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Production and Consumption of Grains in India

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Khatkar B.S., Chaudhary N. and Dangi P. (2016) Production and Consumption of Grains: India. In:
Wrigley, C., Corke, H., and Seetharaman, K., Faubion, J., (eds.) Encyclopedia of Food Grains, 2nd
Edition, pp. 367-373. Oxford: Academic Press.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

 Author's personal copy
Production and Consumption of Grains: India
BS Khatkar, N Chaudhary, and P Dangi, G. J. University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Topic Highlights
• Agriculture accounts for considerable importance in India’s
economic development, as it provides food for more than
1.2 billion people and total employment to about 54.6% of
the population.
• India holds the second-largest agricultural land (179.9
million hectares) in the world.
• Food grain production covers the dominant part of the
cropped area (65%) in Indian agriculture.
• India is the world’s largest producer of millets and second-
largest producer of wheat, rice, and pulses.
• The highest food grain production of 259.32 million
tonnes was recorded in 2011–12.
• The cereals other than rice and wheat contributed 1 kg per
person per month in rural India and 0.8 kg per person per
month in urban India in 2011–12.
• The consumption of all food grains per person in the rural
areas is projected to decline from 15.3 kg per month in
2000 to 13.8 kg per month by 2050 and only slightly
decrease from 11.8 to 11.6 kg per month in the urban areas.
• The nongrain food crops and animal products contributed
27% and 8%, respectively, of the total caloric requirement.
• Meat consumption in India is very low due to cultural and
religious reasons, and most of the calories from animal
products are obtained from milk and milk products.
Learning Objectives
• To present past and future prospects of the Indian food
grain production.
• To identify the role of the Indian government in supporting
agriculture and food grain production.
• To understand food grain consumption patterns of the
Indian population.
• To learn the status of changing food grain consumption
patterns and the reasons behind these shifts.
Introduction
India accounts for only about 2.4% of the world’s geographical
area and 4% of its water resources, but has to support about
17% of the world’s human population and 15% of the live-
stock. India holds the second-largest agricultural land (179.9
million hectares) in the world. Food grain production covers
dominant part of the cropped area (65%) in Indian agriculture.
According to the FAO world agriculture statistics (2010), India
is the world’s largest producer of millets and second-largest
producer of wheat, rice, and pulses.
Indian agriculture has witnessed wide ups and downs in
growth performance during the last six decades. Performance
Encyclopedia of Food Grains, Second Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00044-9
Encyclopedia of Food Grains, (2016), vol. 1, pp. 367-373
of Indian agriculture can be divided into six phases viz. pre-
green revolution period (1960–61 to 1968–69), early green
revolution period (1968–69 to 1975–76), period of wider
technology dissemination (1975–76 to 1988–89), period of
diversification (1988–89 to 1995–96); postreform period
(1995–96 to 2004–05), and period of recovery (2004–05 to
2010–11). The green revolution period was the golden period
for Indian agriculture, as it witnessed tremendous growth in
agricultural production. During the period of wider dissemi-
nation of technology, the spread of green revolution technol-
ogies pushed to maintain the increasing rhythm of growth
across various regions realized during the previous period.
However, a visible deceleration of growth was experienced
during the postreform period, as both public and private
investments suffered a setback, which resulted in the sluggish
performance of the sector. Moreover, yield levels of most of the
crops suffered a deceleration because use of primary resources
in the sector also slowed down. The descending trend of
growth continued up to 2004–05, after which a sharp return
was attained that can be attributed to a conscious increment in
public and private ventures and substantial improvement in
trade in favor of the agricultural sector.
Food Grain Production
India is continuously facing pressure on the demand side due
to steady population growth, limited land availability, and
several other production deterrents, which might also appear
as obstacles for the supply of food grains. Indian government
policies and planning has always given considerable impor-
tance to production of food grains due to which India has been
achieving the continued growth despite many constraints. Dur-
ing the last decade (2000–01 to 2010–11), the areas under
cereals, pulses, and oilseeds have increased by about 5.7, 6.0,
and 4.0 million hectares, respectively, and the area under
coarse cereals has declined by 2.6 million hectares. The area
under wheat cultivation has accelerated significantly in com-
parison to other cereals and millets. However, a moderate
deceleration in total grain cultivated area in comparison to
pulses cultivated area was witnessed during the years of 2005
to 2011. The highest food grain production of 259.32 million
tonnes was recorded in 2011–12. Out of the total food grains
production, cereals accounted for 242.23 million tonnes and
pulses 17.09 million tonnes (Figure 1). Production of rice and
wheat was recorded at 105.3 and 94.9 million tonnes, respec-
tively. It was estimated that the agriculture sector in India is
likely to grow by 5.2–5.7% in 2013–14. India is one of the
largest producers of cereal as well as the largest exporter of
cereal products worldwide. India’s export of cereals during
2013–14 stood at Rs. 63452.09 crores. Rice (including basmati
and non-basmati) occupies the most sizable share in India’s
total cereals export with 64.40% during this period. Countries
367
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368 GRAINS AROUND THE WORLD | Production and Consumption of Grains: India

