music, or taking up a new skill. In short, dots are brain food. You want to feed your
brain with as much information and input as possible. The best part of creativity
is that no experience, learning, insight is ever wasted. Even watching movies at
home or meeting up with old friends during the weekend might be the very link
you need to inspire a new idea.
Be a Dot Collector
Think of yourself as a dot collector. Be open. Be a risk taker. Be bold. Collect as
many dots as possible, then push you outside your comfort zone and collect even
more. As ODL Learner you should never ever stop growing your collection of dots.
You never know the magical ways youÊll connect them later.
You canÊt connect the dots looking forward; you can only connect them looking
backwards. So you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect in your
future. You have to trust in somethingăyour gut, destiny, life, karma, whatever.
This approach has never let me down, and it has made all the difference in my
life.
(Excerpt from the Commencement Address delivered by Steve Jobs,
CEO of Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios, on June 12, 2005 )
Source: https://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/
Highly creative people are good at seeing connections. By enhancing your

ability to see connections, you can enhance your creativity
(Dorte Nielsen)
Source: Nielsen, D. & Thurber, S. (2016). The Secret of the Highly Creative Thinker)
Amsterdam: BIS Publishers

Figure 5.7: Information versus knowledge remix by Ron Letkeman

Source: https://blog.elearnerengaged.com/dots/
If youÊre interested to know more about what Steve Jobs thinks about creativity,
do check out the video below.
Steve Jobs and Creativity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AlgZiAl-6fY
Edward de Bono on Creative Thinking

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjSjZOjNIJg

The Core of Creative Thinking
One summer morning in the early 1970s, Bill and Barbara Bowerman were
fixing waffles for breakfast. Bill, the head running coach at the University of
Oregon, was bemoaning the fact that his runners didnÊt have track shoes that
could grip the new artificial turf.
Having coached thirty-three Olympians, he was always on the lookout for

better athletic gear. In the 1960s, he had co-launched a company to import light-
weight running shoes from Japan. He even had a lab in his house where he
could experiment. Now, he was looking for a lighter, faster shoe, one without
spikes, that could still grip the new running track.
At that moment, Barbara pulled a waffle off the hot waffle iron. Staring at the
waffle. Bill suddenly made a connection. The grid pattern on the waffle might
just create the perfect grip for the sole of a running shoe. He grabbed the waffle
iron and ran to his lab. By the end of the day, he had prototyped the shoe that
would earn him his first patent and launch his company to international fame:
The Nike Waffle Trainer.
The story is a perfect example of what happens at the moment a creative idea
is conceived. Coach Bowerman has been puzzling over his challenge for weeks
when an unexpected connection at the breakfast table unlocked it. In an instant,
the DNA of the waffle and the DNA of the running shoe combined in his mind
to bring something entirely new into being.
Creativity is just that: ability to bring new and valuable things into being. You
can cultivate that ability.
Source: Nielsen, D., & Thurber, S. (2016). The Secret of the Highly Creative Thinker.
Amsterdam: BIS Publishers

SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. State ONE definition of Creativity that you like best?
2. Identify THREE key differences between Creativity and

Innovations.
3. Provide ONE example of Creation/Creativity with

Invention/Innovation.
4. What would you improve when you train your ability to see
connections?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement ă and why? „You
canÊt teach creativity. Then again, creativity is all about reversing
assumptions.‰
ACTIVITY 5.2
One of the benefits of Creativity as shown in Figure 5.6 is No. 12 ă

Creativity encourages us to be lifelong learners. As an adult learner, it
would be good if you could share your experience with your course
mates the role creativity plays in encouraging you to be a lifelong learner.

5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE

Have you ever looked at a friendÊs drawing in art classes during your school days
and said, „Oh, my ă youÊre so creative! Knowing fully well that your own talent
were rather limited to drawing stick figures! Or have you ever been to a concert
and marveled at the melodious voice of the singer. Silently you wish you can sing
just as good in front of a large audience and not just confined to singing in a
shower! The two scenarios above, like the ability to sing or draw makes it sound
as if creativity is a natural skill or talent.
Other times, you heard some of your friends are attending local art classes or going
for singing lessons over the weekend. That makes it sound as if creativity is a skill
that anyone can learn.
Confused? What do you think, learners? Do you think creativity can be learned,
practiced and developed or creativity is a natural gift, an innate talent? You can
have a healthy debate with your course mates to argue both sides. But even when
accepting that creativity can be learned, there are some people who are just more
creative than others, and much research has been undertaken to identify what their
characteristics are.
Among the most extensive list of characteristics of creative people was developed
by Robert Alan Black (1990/2008). Take a look at the list by him in the Table 5.3,
and wouldnÊt you say that these characteristics are also applicable for innovative
people. The fact that it might be quite difficult to find all these characteristics in
one person makes teamwork such an important aspect of creativity and
innovation.
Do you have all the characteristics or traits of creativity listed in Table 5.3? If you
do, wow, you are a highly creative person and deserved an award! IÊm joking of
course. Sense of Humor (No. 19) is also one of the characteristics or traits of
Creativity!

Table 5.3: Characteristics of Creative People (1990/2008 Robert Alan Black, Ph.D)
1. Sensitive 16. Original

2. Not motivated by money 17. Ingenious
3. Sense of destiny (believe that you have 18. Energetic
a special mission or purpose in life you 19. Sense of humour
plan or hope to fulfil)
20. Self-actualizing (focus on developing
4. Adaptable yourself to the best you can be and to
5. Tolerant of ambiguity (accept multiple discover your specific unique talents)
answers or causes to a single problem 21. Self-disciplined
or challenge)
22. Self-knowledgeable
6. Observant
23. Specific interests
7. Perceive world differently
24. Divergent thinker (looks at things in
8. See possibilities many different ways at the same time)
9. Question asker 25. Curious
10. Can synthesise (see the big picture) 26. Open-ended (donÊt fix on a single idea,
correctly, often intuitively keep looking for many different ideas
11. Able to fantasise or ways to do things)
12. Flexible (willing to try things in many 27. Independent
different ways) 28. Severely critical
13. Fluent (produce lots of ideas or 29. Non-conforming
possibilities when working on a
30. Confident
challenge or simply choosing a
restaurant to go to) 31. Risk taker
14. Imaginative 32. Persistent
15. Intuitive
Source: https://numerons.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/01-32-traits-of-highly-creative-
people.pdf

If you are not too pleased with yourself that you only have a handful of creativity
traits above, donÊt feel bad, the truth is that all of us have tremendous creative
capacities! Do check out Table 5.4, for tips to be highly creative individuals.
Table 5.4: If You Want to be Highly Creative, Do These 8 Things
If You Want to be Highly Creative, Do These 8 Things
(a) Doodle Something
(b) Sign Up for a Class in Something YouÊve Never Done Before
(c) Create the Right Environment
(d) Pause the Brainstorming and Move Your Body
(e) Start a Sketchbook
(f) Keep Toys on Your Desk
(g) Engage in Flash Fiction
(h) Try the 30 Circles Test
The information shared here is rather limited, to read in detail about the 8 things
mentioned above, please visit this link at https://medium.com/the-mission/if-you-
want-to-be-highly-creative-do-these-8-things-390b81845b0a
Source: https://medium.com/the-mission/if-you-want-to-be-highly-creative-do-these-8-
things-390b81845b0a
Before we move on to the following subtopic, do take some time to view the
following videos as well as clicking the link provided below to read a good topic
on creativity as appeared in our local newspaper, not too long ago.
A Japanese Method to Develop Creativity in Kids

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXnugJEcVE8

Can One Learn to be Creative

https://www.nst.com.my/opinion/columnists/2018/01/
330504/can-one-learn-be-creative
Want to be More Creative? Go for a Walk.

https://www.ted.com/talks/marily_oppezzo_want_to_be_
more_creative_go_for_a_walk?language=en
SELF-CHECK 5.3
List five important traits of creative individuals and explain each one of
them in your own words.
ACTIVITY 5.3
„As with all the learner attributes, cultural perspectives are also very
important when considering creativity. Confucian heritage cultures, for
example, tend to see creativity more as a collective exercise.‰ Do you
agree with this statement? Explain.
5.3 CREATIVITY, INNOVATION AND

LEARNING
OUM learners today are the OUM graduates of the future. As a graduate of the
future, you should be adaptable, flexible and confident with your directions and
career choices. For these to happen, studentÊs learning must go beyond mastery of
core subjects and include 21st century knowledge skills like creativity.
Innovation and creativity are fundamental to all academic disciplines and

educational activities; not just belong exclusively to the arts. The creative process
is a significant part of our learning experiences. In short, we need to nurture
creativity and innovation in our teaching and learning.

The Foundation for Young Australians (2016) reported that based on their study
of analysing job advertisements for three years, the demand for creativity has
increased by 65% (among the key skills with the biggest increase in demand!)
Innovative companies and organisations of the 21st century seek graduates/
potential employees that can think creatively and are able to solve problems
confidently.
Therefore, we need to develop learners who can generate ideas and think critically
and equip them with the essential skills for their future employment. We need
to develop creative and innovative thinkers in schools and higher institutions
today. For this to happen, we need creativity to be embedded in our education
curriculum. Being able to think creatively opens the door to opportunity.
In OUM, we need to incorporate creative thinking into our teaching and learning
environment (do refer to Activity 5.4) and develop creative and innovative ODL
learners who not only can generate ideas and think critically but who persevere in
the face of difficulty. We need to develop curious learners who have a zest for
learning and relish real-world challenges.
One cannot think creatively unless one has the knowledge with which to think
creatively. Creativity represents a balance between knowledge and freeing
oneself of that knowledge.
(Robert J. Sternberg)
Source: https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2006/02/22/24sternberg.h25.html
30 Ideas to Promote Creativity in Learning

https://www.teachthought.com/learning/30-ideas-to-
promote-creativity-in-learning/
Creative Thinking: The Innovative and the Adaptive Type

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYhgIlTy4yY

ACTIVITY 5.4
Potential Areas of Innovation in the ODL System are given below:
(a) Innovative Programme
(b) Innovative application of ICT in delivery mechanism
(c) Innovations in admission procedures and learner support
(d) Innovations in evaluation methodologies and practices
(e) Innovations supporting convergence of systems
(f) Quality management and benchmarking
Discuss in a group the above potential areas of innovation with regard to

OUM Teaching and Learning System.
5.4 DESIGN THINKING AS A STRATEGY FOR

INNOVATION
Figure 5.8: Design thinking and doing design

Source: https://medium.theuxblog.com/design-thinking-and-doing-design-part-1-
90e4dc0da8e3

Now, let us move on to Design Thinking. What is Design Thinking? As mentioned

earlier, chances are most of us are not that familiar with Design Thinking. This
does not mean that it is a new concept though. In fact, the concept of Design
Thinking was first introduced in the late 1960s. In the last decade or so, there has
been a surge of interest in Design Thinking and how it has influenced business,
the sciences and technology. And now Design Thinking has made its way into
education. Many educators are becoming more aware of the capabilities of Design
Thinking and finding ways to incorporate Design Thinking into their Teaching and
Learning. What is Design Thinking then? To put it simply, Design Thinking is a
methodology for tackling complex problems using a solution-based approach.
What is Design Thinking?

Design Thinking is an approach used for practical and creative problem-
solving. It is based heavily on the methods and processes that designers use
(hence the name), but it has actually evolved from a range of different fields ă
including architecture, engineering and business. Design Thinking can also be
applied to any field; it doesnÊt necessarily have to be design-specific. Design
Thinking is extremely user-centric. It focuses on humans first and foremost,
seeking to understand peopleÊs needs and come up with effective solutions to
meet those needs. It is what we call a solution-based approach to problem-
solving.
Source: https://careerfoundry.com/en/blog/ux-design/what-is-design-
thinking-everything-you-need-to-know-to-get-started/
Design Thinking as a Strategy for Innovation

Many world renowned companies, such as Apple, Samsung, Airbnb, Toshiba,
Google are using Design Thinking approach to create and improve their
innovative products. Do you know that Design Thinking is also being taught at
Stanford, Harvard and other leading higher education institutions? Maybe one
day in the near future, OUM will also offer a Design Thinking course!

Design Thinking gives you confidence in your creative abilities and a process for
transforming difficult challenges into opportunities for design. Design Thinking is
a powerful and reliable tool for innovation as shown in Figure 5.9. The basic
process of design thinking as a Strategy for Innovation is explained in Table 5.5.
Figure 5.9: Design thinking: A framework for innovation

Source: https://medium.theuxblog.com/design-thinking-and-doing-design-part-1-
90e4dc0da8e3
Table 5.5: The Basic Process of Design Thinking as a Strategy for Innovation
Stages Process Description

1 Empathise Understand by empathising to help define the problem.
2 Define Re-framing and defining the problem in human-centric ways.
3 Ideate Employ various idea-generating methods in ideation sessions.

4 Prototype Adopt a hands-on approach in prototyping by producing simple
and inexpensive versions of multiple possible solutions.
5 Test Test the various prototypes thoroughly to determine which is
best.
Adapted from: https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/5-stages-in-the-

design-thinking-process

In conclusion, Design Thinking is a mindset. ItÊs Human-Centered and

Collaborative. Design Thinking is good for learners as learners need to experiment
and Design Thinking is all about learning by doing. It gives you permission to fail,
learn from your mistakes and come up with new ideas, ask for feedback and then
iterate. ItÊs an iterative and non-linear process. ItÊs emphatic and its experimental.
Design Thinking gives creative confidence to learners that new, better things are
achievable and that you as a learner can make them happen. And that kind of
optimism is a must-have in our education today.
The Design Thinking Process

https://medium.theuxblog.com/design-thinking-and-doing-
design-part-1-90e4dc0da8e3
5.5 TOOLS FOR CREATIVITY AND

INNOVATION
Figure 5.10: Tools for Creativity and Innovation

Source: https://www.edx.org/course/creative-thinking-techniques-0
We are coming to the end of this topic. I hope this topic has shed some lights to the
concepts of creativity, innovation and design thinking. Fortunately for us, there
are various creativity, innovation and design thinking tools and techniques out
there that can be used to generate new ideas and improve your creativity.

Table 5.6: Tools & Techniques for Creativity and Innovation
Tools/Techniques Description
I-CREATE A full set of creativity tools and techniques from I-CREATE
library. Check out their creativity technique search engine!
Read more at: http://icreate-project.eu/
Creative A lot of exercises about creative thinking can be found at
Thinking.net Creativethinking.net.
Read more at: http://creativethinking.net/exercises/
Human Centered Design-thinking based toolkits for creative problem solving.
Design by Ideo Read more at: http://www.designkit.org/
Koozai.com 8 creative thinking techniques and the tools to use.
Read more at: https://www.koozai.com/blog/content-
marketing-seo/eight-awesome-creative-thinking-techniques-
plus-tools/
Creative Tools Used Every Day By Google, IDEO, and Other Top Innovation
Firms
HereÊs 5 creativity tools from some of the top firms in the world, to stay
above the fray and keep those creative juices flowing.
1. Collective Action Toolkit
2. The 7 Rules for Brainstorming
3. Innovation Flowchart
4. Design Sprint
5. Get Out and Walk
Read more at: https://www.inc.com/dan-maycock/5-creative-tools-used-

every-day-by-google-ideo-and-other-top-innovation-firms.html

By now you should have a considerable knowledge of the concept of creativity,

innovation and Design Thinking. At the very least you should be able to know the
differences and similarities between creativity and innovation and the role both
concepts played in todayÊs education. You are an informed learner now and on the
right path to acquiring and equipping yourselves with the 21st century skills.
Before you move on to the next topic, I leave you with one last quote about
creativity from the renowned writer and poet, the late Dr Maya Angelo.
You canÊt use up creativity. The more you use, the more you have.
(Maya Angelou)
Source: https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Maya_Angelou
SELF-CHECK 5.4
1. Name TWO tools for creativity and innovation.
2. Which creative tools you like the most? Explain
 Creativity is one of the 4CÊs (collaboration, communication, creativity and

critical thinking) of the 21st century survival skills.
 Creative thinking is becoming a necessity in every job
 Creativity is related to „imagination‰ and innovation is related to

„implementation‰.
 People who are good at having creative ideas are good at seeing connections.
By training your ability to see connections, you improve your capacity to think
creatively.
 Creative thinking can be defined as „being in an optimal state of mind where

new ideas can be generated‰.
 Design Thinking is a solutions-based process that uses creativity to solve

complex or poorly-defined problems, validated by real-world learning.

Bloom Taxonomy Creativity Tools

Creative People Design Thinking
Creative Thinking Innovations
Creativity
Adobe, & Econsultancy. (2018). Digital intelligence briefing: 2018 digital trends.
(2018). [pdf]
https://wwwimages2.adobe.com/content/dam/acom/au/landing
/DT18/Econsultancy-2018-Digital-Trends.pdf
Berkun, S. (2013). The best definition of innovation.

https://scottberkun.com/2013/the-best-definition-of-innovation/
Black, Robert Alan. (1998). Broken crayons: Break your crayons and draw outside
the lines. Cre8ng Places Press.
Dietrich, A. (2015). How creativity happens in the brain (1st ed.). Palgrave
Macmillan UK.
Duckworth, S. (2016). Sketchnote for educators: 100 Inspiring illustrations for

Lifelong Learners. Irvine, California: Edtechteam Press
Foundation for Young Australians. (2016). The New Work mindset. [pdf].
https://www.fya.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/The-New-Work-
Mindset.pdf
Frey, C., & Osborne, M. (2016). Technology at work v2.0: The future is
not what it used to be. [pdf]. Oxford Martin School and Citi.
https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/reports/Citi_GPS_Techn
ology_Work_2.pdf
Hunter, S. (2013). Out think: How innovative leaders drive exceptional outcomes.
Mississauga, ON: John Wiley & Sons Canada.

