Lecture 4: Trunking Theory and Grade of Service (GOS)

4.1. Main Problems and Definitions in Trunking and GOS

Main Problems in Subscriber Service:

limited radio spectrum (# of channels);

many users.

Principle of Service:

Serve a user only on demand (allocation and de-allocation of voice channels).

Performance analysis is based on trunking theory (i.e., stochastic approach).
Grade of service (GOS) based on principles of stochastic (trunking) theory.

Definition:

GOS is a measure of the user's ability to access a trunked system during busiest hours.

Purpose of trunking theory is:

To determine the required capacity and allocate the proper number of channels in order to
meet the GOS, where the probability of GOS is determined by

likelihood that a call is blocked;

likelihood of a call is experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing time.

Common terms in Trunking theory:

• Set-up Time
• Blocked Call
• Holding Time
• Traffic Intensity
• Load
• GOS
• Request Rate, λ .

There are several basic parameters usually used in trunking theory:

a) for user (subscriber):

Au - traffic intensity offered by each user in Erlangs;

λ- average number of call request per unit time;
H - average duration of a call.

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b) for system (with unspecified number of channels):

U - number of users in the system;

A - total offered traffic.

c) for channel (for equally distributed traffic among the channels):

C - number of channels.

There are following relations between parameters:

a) for user
Au = λH

b) for system
A = UAu

c) for channel

Ac = UAu / C

All these definitions and parameters allow us to obtain a probability that a call is blocked,
which in literature called “formula of Erlang B-model” and a probability that a call is
experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing time, which in literature called
“formula of Erlang C-model”. We will obtain now these formulas based on Queuing and
Trunking Theory.

4.2. Trunking Theory

Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to accommodate a large number of users in a

limited radio spectrum. The concept of trunking allows a large number of users to share
the relatively small number of channels in a cell by providing access to each user, on
demand, from a pool of available channels. In a trunked radio system, each user is
allocated a channel on per call basis, and upon termination of the call, the previously
occupied channel is immediately returned to the pool of available channels.
Trunking exploits the statistical behavior of users so that a fixed number of channels or
circuits may accommodate a large, random user community. The telephone company
uses trunking theory to determine the number of telephone circuits that need to be
allocated for office buildings with hundreds of telephones, and this same principle is used
is designing cellular radio systems. There is a trade-off between the number of available
telephone circuits and the likelihood of a particular user finding that no circuits are
available during the peak calling time. As the number of phone lines decreases, it

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becomes more likely that all circuits will be busy for a particular user. In a trunked
mobile radio system, when a particular user requests service and all of the radio channels
is already in use, the user is blocked, or denied access to the system. In some systems, a
queue may be used to hold the requesting users until a channel becomes available.
To design trunked radio systems that can handle a specific capacity at a specific “grade of
service”, it is essential to understand trunking theory and queuing theory. The
fundamentals of trunking theory were developed by Erlang, a Danish mathematician
who, in the late 19th century, embarked on he study of how a large population could be
accommodated by a limited number of servers. Today, the measure of traffic intensity
bears his name. One Erlang represents the amount of traffic intensity carried by a channel
that is completely occupied (i.e. 1 call-hour per hour or 1 call-minute per minute).
The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked
system during the busiest hour. The busy hour is based upon customer demand at the
busiest hour during a week, month, or year. The busy hours for cellular radio systems
typically occur during rush hours, between 4 p.m. and 6 p.m. on a Thursday or Friday
evening. The grade of service is a benchmark used to define the desired performance of a
particular trunked system by specifying a desired likelihood of a user obtaining channel
access given a specific number of channels available in the system. It is the wireless
designer’s job to estimate the maximum required capacity and to allocate the proper
number of channels in order to meet the GOS. GOS is typically given as the likelihood
that a call is blocked, or the likelihood of a call experiencing a delay greater than a certain
queuing time.
Poisson Formula and Negative Exponential Law. We consider a telephone system
(exchange, switch etc.), and we want to investigate the statistical features of the input
process of outside users. The most famous input process is the Poisson process.We
consider a time interval of length t, and we denote N(t) the r.v representing the number of
calls during this time interval.
Let us suppose that P(j, t) is the probability that exactly j calls are arrive in time t. We
divide this time interval into n sub-interval of duration t/n. In one interval there is just one
call in an equal probability, depends on the length of interval (call). We suppose that one
event, which occurs in sub-interval, is independent of other sub-intervals. Then P(0,t) has
a continuous derivation:

dP(0, t )
|t =0 = −λ
dt

Each sub-interval has success if it contains a call so:

t t
P(0, ) = 1 − λ + o(t )
n n
t t
P(1, ) = 1 − λ + o(t )
n n

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Now we take the probability Pn(j) of having j calls in n sub-intervals:
j n− j
 n  t  t   t  t 
Pn( j ) =   λ + o   1 − λ n + o n  
 j  n  n   

By taking n to infinity we get:

( λt ) − λt
P( j , t ) = e , j = 012
. . ....
j!