Total Pulses Coarse Cereals Total cereals Total Foodgrains

300

Production (million tonnes)

250

200

150

100

50

0
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Year
Figure 1 Production of food grains in India.

40
33.8
35
Area (percentage)

30
25
20
14.8
15 12.7
9.7 8.7
10 7.8
3.5 2.8
5 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.4
0
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States
Figure 2 Share of states in India in terms of area under cultivation of wheat.

such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, UAE, and Bangladesh Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir
mainly imported cereals from India during 2013–14. (Figure 3). These states contribute about 99.5% of total
wheat production in the country. The remaining states, namely
Jharkhand, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, and other
Wheat northeastern states, contribute only about 0.5% of the total
The area and production under wheat has increased from wheat production in the country. Among food grains, wheat in
27.99 million hectares in 2006–07 to 29.86 million hectares India stands next to rice both in area and production.
in 2011–12 and from 75.81 million tonnes in 2006–07 to an
all-time record high of 94.88 million tonnes in 2011–12,
Rice
respectively. Figure 2 shows the percent share of states in
India in terms of area. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, India is the second-largest producer and consumer of rice in
Rajasthan, and Haryana are the leading states in terms of area the world and accounts for 22.3% of global production. Sev-
under wheat cultivation. Uttar Pradesh accounts for the maxi- eral programs run by the government such as National Food
mum area under cultivation and production, whereas Punjab Security Mission (NFSM) launched during 2007–08 and Bring-
and Haryana are yielding higher productivity with lesser land- ing Green Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI) during
holding under wheat cultivation. 2010–11 increased production and productivity of rice from
The increase in production of wheat has been observed in 96.7 million tonnes and 2202 kg ha 1 in 2007–08 to 105.31
the states of Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar million tonnes and 2393 kg ha 1, respectively, in 2011–12.
Pradesh. The normal national productivity is about 2.9 The NFSM is presently under implementation in 482 dis-
tonnes per hectare. The major wheat-producing states are tricts of 19 states of the country with a view to enhance the
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, production of rice, wheat, and pulses through area expansion
Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, West Bengal, and productivity enhancement, restoring soil fertility and

Encyclopedia of Food Grains, (2016), vol. 1, pp. 367-373

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GRAINS AROUND THE WORLD | Production and Consumption of Grains: India 369

40
33.7
35

Production (percentage)
30
25 21.2
20
15 12.9
9.6 8.9
10 6.2
5 1.7 1.6 1.2 1 0.8 1.2
0

ab

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States
Figure 3 Share of states in India for production of wheat.

25
Production (million tonnes)

20

15

10
5

4
-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1
04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13
20

20

20

20

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20

20

20

20

20

Year
Figure 4 Status of maize production in India.