Innovation [Def. 1]. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster online. In Merriam-Webster.

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/innovation
Kastelle, T. (2012). What is innovation?

https://timkastelle.org/blog/2012/09/what-is-innovation/
Lambropoulos, N., & Romero, M. (2015). 21st Century lifelong creative learning: A
matrix of innovative methods & new technologies for Individual, Team &
Community Skills & Competencies. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science
Publishers, Inc.
Mesquita, A. (2011). Technology for creativity and innovation: Tools, techniques

and applications (1st ed.). Portugal: IGI Global.
Nielsen, D., & Thurber, S. (2016). The secret of the highly creative thinker.
Amsterdam: BIS Publishers.
Raines, S. (2012). Creativity and the arts with young children. Cengage Learning.

Topic  Critical
Thinking and
6 Reasoning
Skills
wirawani@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define critical thinking;
2. Explain how critical thinking skills can be improved;
3. Elaborate the skills of critical thinking;
4. Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning; and
5. Classify the ways to assess critical thinking skills.
 INTRODUCTION
Many people would sooner die than think. In fact, they do.
(Bertrand Russel, 1989)
What do you think the above quote means? Is it that difficult to think?
We always think, but the level of thinking is different, depending on the situation.
Certain situations do not need us to think deeply while others involve deep and
critical thinking. Thus, in this chapter, we will learn specifically on critical thinking
skills and the ways to assess them.

126  TOPIC 6 CRITICAL THINKING AND REASONING SKILLS
6.1 THE NEED FOR CRITICAL THINKING

We are living in the information age where the Internet has become a crucial and
integral part in many peopleÊs lives. The quest for information has become so all-
consuming that many people find that they are continuously multitasking ă on
Facebook while in class or checking emails while eating lunch, etc. With so much
multitasking, we are on system overload that we tend to do worse on each task
when we do them concurrently compared to doing one task at a time.
Furthermore, with a lot of information available on the Internet, how can we

differentiate which one to believe in and which one is fraudulent?
ACTIVITY 6.1
Think of situations when you are awake and you do not have to think at
all, list them out. Discuss in your forum.
6.1.1 The Twin Pillars of Knowing and Thinking

We must consider ourselves in danger when we cannot think intelligently about
the numerous issues that we face, and not knowing the meaning of information
that we have. The abilities of knowing how to learn and knowing how to think
clearly about various, dynamic information that we must select from are the most
important intellectual skills for the 21st century.
There are a few differences between knowing and thinking
(a) Thinking is a mental activity, or mind in motion, which usually includes

event, or situations in the past or the future.
(b) Thoughts do not have anything to do with the truth of the present moment;
it is just what a person is thinking and not necessarily related to facts and
truth.
(c) Knowing, on the other hand, does not actually entail thought. For instance,
when someone asks your name, you instantly know your name and you do
not require thinking for that.
(d) Thoughts are the origin of doubts while knowledge can only be either true
or false.

TOPIC 6 CRITICAL THINKING AND REASONING SKILLS  127
Both are needed in critical thinking. With knowing, it will invite thinking. For
some of us, it may initiate critical thinking. Previously, proficiency in reading,
writing and arithmetic were essential for entry-level to the job market. However,
in todayÊs world, employers require more from employees, they require those who
can solve problems, innovate, collaborate, and communicate more effectively.
6.1.2 A Working Definition of Critical Thinking
ACTIVITY 6.2
Take a few minutes and think about your own definition of critical
thinking. Discuss with your classmates.
We can find many definitions on critical thinking and they tend to be similar with
considerable overlap. Fisher and Spiker (2000, as cited in Halpern, 2014) found that
the terms, which are mostly used to define critical thinking, include judgement,
reasoning/logic, reflection, questioning, metacognition and mental process. Here
is a list of some generic skills of a critical thinker (Halpern, 2014):
(a) Seek out contradictory evidence;
(b) Make risk: benefit assessment;
(c) Recall relevant information when needed;
(d) Give reasons for choices as well as varying the style and amount of detail in
explanations depending on who is receiving the information;
(e) Understand basic research principles;
(f) Present a coherent and persuasive argument on a controversial,

contemporary topic;
(g) Determine credibility and use this information in formulating and

communicating decisions
The critical part about critical thinking denotes the component of evaluation, and
it is sometimes conveyed as something negative, for example, when we say,
„Karim is a critical person‰. However, the evaluation should and can be a
constructive reflection of positive and negative attributes.

6.1.3 Changing How People Think: Should It Be

Done?
It is scary to have the idea of influencing the way people think since it advocates
terms like „mind control‰ and „propaganda‰. However, it is crucial to note that
critical thinking is an antidote of mind control and it helps everyone to recognise
propaganda so that we will not fall prey to it, analyse underlying assumptions in
arguments, consider the credibility of an information source, and think of the best
possible way to solve problems.
There are countless examples of the need for critical thinking; some are as follows:
(a) Bullying cases among teenagers.
Figure 6.1: Bullying case in a school

Source: http://ohmychannel.com/article/
(b) Citizens who believes in political campaigns.
(c) Employees who are being exploited by employers.
(d) People who are being rude.
We have to be mindful of the need to educate people to think critically since their
early age. Being critical thinkers will enable us to be more evaluative and make
better decisions.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Are you a critical thinker? Why do you say so? How to become a better
thinker? Discuss with your coursemates.
6.2 EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE THAT CRITICAL

THINKING CAN BE IMPROVED
If you have been thinking critically about the idea of improving how you think,
then you have probably begun to wonder if there is any evidence that thinking can
be improved. Numerous research has found that various forms of thinking courses
and curriculum provide substantial evidence that it is possible to use education to
improve the ability to think critically.
In Malaysia, the government has imposed several ideas in developing and

enhancing critical thinking ability among students in various forms such as
(a) The Malaysia Education Blueprint

The development of Malaysia Education Blueprint (MEB) 2013ă2025 adds
reasoning skill in the curriculum besides the traditional reading, writing and
arithmetic skills.
(b) Malaysia Smart School

The concept that was introduced in 1997 is set to bring a completely new
paradigm into the national education system. Two of its five strategies are
focused on thinking. The first is the, „emphasis on intellectual, emotional,
spiritual, and physical growth, concentrating on thinking, developing and
applying values, and using correct language across the curriculum‰ and the
second is to „produce a technologically literate work force that can think
critically, encouraging thought and creativity across the curriculum and
applying technology effectively in teaching and learning‰ (Nooraini &
Khairul Azmi, 2014).
(c) Innovative Human Capital Development (IHCD) Plan

The plan was introduced by the Ministry of Higher Education in 2010,
which aims at fostering Malaysia towards an innovative society with the
recommendation to review, revamp and restructure the curriculum of
tertiary institutions (Nooraini & Khairul Azmi, 2014).

(d) School Based Assessment (SBA) System

It is a system of assessment, which was introduced in 2012, that combines
centralised examination and school assessment. However, in SBA, the
centralised examination may take a different form of examination than it was
before. In SBA, teachers are given more freedom and opportunities to
empower their students.
A number of research has also been done to measure change in thinking among
students in Malaysia. You can find those articles from the links below:
(a) The Effects of Integrating Creative and Critical Thinking on Schools

StudentsÊ Thinking
http://www.ijssh.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=50
&id=722
(b) A TeacherÊs Experience of Using Critical Thinking in Classroom Teaching

http://www.ipedr.com/vol53/016-BCPS2012-C10005.pdf
(c) Developing Thinking Skills in Malaysian Science Students via an Analogical

Task
http://www.recsam.edu.my/R&D_Journals/YEAR2010/june2010vol1/ma
riah(110-128).pdf
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What is the definition of critical thinking?
2. Can it be improved? Explain with evidence.

6.2.1 Becoming a Better Thinker: The Quick and Easy

Way
We can find various products that claim to improve thinking. In the US, there was
a candy bar called „Think!‰ which was assumed by many Americans as a food for
thought. Apparently, the Center for Science in the Public Interest contacted the
company and found that there was no ingredient for the mind but only a placebo
effect of it (Halpern, 2014).
In Malaysia, there are also various products that claims to have significant impact
on peopleÊs mind. These products are increasingly bought by the masses since they
believe that it can improve their mind or their childrenÊs mind when consumed.
Some parents even claim that these pills can make their children to be well
behaved. These are some perceptions people have indicating we can become better
thinkers in a quick and easy way.
6.2.2 Two Types of Thinking – Fast and Slow

A cognitive psychologist Daniel Kahneman (as cited in Halpern, 2014) found two
broad types of thinking; System 1 and System 2. System 1 is commonly thought of
as intuition, which is automatic, effortless, and usually associated with expertise
when someone is good at it. On the other hand, System 2 is thinking that is slow,
effortful and deliberate, which is closely related to critical thinking.
System 1 Thinking
Let us try a simple exercise to have a better understanding of this system.
Try to answer the following question (Helmig, 2013):
If it takes 5 machines 5 minutes to make 5 widgets, how long would it take

100 machines to make 100 widgets? _______________ minutes.

How did you do? Did you answer 100 minutes? An intuitive response would be
that „5 = 5 = 5 so 100 = 100 = 100‰. However, if it takes a single machine 5 minutes
to make a single widget, even a million machines can make a million widgets in
5 minutes. The correct answer is therefore 5 minutes.
A study found that respondents who gave intuitive, fast and in this case, wrong
responses were less likely to delay rewards; for instance, that person will agree to
receive RM200 today than RM300 next week, hence proposing that people who
rely more on intuitive and quick thinking are different from people of slow
thinking in other important ways.
Intuitions are like visual illusions in some ways. They can sometimes assist us to
understand the world, however they are often misleading and it is a challenge not
to pay attention to intuitions. Look at the picture in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Illusions of two table

Source: Shepard (1990)
The two table tops appear to be very different in their size and shape, however, if
you take a piece of paper and cut it to fit one of the table tops, you will find that
the same piece fits well on the other table as well. This is a common visual illusion,
which is similar to thinking illusion. We must be aware that our intuition is
sometimes wrong and we can learn to correct it through repeated experience.

System 2 Thinking
Critical thinking is System 2 thinking; which is deliberate, slow and effortful. It is
also seen as the engine that drives System 1 thinking since the originality of that
fast recognition processes in System 1 started in a deliberate and effortful way.
System 2 involves considering evidence, evaluating risks, calculating probabilities,
and judging credibility. People can learn to think rationally as thinking can be
rational. We can learn from our mistakes, and by keeping track of them, we can
control and make them less likely to reoccur in the future.
ACTIVITY 6.4
Think of situations when you use System 1 and System 2 ways of
thinking. Discuss with your coursemates.
6.3 SKILLS OF CRITICAL THINKING AND

REASONING
Thinking is a skill that can be improved by training, practice and through learning
how to do better. Thinking is just like any other skills and we can enhance and get
better at that skill. It is unlike intelligence that is determined by genes and cannot
be changed. Even highly intelligence people need to improve their thinking in
order to make full use of that high intelligence.
Learning to think allows us to take control of our lives since we can think how to
reason, solve problems, make decisions, and not let ourselves to be pushed around
by circumstances, emotions and other people.
In the next sections, we will be exploring some skills of critical thinking and
reasoning.
6.3.1 CAF: Consider All Factors

It is pronounced „caff‰. CAF is an attention-directing tool that is designed to
increase the breadth of perception since we need to be looking at and consider all
factors before making a decision.

Let us look at the example below (de Bono, 1994):
Jennifer is looking around a used-car lot and suddenly she spots her favourite
make of sports car. She asks the salesperson about the condition of the car, and
she finds that the condition is good, mileage is just right, the colour is her
favourite shining red and the price is affordable. She drives with delight.
However, when she reaches home, the car does not fit her garage. She has
forgotten to do a CAF.
Teaching CAF is a matter of adding more and more factors to be considered in the
list. Ask ourselves these questions:
(a) What has been left out?
(b) Can we add another factor to the list?
(c) What else must be considered?
Although there is a difference between important and less important factors, the
focus should be on finding out the factors to consider before a decision is made.
Most of the time we go ahead with our thinking without doing a proper CAF.
ACTIVITY 6.5
You are going for a job interview. What things do you have to keep in
mind? Do a CAF.
6.3.2 APC: Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices

According to de Bono (1994), this is another attention-directing tool, which moves
our thinking to look at parallel possibilities. There are many sorts of alternatives:
(a) Perception: The same thing can be looked at in many different ways.
(b) Action: Alternative courses of action that can be taken in a situation.
(c) Solution: Alternative solutions to a problem.
(d) Approaches: Different ways of tackling the problem in order to find a

solution.

(e) Explanation: Alternative explanations of how something happened.

Alternative hypotheses in science.
(f) Design: Alternative designs, each of which fulfils the purpose of the design
(machines, buildings, posters, etc.).
At times, the traditional way does not work and we are forced to look for
alternatives. Sometimes we want to look for better ways in doing our work or
solving a problem, thus, we will look for alternatives. If we are told that there are
only two possible solutions for a problem, we might take a few moments to think
of other alternatives and we might find the alternatives. On the other hand, we
might not. However, it is always worth taking time to look for them.
ACTIVITY 6.6
In a TV quiz show, an object is described as being round, flat and good

to eat. It could be a hamburger, or what else? Do an APC, listing as many
possibilities you can think of.
6.3.3 Focus and Purpose

We need to create a thinking habit to have focus and purpose in our thinking. The
major causes of inefficiency and ineffectiveness in thinking is when we let our
thinking just wander along point to point, where each point suggest the next point.
For example, in a conversation with a friend, we usually say things that are
triggered from what has been said by our friend.
There are three main characteristics in this skill of thinking (de Bono, 1994):
(a) Key questions: thinking habits should be started with a key question. For
focus and purpose thinking skill, we have to ask ourselves
(i) What am I looking at (thinking about) right now?
(ii) What am I trying to do?
(b) Setting the focus: we should set our focus and purpose and not only be aware
of them. Ask ourselves „what do we want to focus on? ‰ We should be able
to pick up and define different focus areas, and what do we want to do with
each focus area.

(c) Types of thinking: There are five broad types of thinking that we should be
aware of and the focus of each will lead us to be purposive in our thinking.
(i) Exploring: looking around, increasing our knowledge and being aware
of our surroundings or objects.
(ii) Seeking: it is when we want something or have a definite need. It is

when we want to end up with something specific.
(iii) Choosing: there are a number of alternatives that we wish to choose

from. To some extent, choosing comes into most thinking.
(iv) Organising: we are putting pieces of information or things together in

the most effective way.
(v) Checking: Is it correct? Is that right? Is it safe? Is it acceptable? These

are the questions we ask when we need to judge whether what we have
decided or done is correct.
ACTIVITY 6.7
You are going to prepare a meal for three of your friends. List five things
that you might focus on.
6.3.4 AGO: Aims, Goals and Objectives
We have been talking for an hour but I still do not know what we are trying to
achieve. Can we, please, do an AGO?
(de Bono, 1994)
The above is scenario when we might need to use AGO.
AGO is related to the thinking habit of wanting to know the focus and purpose of
thinking at every moment, but the focus is more of the overall purpose or objective
and not moment-to-moment focus.

We do not have to make a distinction between aims, goals and objectives since
such distinction is not helpful and confusing in this sense. But as soon as we are
clear with the ideal outcome of our thinking effort, then we are clear of our AGO.
We can ask ourselves „what is the objective of our thinking?‰ or „what do we want
to end up with? ‰
There are two aspects that we can consider when we acquire this skill:
(a) Alternative Definitions of the Objective

When we have a discussion in meetings or other events, we may not be
happy with the definition of the AGO suggested by someone. Thus, it is
always worth to try having alternative definitions of the AGO in order to be
clearer to someone else.
(b) Sub-objectives
We may also need to set sub-objectives in the pursuit of solving the overall
problem. This is related to breaking down the problem into smaller ones and
picking out focus areas.
6.3.5 Deductive Reasoning
Figure 6.3: Deductive reasoning

Source: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/
Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning where it moves from

general to specific. In deductive reasoning, or deduction, we start out with a
general statement, or hypothesis, and then we examine the possibilities to reach a
specific, logical conclusion. Sometimes deductive reasoning is informally called a
„top-down‰ approach. Deductive logic is concerned with the validity of
arguments: an argument is deductively valid if and only if its conclusion follows
a logically necessary consequence of its premises.

A common form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, in which two statements

ă a major premise and a minor premise ă reach a logical conclusion. Syllogisms are
reflected to be a good way to test deductive reasoning to ensure the validity of the
argument.
To do deductive reasoning, we may begin with thinking up a theory about our

topic of interest. Then we narrow it down into more specific hypotheses that we
can test. For example, we may say that „all fish fly; all guppies are fish; therefore,
all guppies fly ‰. This is perfectly valid although the conclusion is empirically false.
From the theory that „all fish fly ‰, we narrow it down to collect observations to
address the hypotheses of „all guppies are fish‰ This ultimately leads us to be able
to test the hypotheses with specific data ă a confirmation (or not) that is „all
guppies fly ‰ which is our original theory.
In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
However, we must take note that for deductive reasoning to be correct, the
hypotheses or premises must be correct.
6.3.6 Inductive Reasoning
Figure 6.4: Inductive reasoning

Source: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/

Inductive reasoning works the other way around, moving from some specific
observations about the world to broader generalisations and theories. Informally,
we sometimes call this a „bottom-up‰ approach. In inductive reasoning, we begin
with specific observations and measures, we start to distinguish patterns and
regularities, articulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally
end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
There are several key types of inductive reasoning (Parrish, 2018):
(a) Generalised ă Draws a conclusion from a generalisation. For example, „All

the swans I have seen are white; therefore, all swans are probably white.‰
(b) Statistical ă Draws a conclusion based on statistics. For example, „95 per cent
of swans are white‰ (an arbitrary figure, of course); „therefore, a randomly
selected swan will probably be white.‰
(c) Sample ă Draws a conclusion about one group based on a different sample
group. For example, „There are ten swans in this pond and all are white;
therefore, the swans in my neighbourÊs pond are probably also white.‰
(d) Analogous ă Draws a conclusion based on shared properties of two groups.