This is the Poisson distribution of incoming calls. That has the following characteristics:

Mean: E{N ( t )} = λt
Variance: var{N ( t )} = λt

4.2.1. Loss Systems

Life Time Distribution. A call is characterizes by the following properties:

Inter-arrival time is the time interval between 2 consecutive calls.

The holding time is the time interval between beginning and termination of call.
The waiting time is the instant of arrival of a call and the instant in which it is
admitted to the system.
They all reffer to as a lifetime. We denote now L as the lifetime length.

The CDF F(t) is the probability that life is no longer than t:

t

F (t ) = ∫ F (τ )dτ
0−
0≤t ≤∞

F (t ) = 0 t<0

And its PDF is:

f(t)dt = pr{t<L<t+dt}

By developing the prolongation of life (the call exceeding t+τ, we get the conditional
probability that a call will terminate during (t,t+dt). This probability is k(t)dt:
d ( F ( t ))
k ( t )dt =
1 − F (t )

For holding time µ(t) replaces k(t) and eventually we get the density function, which is
t

∫
− k ( s ) ds
f ( t ) = k ( t )e 0

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the exponential distribution.Loss Systems

Below we describe the problem of loss systems in a case of full availability.

We have to take 3 aspects while analyzing this problem:
a) The input and termination process.
b) The system structure.
c) The fate of unsuccessful call.
Let us take the system, which can be presented, as schematically shown in Fig. 4.1:

S groups C groups
of of
N sources R channels

Figure 4.1: Full availability group

In this scheme any source has access to any channels.

Assumptions:

All channels are fully available to calls from the sources.

A call, which meets congestion, is discarded immediately.
If no channel is available, a source will continue to demand service for a time
which equals to holding time.
If during this time channel becomes available, a source seizes and held for the
remaining busy time.
Number of busy channels in a group equals uumber of busy members in its
group of sources.
The input process is described by PDF of inter-arrival times between calls
incoming to C-group.

Lets Tr be the random variable (r.v.) of time intervals between 2 consecutive calls:
(r-1) to r. The r.v., Tr, r=1,2.., are independent and have the same PDF u(t) with the
mean value 1/‫ג‬.
The input process, Tr, is stationary with respect to parameter r ( 1< r <infinite), where
N is finite. The termination process, Lr, is described as PDF of holding-time of r-th
call. The r.v. Lr, r=1,2.., are independent and have the same PDF f(t) with the mean
value 1/u.
Note 1: Input and termination processes do not influence one each other. The processes
Lr and Tr are independent.

Note 2: All users have the same ability to produce calls. Sources are independent.

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We define:

Tr - r.v., representing the time interval between the arrivals of (r-1) to r calls.
Lr – r.v., representing the termination process; Lr is the holding time of the rth call.
Y(t) – r.v., representing the number of busy sources in the S-group of N sources.

Then, the probability of this event is

P(j, t) = Pr(Y(t) = j), j= 0, 1, 2,… , N.

It well-known that
N

∑ P( j , t ) = 1
j =1

Z(t) - number of busy channels, for which the probability equals:

Q(i, t) = Pr(Z(t) = i) , i= 0. 1. 2…., R.

and
R

∑ Q ( i, t ) = 1
j =1

Definitions of Loss:

Time Congestion S(t) is the probability that at time t, all devices in group are engaged.
In this case a call arrives to device is lost.
Call congestion H(t) is the conditional probability that at instant t the group is blocked
when a call arrives.

In our derivations, we will deal with 2 types of loss systems:

Loss Calls Clear (L): A call arrives to a system while all channels are busy (is cleared)
and the source does not get service (is used for Erlang B model).
Loss Calls Held (Lh): A call arrives to a system while all channels are busy is waiting
until one channels becomes free (is used for Erlang C model).