productivity, creating employment opportunities, and enhanc- improving, and its cultivation has spread to other parts of
ing farm level economy to restore confidence of farmers. The Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
basic strategy of the mission is to promote and extend
improved technologies that is, seed, micronutrients, soil
Maize
amendments, integrated pest management, farm machinery,
and resource conservation technologies, along with capacity After rice and wheat, maize is emerging as the third-most-
building of farmers with effective monitoring and better man- important crop in India. Its importance lies in the fact that it
agement in the high-potential districts to bridge the yield gaps. is used for human food as well as animal feed, and it is also
BGREI aims to increase rice productivity by intensive culti- widely used for the starch industry, oil production, baby corns,
vation through promotion of recommended agriculture tech- and so on. However, despite the production strength, Indian
nology and a package of practices by addressing the underlying corn yields are significantly below the yields in major corn-
constraints of different agroclimatic subregions. It is under producing countries. There is immense scope for an increment
operation in seven states including Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, in India’s corn production by increasing the area under
Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh. Rice hybrids, adoption of better genetics, and improved agronomic
contributes to more than 40% of total food grain production practices. Maize is primarily a kharif crop (summer season’s
and is cultivated throughout the country. Rice production in crop) with 85% of the area under cultivation and accounting
India shows a steady upward trend, but it is subjected to wide for 9% of total food grain production. In India the CAGR
year-to-year fluctuations compared to wheat, as a significant (cumulative annual growth rate) of maize production has been
portion of the crop is not irrigated. Indian Basmati rice is 5.5% over the last 10 years from 14 million tonnes in 2004–05
traditionally grown in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar to 23 million tonnes in 2013–14 (Figure 4). There was a
Pradesh. With the introduction of high-yielding PUSA 1121 decline in the production of maize during 2009–10 due to
variety, India’s long-grain basmati rice production has been drought conditions in India.

Encyclopedia of Food Grains, (2016), vol. 1, pp. 367-373

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370 GRAINS AROUND THE WORLD | Production and Consumption of Grains: India

10 Area under cultivation Yield 2.9

Area under cultivation (million hectare)

Yield (million tonne/hectare)

8 2.2

6 1.5
5

4
-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1
04

05

06

07

08

09

10

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13
20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20
Years
Figure 5 Yield and area under cultivation of maize.

Area (Hectares) Production (million tonnes) Yield (Kg/Hectare)

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Year
Figure 6 Area, production, and yield of barley in India.

In Figure 5 area under maize cultivation, yield, and CAGR of habits and lifestyle has reduced the demand for barley for
area are mentioned. During the last decade (2004–05 to human consumption, thereby causing the area in cultivation
2013–14), CAGR of the area under maize cultivation has of barley to plummet during last few decades. Barley is utilized
increased 2.5%, and cultivated area increased from 7.5 million for beer, food processing, and feed industries apart from direct
hectares in 2004–05 to 9.4 million hectares in 2013–14. Factors human consumption in India. Recently, a rise in demand for
such as adaptability to diverse agroclimatic conditions, lower beer in urban India has directly increased the demand for
labor costs, and lowering of the water table in the rice belt of barley malt from Indian beer manufacturing industries.
India have contributed to the increase in acreage of maize. The country is self-sufficient in barley production, although
Productivity of maize has accelerated at a CAGR of 2.9% from production is low, besides exporting 0.1–0.2 million tonnes of
1.9 million tonnes per hectare in 2004–05 to 2.5 million tonnes barley annually. In recent years, India’s annual production has
per hectare in 2013–14. Yield of maize increased by 20% due to been stagnant at 1.2–1.5 million tonnes, with production in
introduction of single-cross hybrid seeds coupled with adequate 2012–13 at 1.74 million tonnes against 1.61 million tonnes
rainfall in 2007–08. In India 85% of maize production and 80% reported last year. Similarly, the area under cultivation has also
of the area under cultivation come from nine states viz. remained stable at 600–700 ha, with a per-hectare yield of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Maharash- 2508 kg (Figure 6).
tra, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. In India, major barley-growing states are Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh, with a contribution of 34%,
30%, and 12%, respectively, in total acreage. Compositely,
these states hold about 80% of the whole acreage (Figure 7).
Barley
Rajasthan ranks second in terms of acreage under barley
Barley is the fourth-most-important and most adapted crop of and holds first place in terms of production due to a higher
all cereals. It is used for both feed and food. A shift in the food yield level. Rajasthan accounts for 40% of total production of