For example, „All Aylesbury ducks are white. Swans are similar to
Aylesbury ducks. Therefore, all swans are probably white.‰
(e) Predictive ă Draws a conclusion based on a prediction made using a past

sample. For example, „I visited this pond last year and all the swans were
white. Therefore, when I visit again, all the swans will probably be white.‰
(f) Causal inference ă Draws a conclusion based on a causal connection. For

example, „All the swans in this pond are white. I just saw a white bird in the
pond. The bird was probably a swan.‰
In inductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
2. What are the key types of inductive reasoning?

6.4 ASSESSMENT OF CRITICAL THINKING

How do we know if we can think critically? There are several ways to assess our
critical thinking skills. If you are a teacher or a manager, you could also use the
same method to assess your students or subordinatesÊ critical thinking abilities.
Among some of the methods of assessing critical thinking are:
(a) Through inquiry ă Asking questions and using the answers to understand
the world around us is a way that lead to critical thinking. Some of the
questions we can ask ourselves are (Gocsik, 2002):
(i) What are the strengths and weaknesses of ⁄?
(ii) What is the difference between ⁄ and ⁄?
(iii) Explain why/how ⁄?
(iv) What would happen if ⁄?
(v) What is the nature of ⁄?
(vi) Why is ⁄ happening?
(vii) What is a new example of ⁄?
(b) Through writing ă Writing can transform us from passive to active person
since it requires us to identify issues and formulate hypotheses and
arguments. We need to focus and clarify our thoughts before putting them
down on paper, thus taking them through the critical thinking process. Some
of the questions that we might be asking ourselves before we start writing
are (Gocsik, 2002):
(i) What information is most important?
(ii) What might be left out?
(iii) What is it that I think about this subject?
(iv) How did I arrive at what I think?
(v) What are my assumptions? Are they valid?
(vi) How can I work with facts, observations, and so on, in order to
convince others of what I think?
(vii) What do I not yet understand?

(c) Group collaboration ăgroup collaboration includes discussions, case studies,

task-related group work, peer review, or debates are all relevant in assessing
critical thinking. There are several reasons for collaboration to be an effective
way to enhance critical thinking:
(i) A collaborative team has the likelihood to generate better results than
any individual;
(ii) Individuals are exposed to different perspectives while explaining their

own ideas; and
(iii) Collaborating on a project is usually motivating, creates interest, and

increases the understanding and knowledge of the topic.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. What are the ways to assess critical thinking?
2. How can group collaboration help individuals to think critically?
 People need to have critical thinking skills to be better at multitasking and to

be more efficient in decision-making and problem solving.
 Critical thinking involves judgment, reasoning, reflection, questioning,

metacognition and mental process.
 The government has introduced various programs and school syllabus to

improve critical thinking skills among students.
 A number of skills can be learned to improve critical thinking skills such as

CAF, APC, Logic and Perception, Focus and Purpose, AGO, deductive and
inductive reasoning.
 Through inquiry, writing and group collaborations, we can assess critical

thinking skills.

Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices (APC) Critical thinking skills

Aims, Goals, Objectives (AGO) Deductive reasoning
Consider All Factors (CAF) Inductive reasoning
Bradford, B. (2017). Deductive Reasoning versus Inductive Reasoning

https://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html
de Bono, E. (1994). Teach your child how to think: Help them survive and thrive.
London: Penguin Book.
Gocsik, K. (2002). Teaching Critical Thinking Skills. UTS Newsletter, 11(2):1ă4.
Halpern, D. (2014). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking.

(5th ed.) New York: Psychology Press.
Nooraini, O., & Khairul Azmi, M. (2014). Thinking skill education and
transformational progress in Malaysia. International Education Studies, 7(4).
https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n4p27
Parrish, S. (2018). Deductive versus inductive Reasoning: Make smarter

arguments, better decisions, and stronger conclusions. Retrieve at
https://fs.blog/2018/05/deductive-inductive-reasoning/Farnam Street
Media Inc.

Topic  Communication
Skills
7 Noor Zuleika Zulkipli
noorzuleika.zulkipli@qiup.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the essence of communication in our daily lives;
2. Discuss the functions of verbal and nonverbal communication;
3. Demonstrate on how to be an effective communicator; and
4. Identify the barriers of effective communication.
 INTRODUCTION
Effective communication is not only confined to the ability to speak fluently.
Many people did not realise that to be an effective communicator, one must not
just know how to speak, but also to listen. Also, communication has become
one of the key component to acquire in 21st century learning. According to the non
profit organisation in the United States, The Partnership for 21st Century Learning,
P21 (www.p21.org/index.php), communication involves mediated and digital
communication, interpersonal, written and oral communication. This topic will
assist you to gain communication skills and also how to become an effective
communicator.

144  TOPIC 7 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
ACTIVITY 7.1
Have you ever played a game called „The Telephone Game‰? This is how
it goes; as many people as possible will stand in a straight line. All the
players must be close enough as the player in front has to whisper a
„message‰ to the next person behind him/her, but not too close that
players can hear each other whisper. The whispering will continue until
the last player in line, and the last player will say the message out loud
so everyone can hear how much it has changed from the first message
uttered at the beginning.
Although this game is so fun, it also brings a lot of hidden objectives

from communication perspective. Discuss with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE, what are the communications benefits/challenges/barriers
that you can achieve with this game?
7.1 COMMUNICATION IN OUR DAILY LIVES

Imagine you are alone in your room. You are not sleeping yet, you are still thinking
about what you are going to do next. You are still recalling about the last
conversation last night, and also news that you have read from The Star newspaper
in the afternoon. You are not going to stop there, it will continue and keep
continuing the moment you are out of the bed. Without even noticing, we are
always involved in a communication process.
The situation above indicates that in life, „One cannot not communicate‰. This
axiom was coined by Paul Watzlawick (1967) in his theory of interpersonal
communication, called Interactional View. This axiom basically says that even
if you are not actually talking, or perhaps not doing anything, you are still
communicating. Communicating, including non-verbal communication plays a
huge part and even when you are not speaking, you are still expressing non-verbal
ques, such as facial expressions, the way you are standing and also your silence.

TOPIC 7 COMMUNICATION SKILLS  145
Maybe we are aware that we are communicating, but do you realise that you are
actually going through a process? One of the best ways to understand the
communication process is to understand the model as depicted in Figure 7.1. This
model depicts the process of communication.
Figure 7.1: A communication process (Eunson, 2016)
From this model, there are several elements that need to be introduced to you as
follows:
(a) Senders and receivers: whoever; an individual or an organisation that has

the intention to send or disseminate messages to the receivers. However, as
communication involves two ways, the senders are also the receivers.
According to Eunson (2016), the receivers are also known by different names,
depending on the type of communication (Table 7.1).
Table 7.1: Receivers of Different Communication Field
Communication Field Receivers Known as

Interpersonal Communication Listeners
Public Relations Public
Mass Media Audiences, demographics, viewers, listeners,
targets
Organisational Communication Customers, clients, stakeholders, office
workers and staff
Presentations, Public Speaking Audiences, auditors
Online Communication Users, participants

(b) Messages: what are the information that the senders want to transmit to the
receivers. Messages could be written, spoken, non-verbal, graphics or visual.
(c) Encoding: a process of transforming a series of words and symbols, also non-
verbal signals into a message or content.
(d) Decoding: a process of interpreting and understanding the message given by

the senders in the intended way.
(e) Channels: the means by which messages are conveyed.
(f) Noise: anything that distorts the message or creates barriers to communication
e.g. sounds or noise, hearing impairment, mispronunciation etc.
(g) Feedback: response from message recipient, turning one-way into two-way
communication.
(h) Context: is the situation or which event that communication took place.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Pair with a coursemate. Ask your partner to identify TWO

communication situations (at home or workplace) and give examples to
each of the following elements in that communication process:
(a) Sender/Receiver
(b) Encoding/Decoding
(c) Noise
(d) Context

As mentioned above, we have been involved in various types of communication

be it at home, at the workplace, through social media and any different contexts.
Before going in-depth, let us first go through the five types of communication
(Hybels & Weaver II, 2015), most often used by us.
Table 7.1: Types of Communication
Types of Communication Descriptions

Intrapersonal Communication A language use and/or thought that occurs within
you, the communicator. E.g self-talk, monologue
Interpersonal Communication Occurs when you communicate on a one-to-one basis
ă usually in an informal, unstructured setting. E.g.
talking to your spouse, having a heart-to-heart with
your bestfriend.
Small Group Communication Occurs when a small number of people meet to solve
a problem. The group must be small enough so that
each member has a chance to interact with all other
members.
Public Communication The sender-receiver (speaker, e.g. Prime Minister)
sends a message (the speech, e.g Prime MinisterÊs
Office monthly assembly speech) to an audience (the
staff).
Intercultural Communication Occurs whenever two or more people from different
cultures interact. The field studies how cultural
differences between people affect their perceptions of
the world, thus, their communication.
Source: Hybels & Weaver II (2015)
Once you understood the process of communication, and also which types of
communication, you can begin to understand why communication does or does
not work. At this juncture, it is only appropriate that we discuss the functions of
communication in our daily life.

7.2 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Verbal and nonverbal are the two common types of communication. Both types
have various functions which will be discussed further in the following sub-topics.
7.2.1 Functions of Verbal Communication

According to DeFleur et. al. (2014), human being communicate with patterns of
symbols whose meaning are understood by both the individual initiating a
message and the person or persons who perceive, decode and construct its
meanings. Most of the symbols we use in communication everyday are ordinary
words that are formally defined in standard dictionaries in terms of their
denotative meaning
Symbols or „language‰, are socially agreed-upon labels that we use to identify

and arouse conventionalised meanings stored in schemata within our memory
systems. For example, when we put food in our mouths, chew and swallow the
food, it called „eat‰. „Eat, sleep, walk‰ are examples of symbols that can be defined
in meanings that are denotative. So, verbal communication, which involves spoken
and written language, has various significant functions in our lives, particularly in
our communication activities.
Paynton & Hahn (2018), have outlined several functions of verbal communication
as follows:
(a) Verbal Communication Helps Us to Define Reality

We use verbal communication to define ideas, feelings, emotions, situations
and people. Think about how you define yourself. You may define yourself
as a student, employee, son/daughter, parent, advocate, etc. You might also
define yourself as moral, ethical, a night-owl, or a procrastinator. Verbal
communication is how we label and define what we experience in our lives.
These definitions are not only descriptive, but evaluative. Imagine you are at
the beach with a few of your friends. The day starts out sunny and beautiful,
but the tides quickly turn when rain clouds appeared overhead. Because
of the unexpected rain, you define the day as disappointing and ugly.
Suddenly, your friend comments, „What are you talking about, man? Today
is beautiful!‰ Instead of focusing on the weather, he might be referring to the
fact that he was having a good day by spending quality time with his buddies
on the beach, rain or shine. This statement reflects that we have choices for
how we use verbal communication to define our realities. We make choices
about what to focus on and how to define what we experience and its impact
on how we understand and live in our world.

(b) Verbal Communication Helps Us Organise Complex Ideas and Experiences

into Meaningful Categories
Consider the number of things you experience with your five primary senses
every day. It is impossible to comprehend everything we encounter. We
use verbal communication to organise seemingly random events into
understandable categories to make sense of our experiences. For example,
we all organise the people in our lives into categories. We label these people
with terms like, friends, acquaintances, romantic partners, family, peers,
colleagues, and strangers. We highlight certain qualities, traits, or scripts
to organise outwardly haphazard events into meaningful categories to
establish meaning for our world.
(c) Verbal Communication Helps Us Think

With language, we are able to reflect on the past, consider the present,
and ponder the future. We develop our memories using language. Without
verbal communication, we cannot think and also function as human
being that need reasoning and communicating to. In the 2011 Scientific
American article, „How Language Shapes Thought,‰ the author, Lera
Boroditsky, claims that people „rely on language even when doing simple
things like distinguishing patches of color, counting dots on a screen or
orienting in a small room: my colleagues and I have found that limiting
peopleÊs ability to access their language faculties fluently ă by giving them a
competing demanding verbal task such as repeating a news report, for
instance ă impairs their ability to perform these tasks.‰ This may be why it is
difficult for some people to multitask ă especially when one task involves
speaking and the other involves thinking.
(d) Verbal Communication Helps Us Shape Our Attitudes About Our Worlds
The way you use language shapes your attitude about the world around you.
When you label, describe, or evaluate events in your life, you use the symbols
of the language you speak. Your use of these symbols to represent your
reality influences your perspective and attitude about the world. So, it makes
sense then that the more sophisticated your repertoire of symbols is, the more
sophisticated your world view can be for you.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Do an observation for three days on your friend or your colleagueÊs
verbal messages and nonverbal cues. Your observations must include all
the nonverbal cues as mentioned in this module. Then, write a report
and suggest ways to improve the communication behaviours of your
friend/colleague.

7.2.2 Functions of Nonverbal Communication

According to Hybels & Weaver II (2015), nonverbal communication is
information communicated without using words. When we communicate
everyday, 93 per cent of communication is nonverbal, with 55 per cent sent
through facial expressions, posture and gestures, and 38 per cent through tone of
voice.
Figure 7.2: Elements of communication in our daily lives
There are a few types of nonverbal communication but we are not going to discuss
in detail here, as you will learn in other modules throughout your study, such as
ABCC1103 Introduction to Communication and OUMH1303 English for Oral
Communication.

Paynton & Hahn (2018) has listed seven types of nonverbal communication such
as follows:
(a) Kinesics
The study of how we use body movement, facial expressions and eye
contact. Facial expressions are a primary method of sharing emotions and
feelings, and in some countries, eye contacts shows respect and honesty
while interacting or delivering messages.
Figure 7.3: Kinesics

Source: https://com322kinesics.wordpress.com/
(b) Haptics
Touch is the first type of nonverbal communication we experience as humans
and is vital to our development and health. We use touch to share feelings
and relational meanings such as hugs, handshakes or while kidding or
playful.
(c) Personal Appearance, Objects and Artifacts

The types of nonverbal communication we use on our bodies and
surroundings communicate meaning to others. It is shown through your
hair styles, clothing, jewelry, body size and also fitness style. Objects used
related to our professions, for example, doctors who wear their lab coats
and stethoscope or uniforms, while artifacts are objects that portrays
achievements or milestone in onesÊ career such as certificates, degrees or
awards.

(d) Proxemics
The study of how our use of space influences the ways we relate with others.
Have you realised in some workplace, they provide big rooms for top
management positions while, middle and low positions workers are placed
in cubicles or compartments? It shows power and hierarchial structure
within the companies. On the other hand, there are also spaces we use to
form and maintain relationships. We use intimate space with those whom
we are close (family members, close friends and intimate partners) which
consists of spaces that ranges from touch to eighteen inches. Other than
intimate space is personal space, social space and public space.
Figure 7.4: The use of space

Source: https://blogonlinguistics.wordpress.com/2013/10/25/proxemics-
personal-space/
(e) Chronemics
The study of how people use time. Are you the type of person that give high
value to time or not? Are you always punctual or really cherished someone
who are punctual to deal with? The way you use time actually depicted the
person you really are.
(f) Paralanguage
Involves vocal qualities such as pitch, volume, inflection, rate of speech and
rhythm. How we say words often expresses greater meaning than the actual
words themselves.

(g) Silence
When we do not use words or utterances to convey meanings. Silence is
powerful because the person using silence may be refusing to engage in
communication with you.
Hybels & Weaver II (2015) has outlined four functions of nonverbal

communication, as follows:
(a) We Use Nonverbal Cues to Complement Verbal Messages

Nonverbal cues are often use to complement verbal messages by adding to
its meaning. When you are talking to a person who just lost his/her loved
ones due to cancer, you might complement by saying „I am truly sorry for
your lost‰ with a hug or a pat touch on the shoulder and a handshake.
(b) We Use Nonverbal Cues to Regulate Verbal Communication

It is easier to enter, exit or maintain our interactions with others using
nonverbal message compare to verbal communication. If we want to end a
conversation, for example, we might use gestures like getting out of the chair,
or going back to your computer and typing something, to communicate that
the talk is over.
(c) We Use Nonverbal Cues as Subtitutes for Verbal Messages

We often substitutes a „yes‰, „no‰ or „good‰ with a head-nod, a head-shake
or even a thumbs up, that are also universally known as nonverbal cues to
all the words.
(d) We Use Nonverbal Communication to Accent Our Verbal Communication

Lastly, we often use nonverbal communication to emphasise on our verbal
messages. For example, you might get upset with your sisters or brothers
and accent the statement nonverbally as „I am VERY angry with you!‰. Your
emphasis on the word „very‰ shows how you use paralanguage or tone of
voice for your condition.