Encyclopedia of Food Grains, (2016), vol. 1, pp. 367-373

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GRAINS AROUND THE WORLD | Production and Consumption of Grains: India 371

protein, which is almost twice the protein in wheat and three

Uttar Pradesh times that of rice. India is the leading producer in the world
16% with 25% of the total share and is also the largest importer and
Rajasthan consumer in the world. Major pulses grown in India include
4% 34% Bengal gram or gram, red gram, lentil, black gram, green gram,
4% Madhya Pradesh moth bean, horse gram, cowpea, and faba bean. Most popular
among these are Bengal gram, red gram, lentil, black gram, and
green gram. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
12% Himachal Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Rajasthan are the major
states growing pulses in India. These six states contribute
Haryana 70% of total pulse production and area. The country has
30% achieved a record pulses production of 19.57 million tonnes
Others in 2013–14 compared to 18.34 million tonnes in the year
2012–13. Production of all the pulses, as a whole has been
Figure 7 Area under cultivation of barley in various states of India. increasing year after year except for a downturn in 2011–12.
The production of black gram only has been estimated to
decline from 1.9 million tonnes in 2012–13 to 1.5 million
Rajasthan tonnes in 2013–14.
9%
5% Uttar Pradesh
6% Consumption of Food Grains
40%
Madhya Pradesh
9%
In India the rate of growth of population and food grains
production for last five decades are illustrated in Figure 9. It
Haryana has been observed that the population growth rate has seen a
downfall from 2.24% to 1.03%. The overall rate of production
Punjab of food grains has also declined, with a rise only during the
31% period from 1981–91. During 2004–05 total cereal consump-
tion showed a rise of about 100 g per person per month in
Others
rural areas and a fall of 350 g per person per month in urban
Figure 8 Barley productions in Indian states. areas. The per capita consumption trend of grains such as
sorghum, pearl millet, and maize has been higher in the rural
sector as compared to a declining trend in consumption of
barley followed by Uttar Pradesh (31%), Madhya Pradesh
major grains like rice and wheat. The cereals other than rice
(9%), and Haryana (6%; Figure 8).
and wheat contributed 1 kg per person per month in rural
India and 0.8 kg per person per month in urban India in
Coarse Cereals 2011–12.
The consumption of all food grains per person in the rural
Crops like sorghum, millets, ragi, and other small millets (kudo, areas is projected to decline from 15.3 kg per month in 2000 to
kutiki, sanwa, and foxtail) termed as coarse cereals have been the 13.8 kg per month by 2050 and to only slightly decrease from
primary components of the food basket of rural India. Rain-fed 11.8 to 11.6 kg per month in the urban areas. It has been
regions of India like Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Mad- estimated that due to rapid urbanization, per capita consump-
hya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat are best suited for coarse tion of food grain in India will decrease from 14.4 to 12.7 kg
cereal crops, and coarse cereals are therefore cultivated predom- per month over the next 50 years. However, total food grain
inantly in these areas. A downturn has been witnessed in the area demand is projected to increase from 16.7 to 19.9 kg per
covered under coarse cereals cultivation from 29.03 million month over the next 50 years due to increment in the demand
hectares in 2004–05 to 26.42 million hectares in 2011–12. of feed grain. The total grain demand will increase from 201
Significant increases in the yield of coarse cereals has been wit- million tonnes in 2000 to about 291 and 377 million tonnes
nessed from 1153 kg ha 1 in 2004–05 to 1591 kg ha 1 in by 2025 and 2050, respectively.
2011–12. Production of coarse cereals in 2004–05 was 33.46 The major diet of the Indian people is vegetarian, and food
million tonnes, which increased to a maximal level of 43.40 grains are considered the main components of their diet,
million tonnes in 2010–11 but decreased slightly to 42.04 mil- although some variation in diet is found across different parts
lion tonnes in 2011–12 mainly because of a shift in area of of India. Wheat is the principal choice of food grain in the
cultivation to other competing crops. north followed by rice. Wheat comprises half of the total grain
consumption in the west followed equally by rice and other
coarse cereals together. Wheat is the staple food in India mostly
Pulses
consumed in the form of homemade chapattis or rotis (unlea-
Pulses complement the staple cereal in the diet as a gifted vened flat bread) using atta (whole wheat flour). Wheat is also
source of proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins, and min- consumed as bakery products like pan breads, cakes, biscuits,
erals among the vegetarians in India. They contain 22–24% cookies, and crackers.

Encyclopedia of Food Grains, (2016), vol. 1, pp. 367-373


372 GRAINS AROUND THE WORLD | Production and Consumption of Grains: India
Population
Growth rate (Percentage)
4
0
1961-71
Figure 9 Growth rate of population and food grain production in India.
Rice is consumed as the main food grain in the south and
the east followed by wheat in the east and coarse cereals in the
south. Rice consumption in 2013–14 was estimated at 95.0
million tonnes compared to 93.5 million tonnes in 2012–13, a
modest increase of 1.5%, almost equal to the population
growth rate of 1.4% per annum.
Monthly rice consumption in India declined to the extent of
400 g in rural and 220 g in urban areas from 6.38 to 5.98 kg to
4.71 to 4.49 kg during, respectively, the period from 2004–05
to 2011–12 in rural and urban areas, respectively. On the
contrary, monthly consumption of wheat showed a slight
increase of about 100 g per person in rural areas and a fall of
350 g in urban areas during the same period.
Direct human consumption of maize has been reduced
over the years. In 2012–13, consumption of maize in the
form of human food was only 20%, and it is estimated to
decline further due to rising per capita income and
commercialization, which has made cereals like wheat and
rice more preferred and affordable. Maize is the basic raw
material utilized for starch manufacturing and increasing com-
mercial demand from poultry and starch industries leading to
higher farmer realization. The remarkable portion, that is, 47%
of total maize production is used for poultry feed processing
because it possesses good nutritional value. Out of the total
production of maize, 12% is for starch manufacturing, 14% for
cattle feed, and 7% for brewery and food processing
(Figure 10). Maize contains 60–65% starch content and
hence cannot be easily substituted by other commodities for
starch manufacturing.
Barley was the staple food for many countries until wheat
supplanted it, resulting in the deceleration of human con-
sumption of barley with time. A wide variety of barley products
known to be suitable for human consumption includes por-
ridge, muesli, cookies, barley flakes, muffins, breads, and
pasta. Barley, being a good source of protein, is used as a feed
for livestock. Barley is used as animal feed in the form of rolled,
ground, flaked, or pelleted grain. Barley is also used in alco-
holic beverages like beer and wine in the form of malt. Apart
from this, malted barley is also used as flavors, sweeteners,
malt extracts, malt flours, and so on. In India total malt pro-
duction is around 3.5 lakh tonnes, but the demand of beer and
Encyclopedia of Food Grains, (2016), vol. 1, pp. 367-373
Author's personal copy
Foodgrain Production
1971-81 1981-91 1991-01 2001-11
Years
7% Poultry
12%
Direct Consumption
47%
14% Cattle Feed
Starch manufacturing
20%
Food Processing
Figure 10 Utilization of maize in India.
malt is increasing at the rate of 10% annually; to meet this
demand, the area and production of the barley needs to be
increased.
Economic growth has continued to fuel increased pulse
consumption in recent years. Consumption in 2014–15 is
forecasted higher at 22.5 million tonnes compared to 21.5
million tonnes last year on continued strong domestic demand
for the rising Indian population. Monthly consumption of
pulses and their products increased from 705 to 783 g in the
rural sector and from 824 to 901 g in the urban sector for this
period. The growth in the pulses consumption was attributed
mainly to the increase in the consumption of split gram, whole
gram, peas, and besan (Bengal gram flour) to the extent of 69 g
in the rural sector and 57 g in the urban sector. The nongrain
food crops and animal products contributed 27% and 8%,
respectively, of the total caloric requirement. The meat con-
sumption in India is very low due to cultural and religious
reasons, and most of the calories from animal products are
obtained from milk and milk products.
Future Consumption Trend
The emerging food consumption trends in India have been
illustrated by many authors. They have claimed that in recent
decades there has been a clear transition from grain
 Author's personal copy
GRAINS AROUND THE WORLD | Production and Consumption of Grains: India
consumption to nongrain food and animal product consump-
tion. Rath suggested that the per capita grain consumption will
further decrease due to the reduction in physical labor require-
ment in rural areas due to the adoption of more mechanized
and modernized agriculture. Furthermore, improving medical
facilities and infrastructure also contribute to the reduction in
energy requirements and thus less cereal consumption. It has
been suggested that a reduction in the intake of food grains on
this account should not be taken as deterioration in human
welfare.
Sustained economic growth and changing lifestyles are
accounting for a significant shift in Indian food culture that is
inclined toward high-value horticultural and animal products
and away from staple food grains. Rising per capita income and
urbanization are leading to a dietary transition primarily from
cereals with low-price calorie foods (foods such as wheat and
rice with low price and rich in carbohydrates) toward high-