7.2.3 The Importance of Listening

Listening, is one of the important skills that a person must have. Listening and
hearing are not necessarily the same thing. According to Eunson (2016), a person
with impaired hearing but excellent concentration, high motivation and good
interpersonal skills could well be a better listener that someone with perfect
hearing but wandering concentration, poor motivation and weak interpersonal
skills.
The pie chart of time spent on different communication processes by Rosenblatt,

Cheatham & Watt (1982) (in Eunson, 2016), estimates how most people spent time
in their daily lives communicating.
Figure 7.5: Time spent on different communication process

Source: Eunson (2016)

However, these skills of listening is becoming more important every day because
nowadays, we rarely listen and talk anymore, since the advancement of social
media and most of the communication processes focused around it (refer to
Figure 7.7 for Global Time Spent on Media, reported by World Economic Forum).
Figure 7.7: Global time spent on media per day, 2014

Source: GlobalWebIndex, 2014;Global Social Media Trends 2015, European
Publishers Council
Referring to the chart above, a total of 61% of social media usage recorded
involving 15% of it through social networking. Social media also included talking
and listening online. Various quality of verbal, nonverbal and listening skills are
not there when experiencing through online.

Why having skills in listening is important for an individual in both professional

and personal situations? Eunson (2016) identified some of the reasons as follows:
(a) Listening Allows Us to Get the Full Picture

Reading and listening are sometimes seen as equally important but listening
allows us not only to hear the views of others but to observe the full range of
non-verbal behaviours that accompanies those views ă the ÂmusicÊ to the
words. We can also observe the reactions of, and we can interact with, the
speaker, opening up two-way communication to clarify the message.
(b) Listening Lets Us Learn and Survive

By restraining our desire to talk, we sometimes learn from talk of others. We
do not need always to reinvent the wheel, because we can learn from the
experiences of others. Instead of making fools of ourselves by jumping in
prematurely before we have heard all the relevant information, the patient
strategy of listening often pays off, and sometimes allows us to look a lot
smarter that we really are.
Source: thequotes.com

(c) Listening to Others will Allow Them to Solve Their Own Problems
Management by listening: a term coined by Iuppa (1986) in Eunson (2016)
defined listening as allowing others to reach their own solutions by talking
through their problems. Most of us thought that listening to others is a waste
of our time, because the solution to their problems is pretty clear to us, but
this is a serious misconception that need to be changed.
(d) Listening Allows Us to Cope with Distractions and to De-stress

According to Eunson (2016), we all sometimes suffer from information
overload and feel pressured to do more to keep up with the frantic pace of
life. We are surrounded by distractions, and it is very tempting to surrender
to them, thereby shortening our concentration span. Conscious listening
permits us to slow down and process reality in a more meaningful way.
(e) Listening to Others will Probably Mean They will Listen to Us

If only we realised that we are not the only one who have problems, there
are others who need our attentive listening attention. By demonstrating
politeness and empathy is not only worthwhile in itself, but also high payoff
values, setting up a reciprocal relationship.
(f) Listening Can Give Us an Unfair Advantages Over Others

Just as listening compels us to keep quiet and sometimes saves us from
embarassing ourselves, patient listening can encourage speakers to insert
both feet in their mouth.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What is the difference between listening and hearing?
2. Why do you think listening is an important skill in todayÊs

organisation?

7.3 HOW TO BE AN EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATOR?
As we have gone through the process of communication and its functions, we are
now in a condition of becoming more understanding about what effective
communication is all about. According to Eunson (2016), effective communication
depends on being able to match strategies, messages, channels and audiences and
for different channels of communication. The same message may need to be
repackaged for different audiences and for different channels of communication.
The more communication skills and knowledge you master, the more versatile you
will become as a communicator, and the greater will be the likelihood that you will
be able to communicate effectively in a range of situations. Communicating
differently not only gives you the opportunity to reinforce you message, but also
demonstrates your versatility and competence (Eunson, 2016).
To be an effective communicator, Hybels & Weaver II (2015) suggested five

questions to begin with. What are the five questions?
(a) Which Communication Skills Am I Most Likely to Need?

To be an effective communicator, you must first find out about the
communication skills that you really need in your life. For example, you are
a frequent traveller, that travel a lot. You need interpersonal skills with
mastery of English language or any other foreign language. Also
intercultural communication skills is important because it is what you need
when meeting people in other countries.
(b) Which Communication Skills Am I Most Lacking?

Which kinds of communication are most difficult for you? Intrapersonal?
Interpersonal? Small Group? Public Speaking? Intercultural? For example, if
you lack skills in public speaking or presentation skills, you must not avoid
it but always familiarise yourself with giving speeches in front of people, be
it at a wedding, family day gathering, or in a meeting, etc.
(c) How Can I Get Communication Practice?

Other than this module or your courses in OUM related to communication,
where is the place that you think might help you to enhance you
communication skills? The best practice for you is to apply what you have
learned in this course in your daily life.

(d) Where Can I Get Help?

Who are the people you know that will help you develop communication
skills and give you feedback on how you are doing? Are there people you
can ask who will give you support when you are trying something new and
challenging ? Are you willing to ask them to support you?
(e) What Timetable Should I Set?

Have you set realistic timetable for improvement? Knowing that it is difficult
to learn new skills or break bad habits, are you willing to sacrifice time and
energy to become an effective communicator?
ACTIVITY 7.4
Do you know that you are free to access Open Educational Resources
(OER) in Communication? You can search in www.google.com and it
will show you thousands of such access provided by various universities
around the globe.
7.4 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION
According to Kapur (2018), there are several kinds of barriers to effective
communication, and most barriers occuring within the communication systems
are very unfortunate and unwanted. Most of us find the barriers rather displeasing
and in some cases may even have adverse effects on relationships, or productivity
in the workplace.
(a) Environmental and Physical Barriers

Time ă to develop quicker and speedy channels of communication. Some
information need to be delivered quickly, especially in todayÊs modern and
fast-paced world we are living in. For example, mail by post vs. e-mail.
Geographical factors ă The biggest barriers in a relationship between two

individuals is often location and distance. To make it worth, an effective
communicator must utilise technology that brings them closer, and also
make the communication run smoothly without distractions.

(b) Semantic Barriers

Language and vocabulary that is used in communication should be
understandable to the persons involved. Two or more persons when they are
communicating with each other should use common language, so that
everyone can understand it well.
(c) Cultural Barriers

Communication also takes place between people belonging to different
nationalities, religions, castes, creeds, races, ethnicities etc. It is crucial to
make people aware of ones own culture with whom they are communicating.
(d) Psychological Barriers

In the process of communication, it is important to understand each otherÊs
mindsets and mental capacities. Among the barriers are attitudes towards
speakers or topic of speech, also the audiencesÊ own attitude which are
indicative that they are not interested or unwilling to be part of the
communication process.
(e) Perception of Reality

It is important for a communicator to understand various perceptions of
a situation or an issue. There are different levels of perceptions that are
involved when communicating about a particular topic, condition, problem,
issue, situation,, dilemma, stress or a concept. In order to implement effective
communication, it is crucial to obtain „perception reality‰ which means
information about facts, knowledge, figures, actuality and what is true.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Discuss the barriers to effective communication. Provide relevant
examples.
 Effective communication is important in our daily lives because most of our

time in a day takes into consideration the communication process that
happens.
 To be an effective communicator, you must be cognizant of the functions of

verbal communication, nonverbal communication and the importance of
listening.

 There are five questions that you must asked yourself in order to be an effective
communicator. It is also important to identify and be aware of the barriers that
impede effective communication.
 Environmental and physical, semantic, cultural, psychological as well as

perception of reality are the five barriers to effective communication.
Cultural Barriers Perception of Reality

Effective Communication Psychological Barriers
Environmental and Physical Barriers Semantics Barriers
Listening skills Verbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication
Eunson, Baden. (2016). Communicating in the 21st Century. Qld, Australian: John
Wiley & Sons.
Fluer, M. H., DeFluer, M. L., Kearney, P., & Plax, Timothy, G. (2014). Fundamentals
of human communication: Social sciences in everyday life (4th eds.). NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Hybels, S., & Weaver II, R. L. (2015). Communicating effectively (11th eds.). NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Kapur, Radhika. (2018). Barriers to Effective Communication.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323794732_Barriers_to_Effecti
ve_Communication
Paynton, Scott. T., & Hahn, Laura, K. (2018). Survey of Communication study.
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
The P21 websites, www.p21.org/index.php

Topic  Collaborative
Skills
8 Dr Gurcharan Singh Bishen Singh
gurcharan_singh@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define collaboration and collaborative learning;
2. Elaborate on the benefits of collaborative learning;
3. Compare collaborative learning and cooperative learning; and
4. Discuss about the assessment of collaborative skills.
 INTRODUCTION
Let us start this topic with a question. How do you accomplish any task given to
you? You might be doing it alone and you might also sometimes do it with other
people. You might need some skills in order to work effectively with others.
Collaborative skill is one such skill.
Collaborative skill is an important learning skill for the 21st century learning.
Today there is more emphasis on working collaboratively as compared to working
alone, in order to achieve more. Working with others in collaboration creates
synergy which means that we could potentially achieve more when working
collaboratively. This synergistic work through collaboration not only helps us in
completing the work but also enhance our productivity.
Collaboration is also an important educational outcome and it is included in most

of the 21st century education models. The ability to work with others does not only
enhance our learning but also plays a part as a critical skill for life and career
success.

TOPIC 8 COLLABORATIVE SKILLS  163
Dede (2010) observed that:
The nature of collaboration is shifting to a more sophisticated skill set. In

addition to collaborating face-to-face with colleagues across a conference table,
21st century workers increasingly accomplish tasks through mediated
interactions with peers halfway across the world whom they may have never
meet face-to-face. Collaboration is worthy of inclusion as a 21st century skill
because the importance of cooperative interpersonal capabilities is higher and
the skills involved are more sophisticated than in the prior industrial era. (p. 2)
Dede in his observation states that we do not only work with others through face-
to-face interaction but we can also work with others who are not physically near
us. The collaborative skill is therefore important as a 21st century skill.
In this topic, we will look at collaborative skills through the discussion on

collaboration and collaborative learning. Collaborative skills are needed and
also attained through collaborative learning. Definition of collaboration and
collaborative skills will be followed by the benefits derived from collaborative
learning. There will also be discussion on the similarities and differences between
collaborative learning and cooperative learning as both of these are the dynamics
of team work. We will also look at some empirical studies on collaborative learning
followed by discussion on the assessment of collaborative skills.
8.1 DEFINITION OF COLLABORATION AND

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Hesse, Care, Buder, Sassenberg & Griffin (2015) gave a simple definition of
collaboration as „the activity of working together towards a common goal‰ (p. 38).
Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that
involves groups of students working together to solve a problem, complete a task,
or create a product (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). Gerlach (1994) explains
that „collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social
act in which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that
learning occurs.‰ To sum up the definitions given above, we can say that
collaborative learning is the activity we do by interacting with others to achieve a
certain goal or objective.

164  TOPIC 8 COLLABORATIVE SKILLS
Discussion on collaborative learning is underlined by a set of assumptions on the

learning process as put forth by Smith and MacGregor (1992). They are of the
opinion that learning is an active process where we accumulate what we learn and
relate it with what we already know. What we already know is obtained through
our prior learning and kept in our repertoire or collection. So learners will not
simply memorise information and regurgitate or pour it back out but rather go
through the process and synthesise the information they received while engaging
actively with their peers. It is also assumed that learners benefit from the exposure
to diverse viewpoints from other people from various backgrounds. It is also
suggested that learning flourishes in a social environment which allows the
learners to engage with each other. This helps the learner create his or her own
framework from the learning.
In order to work with others in a collaborative setting, we must be able to

demonstrate the ability to work effectively with various groups which are diverse.
To be able to achieve this, there must be willingness to make necessary
compromises so as to fit in the group and accomplish a common goal. A team
member who is working collaboratively with other members should contribute as
much as possible in assuming shared responsibility and should value the
contributions by other team members. In other words, we will only be able to get
the best out of working with others when we contribute to the group and respect
othersÊ contributions.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. Try to recall your own involvement with tasks done with others,
whether in school, work place or other context.
2. How did you find working with others?
3. Was it easier to work yourself rather than with others?
4. What were your challenges in working with others?

8.2 BENEFIT OF COLLABORATIVE SKILLS

Collaborative work does not merely help us achieve the target we set.
Collaboration could also potentially lead to other desirable outcomes within an
individual or group setting. This entails skills like problem solving, decision
making and helps to enhance intellectual development. Theories and research tend
to investigate how working within groups of various sizes helps in the attainment
of certain cognitive outcomes. We are now going to discuss some of the benefits of
collaborative learning.
Dillenbourg, Baker, Blaye & OÊMalley (1995) describe three conceptual approaches
which benefits the individuals ă social constructivist, socio-cultural and shared
cognition.
The first approach is the social constructivist approach which stems from PiagetÊs
work. In this approach, collaboration is viewed as a catalyst for individual
studentÊs cognitive development (Chi & Wylie, 2014; Ernest, 1998; Handal, 2003).
The second approach is the socio-cultural approach which is inspired by Vygotsky
that sees social interactions become internalised as the individual learns (Rogoff,
1991; Wertsch, del Rio & Alvarez, 1995; Wegerif, Mercer & Daweset, 1999). An
instance of this concept is the Zone of Proximal Development whereby there is a
gap between what an individual can learn by himself or herself versus what he or
she could learn under the guidance of an adult or group of peers. The third
approach is the shared cognition (or Interactionist) approach. This approach
emphasises that social interactions are inseparable from individualÊs thoughts and
actions (Plucker and Barab, 2005; Van den Bossche, Gijselaers, Segers, Wottjer &
Kirschner, 2011). The benefit discussed here covers the thinking or cognitive
aspect, the social interaction with others which leads to learning and the shared
thinking through the interaction.
In collaborative learning, we are expected to cooperate with group members and

not compete with them (Laal & Ghodsi, 2012). This is an underlying principle
which the collaborative learning practitioners apply at various settings, including
classroom, in community groups, in committees, in families and generally as a way
of living with and dealing with other people.

According to Johnson and Johnson (2009), there are three ways when individuals
take action in relation to the actions of others. An individual may be:
(a) Working together to accomplish shared goals;
(b) Working against each other in a competitive setting to achieve goal that is
scarce and only attainable by one or a few; and
(c) Working individualistically by oneself to achieve goals set by self and

unrelated to goals of others.
If we reflect on our own actions, we could be doing either one of these in our
interactions with others. We could be working with others, working in competition
with them or just working on our own.
These researchers (Johnson & Johnson, 2009) found through a survey they
conducted that collaborative learning results in;
(a) Higher achievement and greater productivity;
(b) Better relationships through a more caring and supportive behaviour; and
(c) Improved psychological health, social competence and self esteem.
Johnson and Johnson (1989) and Panitz (1999) list over 50 benefits for collaborative
learning. Laal and Ghodsi (2012) summarises these benefits into four major
categories, as follows:
(a) Social Benefits
(i) Collaborative learning helps to develop a social support system for

learners;
(ii) Collaborative learning leads to build diversity understanding among

students and staff;
(iii) Collaborative learning establishes a positive atmosphere for modelling

and practicing cooperation;
(iv) Collaborative learning develops learning communities.
(b) Psychological Benefits
(i) Student-centred instruction increases studentsÊ self esteem;
(ii) Cooperation reduces anxiety;
(iii) Collaborative learning develops positive attitudes towards teachers.

(c) Academic Benefits
(i) Collaborative learning promotes critical thinking skills;
(ii) Involves students actively in the learning process;
(iii) Classroom results are improved
(iv) Models appropriate student problem solving techniques
(v) Large lectures can be personalised
(vi) Collaborative learning is especially helpful in motivating students in

specific curriculum
(d) Alternate Student and Teacher Assessment Techniques

Collaborative teaching techniques utilise a variety of assessments.
The benefits of collaborative learning as discussed above point towards the

importance of having collaboration learning skill as it brings about good effects
not only to the group we are working with but also to ourselves as individuals.
8.3 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING
When we work together with others in a team, we could be either collaborating or
cooperating. This is also true for students who are brought together to work with
each other. Working together is regarded as an important element in producing
quality work as well as creating goodwill amongst the people involved. Even
though collaborative learning and cooperative learning involves students or
learners in teams, these two approaches have some similarities and some
differences.
In both the collaborative learning and cooperative learning approaches, the teacher
plays the part of a facilitator. Both of these approaches encompass active learning
and the experiences of learning are shared by the student and teacher alike.
Students also take more charge of their learning in both these approaches and their
cognitive skills are enhanced. Students articulate ideas in both these learning and
develop teambuilding skills through their social interactions.

The simplest way to see the difference in both these learning is that cooperative
learning involves each member using their skills and knowledge to help each other
and work together whilst in collaborative learning each member work separately
and come together for a common goal for the team as a whole. In collaborative
learning, the students organise and divide work among them. Each member will
then perform the task given and the sum of all the work will be brought together
as the team effort. In cooperative learning, each member is assigned a specific role
in the activities. Work is done together and that entails the overall team effort.
In collaborative learning, team members search for their own materials while in
cooperative learning, the facilitator supplies the information or help to direct the
members to where the sources can be acquired. The team as well as the members
of collaborative learning approach are more independent as compared to team
members of cooperative learning approach. The teacher is involved as the
facilitator in both these learning modes. However there is a difference on how
actively involved the facilitator is. The facilitator is generally more actively
involved in cooperative learning compared to collaborative learning. In
cooperative learning, the facilitator is heavily involved in listening and observing
the discussion and work being carried out. In fact, the facilitator also intervenes as
and when the need arises. In collaborative learning, the activities are generally not
monitored by the teacher. The students are left to make their own decisions but
they could get assistance if they request from the facilitator.
In cooperative learning, the work done by the group is submitted for the teacher
or facilitator to review and assess. The facilitator reviews and awards marks to
each member according to their efforts but generally the whole team will enjoy the
same marks. In collaborative learning, the members are involved in the
assessment. They do their own assessment as well as the assessment of their team
members. The facilitator plays a part in awarding the marks to the individual
member and also the team, taking into account the assessments done within the
team amongst its members. In short, the fundamental approach in cooperative
learning is teacher-centredness whereas collaborative learning is more student-
centred.

In collaborative learning, the success of the team performance depends on all the
accumulated success of all the team members. Every individual counts and the
contribution of each individual is both important for the individual as well as the
team. A member cannot strive just being excellent individually while not looking
at the performance of the team members. The good members must help develop
the weaker ones so that every member contributes to the highest possible. In
cooperative learning, some members could be good while others might be weak
and the good ones would be able to cover the weakness of the other members. This
is a good team work but those who do not want to develop can just play their
minimal role and sail along the wave created by the more hardworking members.
This could lead to an unbalanced level of performance amongst the members while
the team still looks good overall.
ACTIVITY 8.2
In a group, discuss what kind of learning takes place when individuals

work together in an orchestra performance. Is it cooperative learning or
collaborative learning?
8.4 EMPRICAL STUDIES ON COLLABORATION

There have been numerous studies on the effects of collaborative learning on
learners. However, Kuhn (2015) through his review of research on collaboration
found that not many experimental studies have been conducted. He also found
that collaboration does not appear to benefit every student in every learning
situation. Some students seem to benefit more when they are working individually
rather than working in a group. Another problem is that the collective performance
of the team is hard to determine because some highly competent members might
dominate the group activities. Furthermore, most of the research focused on
individual learning in the group and not on the accomplishments of the groups.

The research on collaborative learning however shows a desirable effect on groups

when investigating the cognitive outcomes of students or learners. It was found
that groups appear less effective when rote-learning which is memorising and
regurgitating. On the other hand, the benefit of collaboration is derived through
the feedback and comments by team members on the individualÊs thinking;
collaboration is found to be less effective on adolescents compared to younger and
older learners; more effective collaboration happens in Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) content compared to non-STEM content;
and when team members need to rely on each other or are interdependence while
carrying out task then student outcomes might be better (Kuhn, 2015; Kyndt, Raes,
Lismont, Timmers, Cascallar & Dochy, 2013; Noroozi, Weinberger, Biemans,
Mulder & Chirazi, 2012).
Research has also been done on the relationship of collaborative learning with the
other skills of the 21st century, particularly creativity and critical thinking skills.
There have been studies to investigate whether working in groups create more
creativity than individuals working alone. The findings are generally negative,
with most studies suggesting that people who work in groups tend to be less
creative than those individuals working alone on similar tasks (Diehl & Stroebe,
1987; Larey & Paulus, 1999; Thompson, 2003; West, Borrill and Unsworth, 1998).
Research found that critical thinking skill, which is another 21st century skill
when combined with collaboration shows that collaboration can help in the
enhancement of critical thinking skills. Gokhale (1995) compared individual
student performance and group performance. Students performed factual
knowledge recall tasks and critical thinking tasks as individuals and also as a
group. Both the individual and group approaches were found to be effective in
increasing factual knowledge. On the other hand, it was found that collaborative
learning was significantly more beneficial to enhance critical thinking and
problem-solving skills.
Research on collaboration and critical thinking is important as it shows that the

same type of activity may not yield the same effects when it is done in a group and
when students are collaborating. This simply means that even when students are
working in a group, it may not necessarily mean that they are collaborating. On
the contrary, students may be working collaboratively but not together in the same
place.

8.5 ASSESSMENT OF COLLABORATIVE SKILLS

The assessment of collaborative learning is an important process but it also has
some challenges. A few questions crop up regarding the assessment of
collaborative learning. In the assessment, is it the individual or the group outcomes
which is more important as a result of collaboration? What about the individualÊs
ability to work with others in the group? Webb (1997) asserted that the assessments
traditionally have been interested in either the individual or group outcomes.
However, there have been more emphasis and focus recently on the ability of
individuals to work with other members in the group.
The challenge in the assessment of collaborative skills is on how to determine the

individual performance. It is a question of how to assign marks or scores to each
individual member in a particular group to ensure that the real competency is
measured. This might be easier to tackle in a small group but it becomes a real
challenge in large-scale assessments. Binkley et al. (2012) presented the operational
definitions of collaboration and divide these into knowledge, skills and attitudes
as three main areas of assessment. The three main areas are then detailed into
several behavioural measures which are further described. The detailed
definitions by Binkley et al. (2012) are presented as follows;
(a) Knowledge
(i) Interact effectively with others
 Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak
(ii) Work effectively in diverse teams
 Know and recognise the individual roles of a successful team and

know own strengths and weaknesses, and recognizing and
accepting them in others
(iii) Manage projects
 Know how to plan, set, and meet goals and to monitor and re-plan
in the light of unforeseen developments

(b) Skills
 Speak with clarity and awareness of audience and purpose. Listen

with care, patience, and honesty
 Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner
 Leverage social and cultural differences to create new ideas and

increase both innovation and quality of work
 Prioritise, plan, and manage work to achieve the intended group

result
(iv) Guide and lead others
 Use interpersonal and problem-solving skills to influence and

guide others toward a goal
 Leverage strengths of others to accomplish a common goal
 Inspire others to reach their very best via example and selflessness
 Demonstrate integrity and ethical behaviour in using influence and

power
(c) Attitudes/Values/Ethics
 Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak
 Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner
 Show respect for cultural differences and be prepared to work

effectively with people from a range of social and cultural
backgrounds
 Respond open-mindedly to different ideas and values

 Persevere to achieve goals, even in the face of obstacles and

competing pressures
(iv) Be responsible to others
 Act responsibly with the interests of the larger community in mind
In 2015, for the first time, the Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA), included a collaborative problem-solving component in the assessment.
Previously, in 2012, PISA only assessed individual studentÊs ability to solve
problems. The shift is made to address the growing emphasis on collaborative
learning and students who are able to work more effectively in team
environments.
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. Why are collaborative learning and collaborative skills so

important that even PISA assesses it?
2. Will it be more advantageous for certain culture, people, society or

nations that have more people practicing collaboration? Discuss.
8.6 ENHANCING THE COLLABORATIVE

LEARNING
Collaborative learning could be enhanced with concerted efforts at every level of
the learning. Various efforts could be taken from the classroom level up to the
national level to ensure that the collaborative learning initiatives are well executed
and maximum benefits are reaped.
The Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21) which is a national nonprofit
organisation in The United States that advocates for 21st century readiness for
every student, presented six education levels for collaborative learning initiatives.
Each of the levels is discussed with focus on three important aspects ă intervention,
assessment and evaluation. This section will discuss these aspects on the six levels,
namely; classroom, school, out-of-school, school district, state and national.

The first level is the classroom. The classroom intervention determines the
extent to which collaboration is being developed and modelled in classroom
environment. This should be supported by embedding opportunities for
collaboration into the classroom culture. For the assessment, collaboration should
be embedded into all aspects of student learning, curriculum and instruction. The
classroom facilitator should also address the diverse abilities of the students and
ways of collaboration. Evaluation in the classroom should focus on both the
student collaboration and team building skills. Results from regular assessment of
studentÊs growth should be reported to the parents.
The second level is the school. The school level intervention should examine
how collaboration is taught and demonstrated across classrooms and grades. The
school should focus its educational goals on collaboration as both, a process and
an outcome. The assessment of collaborative skills should be given high priority.
The school should develop a common vision, plan and strategy to be included in
teaching and learning.
The third level is out-of-school. In out-of-school level or context, learning

activities should be redesigned to close gaps in ensuring that these support
both collaborative and individual learning experiences. The assessment should
incorporate collaboration into programmes , activities and services while
supporting the building of staff capacity through professional development
and professional learning communities. In evaluation, efforts should be done
to encourage student growth in collaboration as integral part of programme
outcomes. Evidence of collaborative learning experiences should be documented.
The fourth level is the school district. At the school district level, the intervention
should include determining how resources are used to promote collaboration
in learning spaces and culture. Resources should be allocated as needed and
there should be encouragement of mediated interactions and blended learning
opportunities. As for the assessment, resources should be provided to schools to
incorporate collaboration into teaching and learning. Evaluation at this level will
include efforts to develop and support 21st century assessment data systems for
educators, parents and students.
The fifth level is the state. At the state level, there should be promotion of
teaching practices and learning environments that promote collaboration. As
for the assessment, the state should provide the districts with curricular
and instructional resources as well as professional development initiatives. The
evaluation at the state level should include the development of collaboration
rubrics to assess student growth. There should be efforts to incorporate evaluation
of collaborative skills in all assessments and promote collaboration as a critical
student outcome.

The sixth level is the national level. At this level, there should be continuous
support for the ongoing research on effective collaboration. Resources should be
developed to help promotion of collaboration for learning. For the assessment,
there should be efforts towards funding of research and development projects on
interventions which will increase the studentsÊ collaborative skills. The evaluation
effort at this level should support the development of high quality collaboration
assessments and rubrics.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Discuss on the role you could play in enhancing the collaborative

learning at the various levels discussed above. Who else could play a role
in doing the initiatives?
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What is collaborative learning?
2. What are the benefits of collaborative learning?
3. Describe the differences between collaborative learning and

cooperative learning.
4. What are the main areas that can be measured using assessment of
collaboration?
 Collaborative skills is essential in the 21st century as it develops teams and

enhances productivity.
 In collaborative learning, the learners actively use their prior learning to

acquire more knowledge and benefit from the diverse viewpoints of others
working with them.
 Collaborative learning results in higher achievement and greater productivity,

both for the individual as well as the team.

 In cooperative learning, each individual plays his or her role in part of the task
and work is done together while in collaborative learning, each individual
works on a part but may work separately. The parts are then brought together
to form the whole.
 The research on collaborative learning shows a desirable effect on groups when

cognitive outcomes are investigated ă often from the feedback and discussion
on a learnerÊs thinking.
 Students might be working in a group but that does not necessarily mean that
they are collaborating. On the other hand students may be working
collaboratively but not together in the same place.
 The challenge in assessing collaborative skills is in determining the individual

performance. Collaboration could be assessed through knowledge, skills and
attitudes/values/ethics.
 The P21 proposes six education levels for collaborative learning initiatives,
namely; classroom, school, out-of-school, school district, state and national.
 Each level is discussed with focus on three important aspects ă intervention,

assessment and evaluation.
 Collaborative skills will be an important asset in any learner of the 21st century.
Assessment ă knowledge, skills and Cooperative learning

attitudes
Evaluation
Collaborative learning
Intervention
Collaborative skills

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Topic  Global
Citizenship
9 Education
Oo Cheng Keat
oochengkeat@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss Global Citizenship Education (GCED) and its importance in
the 21st century;
2. Analyse the roles of the state in globalisation;
3. Explain international conflicts; and
4. Elaborate on gender equality in the world.
 INTRODUCTION
The more global citizens there are, and the more active and effective they are,
the more progress the world will make.
(Bill Gates, Founder of Microsoft)
Welcome to Topic 9. This topic will be divided into four parts. Firstly, this
topic will discuss on Global Citizenship Education and its importance in the
21st century. In the subtopic, learners will be exposed to the definition of
Global Citizenship Education, the objectives and lastly its importance. Next, this
topic will focus on the roles of the state in globalisation. The question to ponder is
whether the role of the state will be more powerful or the other way round due to
globalisation.

TOPIC 9 GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION  181
Equally important in this topic is international conflicts. You will be exposed to the
conflict between Iraq and Kuwait that occurred in the early 1990s as well as the
Syrian Civil War that has happened in 2011. These two conflicts are selected for
the purpose of discussion because the former happened right after the collapse of
the Berlin Wall, followed by the political and economic instabilities in the Soviet
Union which signified the road to the end of the Cold War. Meanwhile, the latter
was the on-going war that began in late December 2010 in Tunisia and spread to
many other Arab countries including Syria (2011) as a result of long-term suffering
by the oppressive regimes and discrimination and low standard of living. Finally,
this topic will delve into gender equality in the 21st century from the political and
economic aspects in Malaysia.
9.1 GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION AND

ITS IMPORTANCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY
What is global citizenship education? Why do we need to learn this topic? Is it
another topic telling people what to think and act? Before we delve into these
issues, let us begin our discussion with a brief background of global citizenship
education or better known as GCE or GCED. In this topic, the abbreviation of
GCED will be used instead of GCE to avoid any confusion.
In September 2012, the then UN Secretary-General, Mr Ban Ki Moon has launched

Global Education First Initiative (GEFI) through the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) to promote global citizenship
education. GEFI aims to foster global citizenship as one of its three education
priorities. The other two priorities are to put every child in school and to improve
the quality of learning (Global Education First Initiative).
Consequently, in 2013, two main UNESCO events which are the Technical
Consultation on Global Citizenship Education and the first UNESCO Forum on
Global Citizenship Education held in Seoul, Republic of Korea and Bangkok,
Thailand respectively. The outcomes from both events were documented.
These two documents provided foundation works for GCED and in support
of GEFI. For further details of these documents, you may refer to these
websites http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002241/224115E.pdf and
http://www.unescobkk.org/education/news/article/unesco-forum-on-global-
citizenship-education/.

182  TOPIC 9 GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
Two years later, in May 2015, in Incheon, Republic of Korea, the Incheon
Declaration was adopted at the World Education Forum (WEF). The Incheon
Declaration emphasised the commitment of the education community to
Education 2030. Meanwhile, on September 25, 2015, 193 member states of the
United Nations have formally adopted the 2030 Development Agenda, entitled
„Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development‰. The
adoption of this agenda along with a set of bold new Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) or also known as the Global Goals comprised 17 Goals, 169 Targets
and 232 indicators is aim to achieve a better and sustainable future for all
(Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Sustainable Development Goals

Source: http://www.peace-ed-campaign.org/17-ways-education-influences-the-un-
sustainable-development-goals/
These 17 Goals are all interconnected that encompasses various global challenges
that we are facing now such as poverty, climate change, environmental
degradation, peace, inequalities and many others. Building on the principle of
„Leaving No One Behind‰, the SDGs asserted that everyone in this world should
be treated equally regardless of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion
or economic or other status to sustain the better future for all. One of the Goals of
the SDGs is Goal 4 ă Quality Education. This Goal consists of ten targets, eleven
indicators. Target 4.7 specifically mentioned that:

By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to
promote sustainable development, including, among others, through
education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human
rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence,
global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of cultureÊs
contribution to sustainable development
(Sustainable Development Goal 4; Target 4.7)
This target apparently highlights the importance of GCED and education for
sustainable development to the younger generation to prepare themselves to
become more knowledgeable, aware and concerned about global challenges in this
interdependent world for the next fifteen years.
What is Global Citizenship Education?

According to the document of the Technical Consultation on Global Citizenship
Education 2013, GCED is transformative, giving learners the opportunity and
competencies to realise their rights and obligations to promote a better world and
future (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002241/224115E.pdf).
Furthermore, GCED also focuses on learning from other transformative education

processes, like human rights, inter-national or intercultural understanding,
sustainable development, as well as education for peace.
So, based on the above definitions, it can be said that GCED empowers learners to
think, share and act for a more just, peaceful, inclusive and sustainable world.
Moving on, let us discuss the objectives of GCED.
The fundamental objective of GCED is to nurture respect for all, build a sense of
belonging to shared humanity and help learners to become responsible and active
global citizens. Nevertheless, the other aims of GCED are to empower learners so
that they can engage and assume active roles, both locally and globally; to face and
resolve global challenges and ultimately to become proactive contributors to a
more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable world (UNESCO,
2014). The GCED has three main conceptual dimensions which are cognitive,
socio-emotional and behaviour. The details of these three main conceptual
dimensions are explained in Table 9.1 below.

Table 9.1: Three Main Conceptual Dimensions of GCED
Cognitive To acquire knowledge, understanding and critical thinking

about global, regional, national and local issues and the
interconnectedness and interdependency of different countries and
populations.
Socio-emotional To have a sense of belonging to a common humanity, sharing values
and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for differences
and diversity.
Behavioural To act effectively and responsibly at local, national and global levels
for a more peaceful and sustainable world.
Source: UNESCO (2015)
Importance of GCED
You may ask why GCED is important when there are so many issues happening
locally and at the same time, global issues concentrated mainly in the developing
world. Well, the importance of GCED is due to increasing pressure to expand
the role of education to address global problems. Hence, the role of education in
the 21st century should go beyond the usual topics traditionally taught in the
classrooms or lecture halls. Conversely, education that goes beyond the classroom
or lecture hall is what our „educated‰ societies should focus on in the 21st century.
The theories, concepts or even models that have been taught in the classrooms or
lecture halls provide us with the knowledge, yet these are not sufficient. Now, it is
time for us as a global citizen to practice and act upon the theories, concepts and
models in our daily lives for the sustainability of this world. For instance, the
education of sustainable development should not be taught per se, but it should
focus on how people should react and practice in their daily life. In fact, we were
taught a long time ago on the 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) of the environment.
However, it is 5Rs or even 6Rs now. The correct order of 5Rs is Refuse, Reduce,
Reuse, Repurpose, Recycle. Meanwhile, the 6Rs are Reduce, Rethink, Refuse,
Recycle, Reuse and Repair.