price calorie foods like livestock products and processed or
ready-to-eat products. The transitions are also attributed to
farming patterns, as farmers are adopting new technologies
that have resulted in an increase in farm productivity.
In accordance with Engel’s law, as the earnings of people
rise, the cheaper source of energy for living, which comes from
the staple food consumption, is likely to drop. A decline in
cereal consumption is substituted with the increased consump-
tion of high-value commodities. Over time the shifting of
cereal consumption pattern will be prominent across all house-
holds in different expenditure groups. The devolution in cereal
consumption can also be credited to the diversification of food
production, easy access of high-value commodities, and
switching tastes and preferences. This agrees with the argu-
ments by Kumar and Mathur that the demand for food is not
only influenced by the income of a person but also by differ-
ences in urban and rural lifestyles, the development of more
advanced marketing systems, and occupational changes are
closely linked with increasing per capita income. Tastes and
preferences are also moving toward high value commodities.
With the availability of cash money and high-value commod-
ities in the food basket, the decline in calories by reduced cereal
consumption is partly compensated for by intake of highly
nutritive and vitamin-rich food products. Some other studies
have also attributed the change in per capita consumption of
cereals to economic growth, rise in per capita income, urban-
ization and preferences, market integration, and many more as
the dominating factors.
Exercise for Revision
• How has Indian agriculture been successful in changing its
face postindependence?
• In what ways has the Indian government contributed to the
growth of agriculture in India?
• What factors govern the changing consumption patterns of
food grains in India, and how is it changing?
• What is the total production of different grains in India, and
which are the major grain-producing states?
Encyclopedia of Food Grains, (2016), vol. 1, pp. 367-373
View publication stats
373
Exercises for Readers to Explore the Topic Further
• Why are India’s food grain production and productivity still
lagging behind?
• What would be the implications of economic development
and urbanization on the food grain consumption patterns
of the Indian population?
• What would be the effects of switching consumption pat-
terns on the future production estimates of grains?
See also: Food Grains and the Consumer: Consumer Trends in
Grain Consumption; Cultural Differences in Processing and
Consumption; Grains Around the World: Grain Production and
Consumption: Overview; The Basics: The Grain Chain: The Route
from Genes to Grain-Based Products; The Grain Crops: An Overview;
The Cereal Grains: An Overview of the Family of Cereal Grains
Prominent in World Agriculture; Barley: An Overview of a Versatile
Cereal Grain with Many Food and Feed Uses; Maize: Overview; Rice:
Overview; Wheat: An Overview of the Grain That Provides ‘Our Daily
Bread’.
Further Reading
Amarasinghe UA, Shah T, and Singh OP (2007) Changing consumption patterns:
Implications on food and water demand in India. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International
Water Management Institute, 43 p. (IWMI Research Report 119).
Annual Report, 2011–12. Department of Agricultural Research (DARE) & Education/
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Bansil PS (1999) Demand for foodgrains by 2020 AD. New Delhi: Observer Research
Foundation.
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 12–13. Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi.
Kumar P and Mathur VC (1996) Structural changes in demand for food in India. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Economics 51(4): 664–673.
Kumar P and Mathur VC (1997) Agriculture in future: Demand and supply prospective.
In: Desai BM (ed.) Agricultural Development Paradigm for the Ninth Plan Under New
Economic Development. New Delhi, India: Oxford and IBH Publishing.
Mittal S (2007) What affect changes in cereal consumption? Economic and Political
Weekly: 444–447, February.
National Sample Survey (NSS)-68th round July 2011-June 2012. Household
consumption of various goods and services in India, Government of India.
Radhakrishna R and Ravi C (1990) Food Demand Projections for India. Hyderabad:
Centre for Economics and Social Studies.
Radhakrishna R and Ravi C (1992) Effects of growth, relative price and performances of
food and nutrition. Indian Economic Review 27: 303–323.
Rao CHH (2000) Declining demand for foodgrains in rural India: Census and
Implications. Economic and Political Weekly, January 22.
Rath N (2003) Linking of rivers: Some elementary arithmetic. Economic and Political
Weekly: 3032–3033, July.
Singh SK (2014) Grain and feed annual, India. Global Agricultural Information Network
(GAIN) report-IN4005.
The Economic Survey 2014–15, Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority (APEDA).
The Tribune, Chandigarh, February 21, 2014. Sale of beer on the rise, scientists for
contract farming of barley.
Relevant Websites
faostat.fao.org – FAOSTAT, data.