Figure 9.2: The 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle)

Source: http://www.justscience.in/articles/introduction-to-the-3-rs/2017/06/26
Figure 9.3: The 5Rs (Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose, Recycle

Source: https://charmio-wear.com/the-5rs-refuse-reduce-reuse-repurpose-recycle/

Figure 9.4: The 6Rs are Reduce, Rethink, Refuse, Recycle, Reuse and Repair
Source: https://www.myprincegeorgenow.com/105317/reduce-reuse-recycle-are-tried-
and-true-but-now-add-rethink-refuse-and-repair/
Next, according to Mr Ban Ki-moon, former UN Secretary-General during the

launch of the Secretary GeneralÊs Global Education First Initiative (GEFI):
„Education gives us a profound understanding that we are tied together as citizens
of the global community, and that our challenges are interconnected‰
(https://cisv.org/resources/educational-content-research/active-global-
citizenship/).
The world that we are living in now is more complex and challenging. The world
has become more interdependent and interconnected. Any actions that happen
locally will have effects not only on our community, our city but on all of us, the
world itself. Therefore, we must understand each other, live as one global citizen
and prepare our younger generation to find the solutions for the challenges in this
interconnected world (Figure 9.5).

Figure 9.5: Understanding the global issues among global communities

Source: Photo from the authorÊs file
According to Toh Swee-Hin, Laureate of the UNESCO Prize for Peace Education
in 2000: „Important entry points for GCED are peace education, human rights
education, education for international understanding, education for sustainable
development. They are like a river with many tributaries; in this river, we can mix
and learn from each other.‰ (UNESCO, 2014). Thus, the GCED will help us to
develop a caring attitude and empathy for others in this mutual environment. For
instance, human rights issues in the Palestine conflict has yet to be resolved since
the establishment of the „Israel‰ on 14 May 1948. This conflict is not about „their‰
conflict. It is „our‰ conflict. The systematic oppression and discrimination are
happening daily against the Palestinians. As a global citizen and through GCED,
we can play our roles to create awareness and make our community aware of this
issue.

Without a doubt, literacy and numeracy are important, but we must not only
emphasise on education that can be measured. Equally essential is to delve
into issues like, change, interdependence, identity and diversity, rights and
responsibilities, peacebuilding, poverty and wealth, diversity, sustainability and
global justice which contribute to, contemporary global issues at local, national
and global levels as informed, engaged, responsible and responsive global citizens.
Every year, we have more architects, accountants, engineers, dentists and many
others, but how many of these people are the agents of the positive change in this
world. How many of them are aware of the trade war between China and the US,
the Syrian Crisis, the ethnic conflicts in Yemen resulting in the food crisis, global
warming and many others? Hence, through GCED, we will be more emphatic,
compassionate, adaptable, tolerance of what is happening, be it locally or
internationally.
The national educational context is important in integrating GCED into the

educational systems of any country (be it the school curriculum, training
curriculum of teachers and school administrators and in the non-formal training
programs of both governmental and non-governmental organisations) (Plantilla,
2018). It is because GCED is not about „you‰ or „I‰, but rather „we‰ and „us‰. As
mentioned earlier, GCED is not alien in our educational context as it has already
been embedded into our education syllabus since primary and secondary levels
into subjects such as Language, History, Geography, Civil Education because the
themes of GCED revolves on peace education, poverty, human rights, cultural
diversity and many others.
In conclusion, GCED is not a passive learning process on cosmopolitanism, but to

promote understanding leading to action among the global citizens locally and
internationally. GCED is not static but dynamic. GCED enables the learners to
be more sensitive, proactive and alert to political, social, cultural and economic
world realities as they unfold. According to George Santayana: „A manÊs feet
should be planted in his country, but his eyes should survey the world‰
(https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/george_santayana_125570).
Consequently, there is a need that the themes of GCED should be embedded into
education syllabus of any course as it can cultivate respect for the world and each
other, to provide our citizens with the understanding of a diverse world, to
respond to the unfamiliar with empathy, to empower youth to lead our societies,
to embrace peace, to activate civil participation, to enjoy our differences.
According to Education Minister of Malaysia, Dr Maszlee Malik, in line with the
Malaysian Education Development Plan to enable every student to leave school as
a global citizen, with core and universal values and a strong Malaysian identity
(http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2018/09/30/student-exchange-
programme-important-development-national-education-maszlee).

SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. Explain what „global citizenship‰ is in your own words.
2. What are the common characteristics of the global citizenship

definitions?
3. Identify FOUR sub-themes of global citizenship education.
4. What are the core dimensions of GCED?
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Share an experience that made you feel a sense of belonging to the
global community.
2. In your opinion, should the Ministry of Education make Global

Citizenship Education (GCED) as a compulsory course in tertiary
education? Discuss your arguments with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE.
3. How can GCED be implemented at local, national and global

levels?
4. What is the change that you as a learner want to bring about as a

global citizen in the world?
9.2 IS THE STATE “POWERLESS” IN

GLOBALISATION?
Undeniably, „globalisation‰ is the contested terminology among scholars in
international relations. Let us take a look at a few definitions on globalisation.
Definition of Globalisation
The word „globalisation‰ is widely used, but what does it mean? First of all,
globalisation can be referred to as the growing interconnectedness of governments,
non-state actors and populations throughout the world through a variety of
political, economic, technological, cultural, environment and other interactions
(Klesner, 2014).

According to Anthony McGrew (2017) „Globalisation ă simply the widening,

deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness ă is a contentious
issue in the study of world politics‰.
Furthermore, globalisation can also be defined as „the intensification of worldwide

social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings
are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa‰ (Giddens, 1990).
Fundamentally, there is a general agreement about the definition of globalisation.

Globalisation is the process whereby the world is getting smaller and
interconnected in many ways such as culture, human activities and trade.
Globalisation has been around for centuries, and it is not something new in the
world. Government policymakers, party leaders, business and industry, academia,
trade union leaders and the mass media all talk about the impact of globalisation
and how it can change our lives. Many people see international trade and
investment growth as globalisation in the past two decades. Globalisation is
pushing down national borders and integrating the global economy. Some
people refer to globalisation as a „global village.‰ The perception of whether
„globalisation‰ is good or bad, is still a matter of opinion.
The original state role was created from the Westphalian Model, portraying the
state as the highest power with complete sovereignty, with an internal role to
provide to and govern for the people of the state and an external role as an actor
in world politics; the current role of the state is different politically, socially,
technologically and economically (Buchanan, 2012). However, globalisation has
altered the function of the state politically as it has strengthened the relationship
between the states and resulted in the dependency among one another. States were
created to be sovereign but now, due to globalisation, often give their sovereignty
away to „pooling‰ (Shaw, 2000, 185) in conventions, contracting, coercion and
imposition (Krasner, 1995/6).
Globalisation has resulted in the state that has to encounter the challenges beyond
their geographical boundaries. For instance, the Syrian Civil War which originated
with a peaceful demonstration by the Syrian pro-democracy activists on March
2011, after one of the 15 boys that were arrested was killed because the Syrian
armies brutally tortured him. President Syria, Bashar al-Assad has responded to
the mass protest by killing hundreds of demonstrators and imprisoning others
involved in the mass demonstrations. Due to globalisation, this incident has
spread across the world. Foreign interventions like Hezbollah, the majority of Shia
in Iraq and Iran has rented the support to Bashar al-AssadÊs regime, while, Turkey,
Saudi Arabia and Qatar have backed the insurgent groups against the Assad
government. These foreign interventions have caused the state not only have to
delve with the pressure of the internal civilians but also external interference. The

war itself excited European Muslims and led many to volunteer, often seeing
themselves as would-be freedom fighters rather than clandestine terrorists.
(Byman February 27, 2018). Inevitably, it started as the civil war, but now with the
backing of foreign interventions, this internal war has lasted for almost nine years,
and there is still no sign that this civil war will end anytime soon.
Today, there are many non-state actors like the United Nations (UN), World
Bank (WB), Multinational Corporations (MNCs) besides the state are affecting
international politics due to globalisation. The state remains central and important
in the international system, but its role is clearly transforming. The role of the
state has been transformed from the controller to the protector. This can be seen,
especially in the political and economic sector. Politically, the state will protect its
political system, while economically, the state will have to diversify its economic
activities in order to attract the foreign direct investor at the same time not
jeopardising its infant economy activities. For instance, China was once on its own
land, but in 1979, she implemented the Open Door Policy. This policy is to attract
foreign investors to invest and expand their businesses in China so as to speed up
the growth of her economy. At the same time, the political system remains as it is
since her independence in 1949, a unitary state with a one-party system controlled
by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) which is also known as Communist Party
of China (CPC).
Globalisation has created imbalances between the states. Certain states become so
powerful and vice-versa. In fact, „in recent decades an imbalance has emerged
between successful efforts to craft strong and well-enforced rules facilitating the
expansion of global markets, while support for equally valid social objectives, be
they labour standards, the environment, human rights or poverty reduction,
has lagged behind‰ (UN, 2000, Millennium Report, A/54/2000). Consequently,
globalisation has opened up a developing countryÊs markets to skew competition
with multinationals which has ensured that most of the wealth of such countries
end up in the developed world. In exchange, the developing country is left with
more unemployment, poverty and diseases.
The states can become dominant if the citizens of the states can seize the
opportunities of globalisation. The citizens are required to access to higher quality
education system, information and communication technologies (ICT), social
security nets and many others. Meanwhile, the role of the government is equally
important too. The government can provide affordable access and good coverages
to these services to the citizens. Although it will be a daunting task for the
developing states due to lack of the facilities and accessibility, the government can
minimise the cost of globalisation by strengthening the state institutions and social
welfare policies for its citizens.

The negative impact that globalisation brings also cannot be neglected at all.
Globalisation increased the risk of the various countriesÊ economies, particularly
the developing countries where economic sovereignty and economic security are
faced with new challenges. The South-North economic gap further widens. Even
if in developed country, because of the change of economic structure, the
application of sophisticated technology leads to the lesser use of labour in the
production line. Consequently, it has resulted in a higher unemployment rate.
The trade protectionism of all forms has been on the rise. Some countries also take
the opportunity of globalisation, to promote their own values, the economic
regime and social systems to other countries forcefully and thus erode the values
of the receiving countries. If these issues cannot be solved, globalisation can be
perceived as an unhealthy development to the state.
In conclusion, the phenomenon of globalisation did not make the state becomes
powerless, but it actually expands and strengthen the roles of the state itself. The
state still remains central in the international system despite the challenges from
non-state actors as well as the phenomenon of globalisation. This is because, in the
world of global enmeshment, simply to achieve domestic objectives, national
governments are forced to engage in extensive multilateral collaboration and
cooperation. (Baylis, Smith & Owens, 2016). Undeniably, the roles of the state have
transformed, but no means to become „powerless‰. The state has to become more
proactive and dynamic or else the sovereignty of the state is at stake.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. In your own words, explain the definition of globalisation.
2. Based on this subtopic, identify at least THREE features of

globalisation.
3. Why must there be „globalisation‰?
4. What is the role of the state in managing globalisation?

ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Reflect on the impacts of globalisation in your country.
2. Select any ONE developing country in the world, discuss how

globalisation has influenced that country's government policies?
3. In your opinion, how is the role of the state in globalisation today

different from fifty years ago? Discuss with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE.
4. Do you think globalisation can happen without the Internet?

Discuss.
9.3 INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS

How are the international conflicts relevant to GCED? Well, one of the main
relevance is to embed international conflicts in GCED by ensuring the learners are
sensitive to the causes and impacts of conflicts happening around the world and
thus become a responsible and caring global citizen.
There are many conflicts that have happened and is happening now. For
discussion purposes, in this sub-topic, we will focus on two international conflicts;
the Iraq and the Persian Gulf War 1990ă1991 and the Syrian Civil War.
Iraq and the Persian Gulf War 1990ă1991

The Gulf War was not the first war in the Gulf region. In fact, the first Gulf War
occurred between Iran-Iraq from 1980 till 1988. However, the Gulf War between
Iraq and Kuwait was indeed the first Gulf War during the post-Cold War period.
The Gulf War or Operation Desert Storm erupted when Iraq led by Saddam
Hussein attacked Kuwait on 2 August 1990.

IraqÊs attack on Kuwait started with SaddamÊs decision to dominate the oilfield in
Rumaila (see Figure 9.6) which was supposed to have been shared by both
countries. However, Saddam went further by challenging KuwaitÊs independence.
Historically, Iraq had claimed Kuwait as part of its territory twice in the
20th century; in 1937 and 1961 respectively.
Figure 9.6: Rumaila oilfield

Source: https://www.energy-pedia.com/news/iraq/rumaila-oil-field-achieves-3-
billionbarrel-production-landmark-169457
Saddam gave four reasons to justify his invasion of Kuwait:
(a) There was a popular uprising in Kuwait, followed by a request for help from
„brotherly‰ Iraq;
(b) Kuwait had damaged IraqÊs economic interests by taking oil from the Iraqi
part of the Rumaila oilfield and exceeded its Organisation of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) quota, thus lowering the price of oil;
(c) The border between the two states was wrongly drawn; and
(d) Kuwait had no legal status and was historically on Iraqi territory ă its
19th province.
(Oo Cheng Keat, 2017)

Despite no official statistics of civilian deaths in the Desert Storm (Gulf War),
however, an estimated 200,000 lives, mostly Iraqi civilians and troops were killed
and wounded by intense bombardment.
In spite of the UN resolutions, diplomatic moves, the freezing of IraqÊs and

KuwaitÊs assets, and the imposition of sanctions aimed at forcing the voluntary
withdrawal by Iraq, Kuwait remained under IraqÊs control. However, after the
launch of Operation Desert Storm by the US, finally, a ceasefire was declared. The
aftermath of this war saw Kuwait liberated, and Iraq suffered the loss of life and
mass destruction of their infrastructure. This war also marked the beginning of the
„New World Order‰.
Syrian Civil War

Syria was also dragged into the Arab Spring which led to a long-term civil
war amongst her people. Syria was initially not significantly affected by the
happenings in Tunisia and Egypt. However, in 2011 the beginning of unrest
erupted when 15 school children in the southern Syrian city of Daraa painted
anti-government graffiti on the walls of their school. The children were arrested
and harshly punished. The community was furious over the childrenÊs detention
and mistreatment and this spurred the spread of Syrian opposition. The initial
demand from the childrenÊs families and tribes was to bring those involved to
justice through a series of protests and demonstrations. Unfortunately, the regime
adamantly refused and responded to the demand with further violence. However,
due to the failure of the regime to give justice to the victims, protesters started to
demand for the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad as well as the end to over
four decades of BaÊath Party rule (Lesch, 2013).
Besides, the above causes that triggered the wave of civil war in 2011, there are
also other causes. One of the notable cause was the dissatisfaction over the Assad
familyÊs long reign of power since 1971 from Hafez al-Assad who formed an
authoritarianism form of government till his death in 2000. Subsequently, after his
death, his son Bashar Hafez al-Assad succeeded his legacy to rule the country till
present.

This war also symbolised discontent between two sectarians ă Sunni-Shiite. Syria
is 74% Sunni, but the Assad family is part of a Shiite sect known as the Alawites.
After the eruption of civil war in 2011, the vast majority of Alawites were giving
full support to the Assad regime for fear of discrimination if the Sunni majority
come to power.
Higher unemployment rate, lower standards of living and limited political

freedoms also contribute to the outbreak of this civil war.
So, what are the effects of this war? The effects of this war till present has caused
damaged to 104 heritage sites, including five of the six UNESCO World Heritage
Sites. Currently, this war has escalated causing the loss of lives of many innocent
civilians, while more and more people flee to other countries for survival. Besides,
crime cases has increased tremendously since many police stations are not
functioning well due to serious damaged as a result of bombing. Infectious
diseases have spread across the country due to poor sanitation and deterioration
of the living conditions.
The Syrian Civil War is an on-going war till today. There is no indication of when
peace can be attained in Syria despite the intervention and pressure by the United
Nations and other international communities.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. Identify THREE causes of the Persian Gulf War 1990ă1991.
2. List any TWO countries involved in the Arab Spring.
3. Who is the current President of Syria?
4. Explain THREE effects of the Syrian Civil War.

ACTIVITY 9.3
1. Based on the case study on the Iraq and the Persian Gulf War
1990ă1991, do you think the intervention of the US was legitimate?
Discuss.
2. Do you think the current condition in Iraq is better than when it

was under the administration of Saddam Hussein? Discuss your
answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum.
3. Based on the discussion on the Syria „Civil War‰, generally, what

causes the Arab Spring?
4. Discuss with your face-to-face tutor or e-tutor, what are the five
UNESCO World Heritage Sites that have been damaged in the
Syrian Civil War. Then, explain the importance of these heritage
sites for the younger generation.
9.4 GENDER EQUALITY IN THE

21ST CENTURY: CASE STUDIES
IN MALAYSIA
First and foremost, what is meant by gender equality? What is gender equality in
the 21st century? What is the importance of gender equality? These and more
will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Before we delve into the detail of
what is gender equality, let us start with the term gender. According to the
World Health Organisation (WHO), gender refers to the socially constructed
characteristics of women and men ă such as norms, roles and relationships of
and between groups of women and men (http://www.who.int/gender-equity-
rights/understanding/gender-definition/en/).

So what is gender equality? Is it equality only for men? Is it equality only for
women? Or equality for both men and women? Well, gender equality simply
meant equality between women and men. However, in todayÊs world, sometimes,
gender is thought to be synonymous with women (Tickner, 2017, p. 266). Almost
simultaneously with gender, gender equality is also associated with women too.
These two statements are facts to be recognised. Globally, in 18 countries,
husbands can legally prevent their wives from working; in 39 countries, daughters
and sons do not have equal inheritance rights; and 49 countries lack laws
protecting women from domestic violence. For further detail, please log in
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/.
Moving on, when we talk about gender equality, what types of equality are we
referring to? There are many types of equality that we want to achieve to empower
all women and girls ă for example, equality to access to education; access to
healthcare. Also in terms of equitable allocation of employment and universal
suffrage which means every citizen above a certain age must be allowed to vote.
Besides, we also want to ensure all women and girls have the rights to social
security, rights to own property, fair trial in the court, rights of equality. No one in
the world should be robbed of their rights to profess the religion of choice, to
express their thoughts or opinions or even moving from one place to another.
Therefore, the importance of achieving gender equality within and outside the
household has been recently reaffirmed in the recently adopted Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs):
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld
There are 17 goals of sustainable development under the new sustainable

development agenda to be achieved within the next 15 years. To end poverty, to
preserve and conserve the planet as well as to ensure the prosperity for everybody
living in this world; to transform our world to become a better place to live. Of the
17 goals, one of the goals is gender equality. Under Goal 5, Gender Equality is to
achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls (See Figure 9.7).

Figure 9.7: Goal 5 Gender Equality

Source: https://www.globalgoals.org/5-gender-equality
The overall objective of gender equality is a society in which women and men
enjoy the same opportunities, rights and obligations in all spheres of life.
As in the case of Malaysia, according to the Demographic Statistics Second Quarter

(Q2) 2019, Malaysia has a population of 15.75 million women equivalent to
48.34 per cent of the total population, which stands at 32.58 million (Demographic
Statistics Second Quarter (Q2) 2019, Malaysia). However, womenÊs representation
in party leadership, especially in the Parliament of Malaysia, is still very low. Even
after the formation of New Malaysia in May 2018 under Tun Dr MahathirÊs
leadership, there are only 33 women or 14.86 per cent who have been elected
into the House of Representative (Dewan Rakyat). Undoubtedly, the level of
womenÊs formal political representation in Malaysia is low and does not reach the
30 per cent quota as endorsed by the Economic and Social Council during the
United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China in
September 1995. Logically, if women formed 48% of the total population in
Malaysia, by right, it should have 48% representation in all policymaking levels.
Gladly, there is light at the end of the tunnel because, for the first time in the history
of Malaysia, we have a female Deputy Prime Minister, DatoÊ Seri Dr Wan Azizah
binti DatoÊ Dr Wan Ismail.

Likewise, more women have been appointed to high positions in various fields
including Tan Sri DatoÊ Seri Utama Tengku Maimun binti Tuan Mat appointed as
the first women to hold the position as the Chief Justice of Malaysia; Latheefa Koya
appointed as MalaysiaÊs first woman to lead the Malaysian Anti-Corruption
Commission (MACC); Datuk Nor Shamsiah Mohd Yunus as the Governor of Bank
Negara Malaysia and many others. Hence, we can see the change in Malaysia from
the aspect of politics and involvement of women at policymaking levels.
Political aspect aside, gender equality is vital in the development of a country.

Evidently, according to Principal Statistics of Labour Force, Malaysia, Second
Quarter (Q2) 2019 by the Department of Statistics showed the labour force was
represented by 60.8 per cent males (9.49 million) as compared to 39.2 per cent
females (6.11 million). Although the per centage demonstrated the male
outnumbered the female, but, notably there is a slight increase of 0.2 per cent
women in the workforce in the Second Quarter (Q2) 2019. A total of 15.08 million
persons were reported to be employed during the second quarter of 2019,
comprising 39.1 per cent or 5.90 million females with the remaining about 60%
male.
The average monthly salary for women is 4 % less than that of men despite having
the same qualifications, working hours, and job responsibilities. Often, the pay gap
becomes wider as the ranks go higher (Team Cleo, 2018).
Therefore, based on the above three aspects: Workforce, Employed person and also
average monthly salary ă it can be said that in Malaysia, men and women are
constrained by traditional and cultural norms which resulted in a gap of inequality
between men and women.
In conclusion, the empowerment of women is the responsibility of everyone. Each

of us deserves equal rights. The advocacy of gender equality is about human rights
and inclusiveness. The equal rights should be for all regardless of gender, whether
male or female in all spheres of life. Each of us can use our capacities for changes
in policies to ensure no one is left behind. How can a country develop when the
society is discriminated and marginalised economically, politically and socially?

ACTIVITY 9.4
1. Recently, you were asked to give a talk on „Gender Equality at the

work place in the 21st Century‰. Prepare the draft of the talk and
share it with your classmates in myINSPIRE.
2. Design an interactive activity in myINSPIRE that emphasises on the

importance of gender equality
SELF-CHECK 9.4
1. In your own words, explain the meaning of gender equality.
2. Why do you think the term gender equality is always associated

with the equality of women with man and not the other way?
 Global Citizenship Education (GCED) empowers learners to think, share and

act for a more just, peaceful, inclusive and sustainable world.
 There are three core conceptual dimensions of GCED, which are cognitive,
socio-emotional and behavioural.
 The themes of GCED should be embedded into education syllabus of any

course as it can cultivate respect for the world and each other, provide our
citizens with the understanding of a diverse world, respond to the unfamiliar
with empathy, empower youth to lead our societies, embrace peace, activate
civil participation, enjoy our differences.

 Globalisation is the process whereby the world is getting smaller and

interconnected in many ways such as culture, human activities and trade.
 The phenomenon of globalisation did not make the state becomes powerless,
but it expands and strengthen the roles of the state itself. The state still remains
central in the international system despite the challenges from non-state actors
as well as the phenomenon of globalisation
 Iraq and the Persian Gulf War 1990ă1991 marked the beginning of the „New
World Order‰ after the end of the Cold War.
 Syrian Civil War began in January 2011 is an on-going war till today. There is
no indication of when peace can be attained in Syria despite the intervention
and pressure by the United Nations and other international communities.
 Gender equality is about human rights. Equal rights regardless of gender,

whether male or female in all spheres of life.
Conflict Persian Gulf War

Gender Equality State
Global Citizenship Education Sustainable Development Goals
Globalisation Syrian Civil War
17 ways education influences the UN sustainable development goals. Retrieved

from http://www.peace-ed-campaign.org/17-ways-education-influences-
the-un-sustainable-development-goals/
Ban Ki Moon. What is „Global Citizenship‰? Retrieved from

https://cisv.org/resources/educational-content-research/active-global-
citizenship/
Baylis, J., Smith, S., & Owens, P. (2016). The globalisation of world politics: An
introduction to international relations (6th ed.). New York, N.Y: Oxford
University Press.
Buchanan. S. (2012). Has globalisation altered the role of the state?

https://www.e-ir.info/2012/11/24/has-globalisation-altered-the-role-of-
states/
Byman. D. February 27. (2018). Six Counterterrorism Lessons from the Syrian Civil
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civil-war
DÊAnieri, Paul, J. (2010). International politics: Power and purpose in global affairs.
Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Belmont, USA.
Demographic Statistics Second Quarter 2019, Malaysia.

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430&bul_id=VTJDdStOakJJd2EwcEVVTm4yRDZSQT09&menu_id=L0phe
U43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09
Gender, equity and human rights. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/gender-

equity-rights/understanding/gender-definition/en/
George Santayana Quotes. Retrieved from

https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/george_santayana_125570
Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity: Self and society in the

late modern age: Cambridge Polity Press and Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press.
Global Education First Initiative: The UN Secretary-GeneralÊs Global Initiative

on Education. Retrieved from
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/gefi/priorities/
Global Citizenship Education: An Emerging Perspective. Retrieved from

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002241/224115E.pdf
Global Citizenship Education: Topics and Learning Objectives. (2015). United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de
Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France.
Global Citizenship Education: Preparing learners for the challenges of the

21st century. (2014). UNESCO. Published in 2014 by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, 7, place de Fontenoy,
75352 Paris 07 SP, France.
Halliday, F. (1994). The Gulf War 1990ă1991 and the study of international
relations. Review of international studies, 20 (2). pp. 109ă130.

Klesner, J. L. (2014). Comparative politics: An introduction. New York, NY:

McGraw-Hill.
Krasner, S. (1995/6). Compromising Westphalia from international security,

Vol.20, No.3 (Winter 1995/6). The MIT Press.
Lesch, D. W. (2013). Syria: The fall of the house of Assad. Yale University Press.
McGrew, A. (2017). Globalization and global politics. In Baylis, J., Smith, S., &
Owens, P. (2011). The globalisation of world politics: An introduction to
international relations (5th ed.). (pp. 15ă36). Oxford, United Kingdom.
Principal Statistics of Labour Force, Malaysia, Second Quarter (Q2) 2019.

https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=
149&bul_id=ekx5ZDVkVFAyWGg3WHNLUnJWL3RwUT09&menu_id=U3
VPMldoYUxzVzFaYmNkWXZteGduZz09
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Malaysia. Meteor.
Outcome document of the Technical Consultation on Global Citizenship

Education: Global Citizenship Education: An Emerging Perspective.
Retrieved from
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Plantilla, J. R. (2018). Context and training: 18th APTW. Retrieved from

https://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section3/2018/09/context-
and-training-18th-aptw.html
Shaw, M. (2000). Theory of the global state: Globality as an unfinished revolution.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Spotlight on Sustainable Development Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and

empower all women and girls (5 July 2017). Retrieved from
http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-
library/multimedia/2017/7/infographic-spotlight-on-sdg-5
Student exchange programme important for development of national education:

Maszlee (30 September 2018). Retrieved from
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programme-important-development-national-education-maszlee

Sustainable Development Goal 4. Retrieved from

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4
Team Cleo. The gender salary gap In Malaysia.

https://cleo.com.my/trending/gender-salary-gap-malaysia/
Tickner. (2017). „Gender in world politics‰. In p. 264ă278 Baylis, J., Smith, S., &
Owens, P. (2017). The globalisation of world politics: An introduction to
international relations (6th ed.). New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press.
Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Retrieved from
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld
United Nations (2000), Millennium Report of the Secretary-General, „We, the

Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century‰, A/54/2000.

Topic  The
Environment
10 and Us
thirumeni@oum.edu.my
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State reasons for conserving the environment;
2. Describe major global environmental issues;
3. Explain the concept of green technology and its importance;
4. Discuss the concept of sustainability; and
5. Demonstrate ways to improve your ecological footprint.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic „The Environment and Us‰, aims to introduce key concepts and prompt
discussions which allow us to re-evaluate our position in the environment. We
begin by discovering the environment, its benefits and the importance of
conserving it. We need to appreciate the intricate inter-relations among various
components within the environment. We need to expand our view from an
individual perspective that is confined to us and our home to a collective
perspective that concerns the global world as our surroundings. We have to
expand our responsibilities to play a part in conserving the environment. We must
identify the factors that affect the environment. What are the major environmental
issues that we are facing today? Immediate collective actions are needed to address
them.

TOPIC 10 THE ENVIRONMENT AND US  207
Can we turn to technology for solution? What is green technology? You will learn
about the concepts of „green‰ and „green technology‰ in order to make informed
decisions. We shall also explore the concept of sustainability and the 17 sustainable
development goals (SDGs). You may recall a few SDGs from Topic 9. What do we
hope to achieve by 2030? What can be done from an individual perspective to
protect and conserve our environment? Do you know your own ecological
footprint? Let us explore these questions and do our part in creating a better
environment.
10.1 WHY SHOULD WE CARE ABOUT THE

ENVIRONMENT?
The term „environment‰ refers to the surroundings or conditions in which a
particular activity is carried in. Our natural environment refers to the condition in
which human beings along with other living things live in a surrounding of crucial
aggregates of air, water, minerals and other non-living elements.
The environment which living and non-living things occupy is known as

biosphere. The only biosphere that exists in the universe is found on Earth. It is a
thin layer around the Earth that consists of lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere. Lithosphere is the solid part of the Earth which is made of soil and
rocks, while hydrosphere and atmosphere refer to the water and air that surrounds
the Earth, respectively. You may read more about biosphere by referring to
encyclopaedias such as the Britannica Encyclopaedia (the online version can be
found at: https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere).
Ecology is the branch of science which studies how living things interact with one
another and with the surrounding physical environment. For convenience, a
segment of the biosphere is often identified as an ecosystem and is studied by
observing and analysing various interactions that exist within the system. An
ecosystem is a defined area where a community of living things (micro organisms,
plants and animals known as biotic components) interact with one another and
with non-living components (sunlight, temperature, water and others that are
referred to as abiotic components). An ecosystem:
(a) Has a community that lives and interacts with one another in a locale. The
term community in biology refers to an interacting group of various
organisms within a common location. A community can be broken down to
smaller groups by referring to populations which are characterised by the
number of organisms of a particular species.

208  TOPIC 10 THE ENVIRONMENT AND US
(b) Has an arbitrary boundary that is defined according to the nature of the
study being conducted. A well-defined or sharp boundary is not possible in
reality. Nevertheless, there is a classification of major communities called
biome.
(c) Is referred to by its type of biomes. There are various biome classifications.
View attractive visuals of biomes at:
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biome/
(d) Are analysed by tracing the movement of energy and matter. The rules of
nature where matter and energy are conserved are:
(i) Matter is Recycled

Matter may move from one ecosystem to another but is never
destroyed. It is recycled from one form to another.
(ii) Flow of Energy

The incoming energy is absorbed by the ecosystem never diminishes.
The form of energy changes and eventually dissipates as heat and
radiation.
The cycle of matter and energy is best understood by analysing how the solar
energy that is absorbed by producers (plants including trees) is taken up by
primary consumers (herbivores and omnivores) and secondary and tertiary
consumers (carnivores). Dead and decaying materials are recycled by
decomposers. Energy in the form of heat is produced during the cycles and
conserved in the Food Web depicted in Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: Flow of energy among producer, consumer and decomposer (detritivores)
Source: https://ubisafe.org/explore/discomposition-clipart-food-
web/#gal_post_2175_discomposition-clipart-food-web-4.jpg

How about us, the human population? Where do we belong in the food web?
Within an ecosystem, we can identify several separate systems. A system

has a defined boundary and a surrounding environment. It can have various
components within the defined boundary. It can be classified as a closed system
with a closed boundary with no input and output. Or it can be classified as an open
system with open boundaries that allow exchanges of material and energy.
A tree is an example of an open system. It has a defined boundary and various

components (roots, trunk, branches, twigs, leaves). A tree absorbs sunlight, carbon
dioxide, water and other elements (input) to keep the tree healthy and strong. In
return, the tree produces oxygen and other matters (output).
ACTIVITY 10.1
A tree interacts with other biotic components and abiotic components.
Suppose your neighbour sprays insecticide in his garden, will it affect the
tree in your garden? Discuss this problem with your peers in the online
forum. Extend your discussion to consider the pollution caused by the
use of chemical pesticides at a farm in your neighbourhood. Discuss
whether you should be concerned about activities and development
projects in your city, municipality or district.
Ecological services include provision of necessary resources such as the air that we
breathe, drinking water, and food. A large number of herbs and plants are also
useful as medicinal resources. Another important provision from our natural
ecosystem is raw materials such as timber. In addition to these Provisioning
Services, there are four other services. The list by The Economics of Ecosystems
and Biodiversity (TEEB) („Ecosystem Services‰, n.d.) includes: Regulating,
Supporting and Cultural Services. TEEB is hosted by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
(a) Regulating Services include air quality control, pollination, biological

control, soil fertility, carbon sequestration and storage, soil erosion control,
wastewater treatment, climate control and extreme event buffer;
(b) Supporting Services include habitats and genetic diversity; and
(c) Cultural Services cover benefits for recreation, tourism, aesthetic and
spiritual purposes.

Your ability to describe the natural environment, the interactions among various
components/elements within our ecosystem and the factors/conditions that can
affect the ecosystem is important. We need to understand how the human
population have been interacting with the environment and how we have
contributed to the environmental issues we are facing today. In using the
ecosystem services afforded by our natural environment, we have failed to realise
that there are others in our ecosystem, and we have failed to behave in a
responsible manner.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Answer the following questions.
(a) What is a biosphere?
(b) What are the features of an ecosystem and the services it offers?
(c) Choose an open system to illustrate the vulnerability of our current

environment.
(d) Why should we be concerned about the environment?
10.2 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

As you become more aware of the close interactions between various biotic and
abiotic components in our environment, you realise that some environmental
issues have global significance. What are the measures that have been taken in
the past to resolve such issues? Have they been effective? Can we improve the
situation by making more accurate conclusions about the environmental issues?
In using our ecosystem services we have made tremendous changes to the

environment. We have cleared much of the forest, used raw materials extensively,
industrialised food production, built dams, and carried activities that resulted in
changes to the land cover and water surfaces. Can you illustrate the impact of our
societyÊs actions on nature?

10.2.1 Changing Land Cover and Water Surfaces

Land cover refers to our earthÊs surface covering, from bare to mosses, lichens,
grasses, scrublands and evergreen forests. The land cover classification is different
but connected to the land use classification which refers to the activities being
carried out in the area. Land cover changes are classified as either:
(a) Land conversion involving complete alteration such as deforestation to

facilitate agriculture expansion; or
(b) Land modification whereby changes occur but do not alter the type of land
cover due to activities such as logging.
Much of the worldÊs natural and semi-natural vegetated land cover (81%) was
turned into cropland between 1992 and 2015 (OECD, 2018). Deforestation is the
term used to describe the clearing of forest cover for other uses. Visit the Global
Forest Watch website to discover the current state of deforestation. You will learn
that Malaysia for example, has lost 25% of its tree cover (equivalent to 7.29 Mha)
since 2000.
Urbanisation (see sub-section 10.2.6) and Water Surface Changes are two other
drivers that cause land cover changes. We have lost our natural land and water
surfaces; and gained artificial land and water surfaces. Apart from the changes to
water surface caused by development of water dam (artificial water surfaces) and
land reclamation, the change in sea-level is also an alarming environmental issue.
What causes the sea-level to rise?
10.2.2 Climate Change

Climate change is the greatest environmental threat to the Earth today. Rise in the
global average temperature is shown at the NASA (National Aeronautical and
Space Administration) site:
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/WorldOfChange/DecadalTemp.

The world has warmed since 1860 from the period of the Industrial Revolution
(Harris, 2004). It is unlikely that the unusual rise in global average temperature is
due to natural forces alone. The global average temperature is expected to increase
at a much higher rate over the following decades along with other climatic
variables. Global warming is a symptom of climate change. Other signs of climate
change include droughts, storms and flash floods, snow melts and rising sea levels.
The sign of climate change are different from region to region. Climate change and
accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere bring about direct and
indirect impacts which include:
(a) Heat waves, cold waves and other extreme weather events such as flash
floods, droughts, landslides and wildfires;
(b) Increased morbidity and mortality rates;
(c) Water contamination and other natural biophysical disruptions;
(d) Disruption and contamination of food; and
(e) Disruption of energy and other human socio-economic systems.
An important development in managing climate change is the adoption of the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992,
adoption of Kyoto Protocol in 1997, and the establishment of the International
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. The IPCC was formed by the World
Meteorological Organisation and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP). It is an international collaboration of scientists which conducts regular
assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts and future risks,
and options for adaptation and mitigation. You may read IPCCÊs annual
assessment reports online at www.ipcc.ch. What is the trend depicted in the latest
report? How well have we been mitigating this issue?
10.2.3 Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variability that exists among all living things including
genetic variability within a species. It is of great biological, societal, ethical to
economic values to us. You should be able to list the specific values that
biodiversity offers us (see Table 5.1 on page 96, Harris, 2004). Global distribution
of the biodiversity on earth is uneven. Malaysia is one of the few countries with a
rich biodiversity. Other countries in the region include Indonesia, Thailand, India,
China, and Australia. Madagascar is another biodiversity hotspot with 90% of
plants and animals endemic to the country alone. Other hotspots are located in
South America (Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru). The uneven
distribution is one of the many complications in managing the loss of biodiversity.

Why are we losing our biodiversity? Land cover and water surface changes,
climate change, tourism, and pollution are some of the threats to the environment.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) developed at the 1992 Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro is one of earliest and most important global initiatives to
conserve our biodiversity. What are other efforts? How can we mitigate the loss of
biodiversity effectively?
10.2.4 Population and Development

The world human population exceeded 7.5 million people in 2018. Our socio-
economic development is steep and unbalanced, with wide disparity. Our demand
for water, food, energy and space has increased and largely exceeded supply.
Problems such as water scarcity, unsustainable food production (and the land
cover change), consumption and wastage, aggravated by inequity, and unequal
global energy consumption must be addressed. The call from the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) for a collective action on water,
food and energy nexus is timely. Development of the human society has led to the
change in land cover and land use, especially from natural forest to cropland, in
particular to support our food demand. Buildings and artificial surfaces have
grown vertically and horizontally (see the next sub-section on Urbanisation).
Artificial water zones such as water dams have been built to support our
increasing demand for water. Our coastal zones are overdeveloped. These have
resulted in other environmental problem: soil erosion and degradation. Discuss
the steep, unbalanced, and wide disparity of our socio-economic development. A
good read for this sub-topic is Chapter 2 from Environment and Society: A Critical
Introduction (2014).
10.2.5 Pollution
Pollution refers to the introduction of substances by humans that causes harmful
effects. Apart from air, water and soil pollution, we are also concerned about
pollution in the form of excessive heat, radiation, noise, and light. Human beings
are largely responsible for causing severe environmental pollution worldwide.
Why do we pollute our environment?
Pollution is pervasive and affects every being on earth, from the carbon dioxide
(CO2) in our atmosphere, to polychlorinated biphenyl (PCP) in our bodies to acid
on our land (Speth & Haas, 2006). Extensive use of chemicals is a major problem
in our environment. The sources of chemical pollutants vary from agriculture and
industries to transportation and households. For example, emissions from coal-
fired power plants pollute the air, and transforms into acid rain which then
pollutes the water and the soil. Acid rain is an example of transboundary pollution.

Air pollutants such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), CO2 and oxides of nitrogen

cause ozone depletion and greenhouse effects which also contribute to the Climate
Change. Pollution is also one of the factors which harm natural water resources
and the life associated with them. According to Speth & Haas (2006), pollution and
silt from runoff are some of the factors (apart from overfishing) that destroy
mangroves and coastal wetlands, affecting marine lives. Toxic pollutants such as
organic pollutants and heavy metals; and the threat these pose to humans and
other life forms are also one of our concerns. What can we do to mitigate pollution?
10.2.6 Urbanisation
Urbanisation refers to the process of changing social and environmental
landscapes („Urbanisation and Health‰, 2012). It is primarily driven by rural-
urban migration leading to the vertical and horizontal expansion of urban space
into buildings and artificial surfaces. Globally, an area in the size of the United
Kingdom (244 000km2) has been converted into built-up areas since 1990 (OECD,
2018). It might be difficult for some to see urban space (with clean and green
spaces) as an environmental issue. According to McGranahan and Satterthwaite
(2004), environmental burdens for maintaining such cities may well be in distant
locations, and displaced rather than eliminated. They highlighted the fact that „the
poorest urban population in the poorest countries tend to have the worst
environmental health conditions in and around their homes and also among the
lowest level of greenhouse gas emissions per person. The ambient environments
of heavily industrialised and motorised cities in the middle-income countries tend
to be highly distressed environmentally, with worst ambient air pollution
problems. And it is the populations of the wealthiest cities that have the largest
global environmental footprints, and that are the biggest per capita drivers of
climate change‰.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Select one global environmental issue, describe the issue, its causes, its
implications for the environment and human beings, and global policy
responses. Propose an initiative that your peers and you can do to
mitigate the issue. Working in a group allows sharing of resources and
covers more issues.

SELF-CHECK 10.2
„We have been unable to resolve environmental issues despite extensive

research, media attention, increased public awareness, campaigns by
environmental pressure groups and international agreements; and we
still pursue activities which perpetuate the problems‰, (Harris, 2004).
Discuss this statement in the online forum.
An important observation concerning these issues is the complex linkages

among them which emphasises the management of uncertainty and risk in global
policymaking (Speth & Hass, 2006). What are your thoughts on this observation?
Reflect and post your thought in the forum after watching the YouTube video
entitled Environmental Issues: Global Warming by Cracknell and Tam (2013) at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MVvnj-tS-s.
Upon completing this sub-topic, you should be able to investigate and analyse the
global environmental issues; and conduct critical analysis of the mitigation efforts.
10.3 GREEN TECHNOLOGY AND

ENVIRONMENT
While technology and a techno-centric society have generated negative impacts in
the area of environmental issues, green technologies are seen as potential solutions
and an opportunity for greater innovations and reforms. Table 10.1 list selected
areas where green technology and sustainability have received much attention.
Technology in itself is often not the real issue. What matters is our understanding
of the „green‰ concept, awareness of environmental ethics, paradigm shift in our
thought processes, and change in our practices. The need to act responsibly lies in
moral relationship towards our fellow human beings and other aspects of our
natural environment. In order for us to act responsibly, we require a paradigm
shift into what we think is the nature and scope of our responsibility. To act, to
go „green‰ means „to pursue knowledge and practices that lead to more
environmentally friendly and ecologically responsible decisions, and lifestyles
which can help to protect the environment and sustain its natural resources for its
current and future generations‰ (Going green, n.d); within which the concept of

green technology lies. Green technology refers to the use of science and technology
to conserve and protect the environment. It can lead to reduction of greenhouse
gases, and is an essential component of Green Growth Strategy. Green growth
refers to the fostering economic growth and development while ensuring that
natural assets continue to provide the resources and environmental services on
which our well-being relies (OECD, 2018).
Table 10.1: Trends in Green Technology and Sustainable Solutions by Sector
Energy Renewable (Alternative) energies

Food Production Sustainable Agriculture Practices, Organic Farming
Water Water Treatment/ Purification Technology
Built Environment Green Building
Manufacturing Industry Design for Environment, Green Engineering
Transport Sector Green transportation
Waste Recycling, Other Waste Management Technologies
Environment Remediation and Conservation Efforts
ACTIVITY 10.3
Discuss among your colleagues how green technology can emerge as a
solution for an improved environment. You may read the case study
provided under useful resources. In addition, you may share such
materials in the forum to enrich your discussion.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. What is meant by „go green‰?
2. What is green technology? Provide a few examples.
3. Discuss the roles of consumers in promoting green technology.
4. Explain the impact of green technology today.

10.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Sustainable Development Goals known as SDGs refer to the 17 goals along with
169 targets developed by the United Nation in 2015 as an action plan for people,
planet, prosperity and peace (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/). The
goals and targets are designed to stimulate actions by all for the next 15 years.
Refer to Figure 9.1 and Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: Sustainable Development Goals by the United Nation
Goal 1 End poverty in all forms everywhere

Goal 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture
Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well being for all at all ages
Goal 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong
learning opportunities for all
Goal 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for
all
Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
Goal 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all
Goal 9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialisation and foster innovation
Goal 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries
Goal 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
Goal 12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Goal 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Note: Acknowledging that the UNFCCC is the primary international,

intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate
change.
Goal 14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development

Goal 15 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,

sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss
Goal 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels
Goal 17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global
Partnership for Sustainable Development
Source: United Nations

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication]
What do these goals mean to you? What are the causes of the unsustainable global
society that we live in today? Are we part of the problem? How can we be part of
the solution?
The term „sustainable development‰ was defined in the 1987 Brundtland Report
as „development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of the future generations to meet their own needs‰ (The World Commission
of Environment and Development). SDGs represent such aspirations in various
interconnected areas. The sustainability revolution connects communities
(livelihood, education and culture), ecology/environment, and economy. The
need for a collective action is embedded in SDG17. There are numerous
movements all around the world that promotes awareness, knowledge, and
support for the revolution towards a sustainable global society. The Natural Step
is an example of a Non-Profit Organisation with such commitment (see
https://thenatutalstep.org).
We need to act and become an advocate for the change.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Select one SGD, identify its targets, and discuss how you can take
collective actions towards realising the goal in your community. You
may use any of the targets to plan and carry out a project for the
Community Service course.

SELF-CHECK 10.4
1. Explain the concept of sustainability.
2. Explain the nature of the unsustainable global society that we live

in today.
3. List all 17 SDGs and explain how we can be a part of the solution
towards creating a sustainable global society.
10.5 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT AND YOU

At a personal level, we ought to look into our own ecological footprint. What is
ecological footprint? Ecological footprint is a resource accounting tool. It is used
by the Global Footprint Network to measure global ecological footprint, which
refers to demand on and supply of nature.
ACTIVITY 10.5
Measure your own ecological footprint using the online tool hosted by
the Global Footprint Network at:
https://www.footprintnetwork.org/our-work/ecological-footprint/
Discover your countryÊs and the worldÊs ecological deficits.
In considering you own ecological footprint, you need to evaluate your lifestyle in
many perspective, including your food consumption, purchases, production of
waste, energy consumption, accommodation and transportation.
If you like to review your food consumption, there are four fundamental questions
you must ask yourself.
(a) What is the percentage of fresh food in your daily food intake?
(b) What is the percentage of locally produced food in your daily food intake?
(c) What is the percentage of vegetables in your daily food intake?
(d) How much of your daily food is wasted?

Rationale
(a) Fresh food compared to processed food uses far less energy, water, material
and other resources; and produce far less waste. Buy fresh and seasonal food.
(b) Locally produced food required less storage and refrigeration compared to
imported food. Buy locally produced food.
(c) Livestock farming has a much larger carbon footprint than vegetable farms.
Eat more fruits, vegetables, beans and nuts. Opt for vegetarian diet.
(d) Buy and cook according to your need. Reduce your food waste.
Read the ecological footprint tips on food at

https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/1219.pdf
Similarly, question your choices in terms of your purchases, production of

waste other than food waste, energy consumption, accommodation and
transportation. Make informed choices about these consumptions and seek for tips
for reducing your ecological footprint. There are many resources that provide
suggestions to reduce your ecological footprint. An example is found at
http://myfootprint.org/en/take_action/reduce_your_footprint/
SELF-CHECK 10.5
1. What is ecological footprint?
2. Why do we need to measure our own ecological footprint?
3. How can you reduce your own ecological footprint?
A community is a ship; everyone ought to be prepared to take the helm.

(Henrik Ibsen)

Ć Environment refers to our surrounding which consist of the land, water and
air that we share with other living things.
Ć The biosphere is a thin layer around the earth occupied by living and
non-living things. It consists of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Ć An ecosystem is an area where a community of living things interact with one

another along with non-living components.
Ć Land cover is the earthÊs surface covering, which ranges from bare to mosses,
lichens, grasses, scrublands, and evergreen forests.
 Climate change refers to changes in regional and global climate patterns.
 Biodiversity is the variability of all living things including genetic variability

within a species.
 Populations are characterised by the number of organism of a particular

species. The human population is an example.
 Pollution is the introduction of substances by humans that cause harmful

effects.
 Urbanisation is the process of changing social and environmental landscape in

urban areas („Urbanization and health‰, 2012).
 Green technology is the use of science and technology to conserve and protect
the environment.
 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
(Brundtland Report, 1987).
 Global ecological footprint measures the demand on and supply of nature.

Biodiversity Green Technology

Biosphere Land Cover and Land Use
Climate Change Pollution
Ecological Footprint Population Growth
Ecosystem Surface Water
Environment Sustainable Developmental Goals
Cracknell H., & Tam, R. (2013, Jan 10). Environmental issues: Global warming
(PSA). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MVvnj-tS-s
Ecological Footprint. (n.d.). Global Footprint Network. Retrieved from

https://www.footprintnetwork.org/our-work/ecological-footprint/
Ecosystem Services. (n.d.). The economics of ecosystem & biodiversity. Retrieved

from http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/
Federal Office for Spatial Development ARE. (n.d.). (1987). Brundtland Report.
Retrieved from
https://www.are.admin.ch/are/en/home/sustainable-
development/international-cooperation/2030agenda/un-_-milestones-in-
sustainable-development/1987--brundtland-report.html
Going green. (n.d.). Middletown thrall library (2008ă2017) Retrieved from

http://www.thrall.org/special/goinggreen.html
Harris, F. (ed.). (2004). Global environmental issues. West Sussex: John Wiley, &
Sons Ltd.
Manahan, S. E. (2007). Environmental science and technology: A sustainable

approach to green science and technology (2nd ed.). Florida, USA: CRC
Press.

McGranahan, G., & Satterthwaite, D. (2004). Urbanisation concepts and trends.

London: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2014).

Global forum on environment: New perspectives on the water-energy-food
nexus. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from
https://www.oecd.org/env/resources/Global%20Forum%20on%20Enviro
nment%20-%20Background%20Note%20-%2019%20Nov%202014.pdf.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2018).

Monitoring Land Cover Change. Paris, France: OECD.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2018). What

is green growth and how can it help deliver sustainable development?
Retrieved from
https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/whatisgreengrowthandhowcanithel
pdeliversustainabledevelopment.htm
Robbins, J., Hintz, J., & Moore, S. A. (2014). Environment and society: A critical
introduction (2nd ed.). West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Speth, J. G., & Haas, P. M. (2006). Global environmental governance. Washington,

DC: Island Press. Chapter II: Global-Scale Environmental Challenges.
United Nations. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
http://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-outlooks/monitoring-
land-cover-change.htm
Urbanization and health. (2012, October 25). Retrieved from

http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/urbanization/en/

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966


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OUMH1603

Learning Skills for 21st Century

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Nantha Kumar Subramaniam

Moderators: Prof Dr Siti Aishah Hashim Ali

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2019

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Being a 21st Century Learner 1

Topic 2 Study Skills 13

Topic 3 Numeracy Skills 36

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

3.3 Numeracy Continuum and Everyday Life Practices 49

Topic 4 Digital Literacy 86

Topic 5 Creativity and Innovation 94

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills 125

Topic 7 Communication Skills 143

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 8 Collaborative Skills 162

Topic 9 Global Citizenship Education 180

Topic 10 The Environment and Us 206

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Describe using examples the expected characteristics and literacy levels of a

2. Demonstrate Creative Thinking and Critical Thinking Skills;

3. Demonstrate Communication Skills and Collaborative Skills; and

4. Display characteristics of a global citizen capable of creating a greener and

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 introduces the meaning of creativity, innovation and design thinking.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 8 looks at collaborative skills through the discussion on collaboration and

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Moore, S. (2010). The ultimate study skills handbook. England: McGraw-Hill

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 SKILLS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

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Figure 1.1: Dominant categories of 21st century learning skills

Table 1.1: 21st Century Skills

Category of Skills Type of Skills

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(a) Critical thinking: you are able to solve problems.

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1.2 ROLES OF THE 21ST CENTURY LEARNER

(a) Curious to Find Out

(b) Pursue Learning

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(c) Create Knowledge

(d) Ask Questions

(e) Share Information

(g) Get Ahead in Self-management