The Time Congestion S(t):

A. In a case of “lost calls clear” (L):

S(t) = Pr{Z(t)=R}= Q(R, t)

where R is the number of channels.

B. In a case of “lost call held” (Lh):

S (t ) = Pr{Y (t ) ≥ R} = Q ( R, t )

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The call congestion H(t):

Let Pb(a) is the conditional probability that a call arrives to a group when the group is
blocked, that is, the possibility that a call is originated by a source when C- group is in
various states, in particular in R.

Let P(a) is the probability that a call arrives to C-group.

The probability that at interval dt a call arrives to C- group is blocked is Pb(a)S(t).

Thus the call congestion is:

Pb( a )
H (t ) = S (t )
P( a )

A case of a Poison arrival process:

In a case of Poison arrival process the probability of a new call is independent of the state
of the group so Pb(a) = P(a). So we get the theorem:

Theorem:

For loss systems with Poison input, the time and call congestion are equal.

Traffic analysis of a system we will start with main definitions:

Traffic Offered {A(t)} is the expected number of calls during the average holding time
(The traffic offered to channel by sources).
If number of calls during interval s, starting at time t, is N(s, t-s) and the holding time
∞

A( t ) = ∫ N ( s, t − s)dF ( s)
0
CDF is F(s), then:

Traffic Offered per source is the average number of incoming calls (lost or not) during
a time interval corresponding to the average holding time.

c
a=
µ

where c is calling rate per source, u is the average holding time.

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Traffic Carried is the average number of occupied devices in a group, in a given instant
of time.

Traffic Lost is the average number of blocked sources.

Traffic Congestion

Traffic _ Lost
H 0
(t ) =
Traffic _ Offered

Case 1: Lost Call Cleared (L).

In this case it is impossible to more than R sources to be busy simultaneously. All N

sources have the same input process X(t) and access to all channels.We may note that not
all sources that request for service will get it since the upper limit of simultaneously
served sources is R.

In (L) system Y(t) = Z(t) so we get:

Q(i, t) = P(j, t) for i=j≤R

and
P(j, t) = 0 for j >R

E{Y(t)} = E{Z(t)}

The traffic lost is:

Traffic − Lost = A( t ) − E{Z ( t )}

The traffic congestion is:

Traffic _ Lost A( t ) − E{Z ( t )}

H 0
(t ) =
Traffic _ Offered
=
A( t )
In equilibrium H0 = H:

A = E{Z(t)} +AH

Meaning: The traffic offered (by sources) is the sum of traffic carried by channels and
the traffic lost (from source to channels).

Case 2: Lost call held (Lh).

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There may be more than R busy sources simultaneously, up to R sources are served. If C-
group is blocked so S-group is virtually not blocked so the process Y(t) and Z(t) are not
equal. We have to define the relations between Y(t) and Z(t):

R
E{Z ( t ) = ∑ j ⋅ P( j, t )
j=0

The input process (X(t)) yield the traffic offered A(t) (average number of originated
calls). So:

E{Y ( t )} = A( t )

The traffic carried by C-group is E{Z(t)}.

The average blockage of sources of the traffic lost is:

Traffic_Lost = E{ Y(t) } – E{ Z(t) }

The Traffic Congestion is therefore:

1.1 Traffic _ Lost E{Y ( t ) − E{Z ( t )} 1 N

H 0 (t ) = Traffic _ Offered = = ⋅ ∑ j ⋅ P( j, t )
E{Y ( t )} A( t ) j = R+1

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4.2.2. Birth and Death Process

This section is an overview of the Birth and Death (B&D) process described by Feller in
1939, which actually is a special case of the Markov process of 2nd type. We show the
basic feature of the method using Kolmogorov differential equation which is derived
from the Chapman Kolmogorov equation. We consider a system with the following
characteristics

Sources Channels
Random Variable Y(t) Z(t)
of process
Probability function P( j, t) Q( j, t)

We will distinct between the lost call clear system (L) to the lost call held (Lh). We
consider a system in state j, were there are N sources (N finite of infinite). So there are
N+1 states of j. We assume also that the fluctuations of states in time constitute a discrete
Markov process with continuous time parameter, that characterizes in its transition
probability:

Pr(Y(t) = j | Y(s) = i) = Pr(i, s; j, t), t≥s

that is, the probability of system in state j at instant t, given that at time s the system was
in state i.

The Chapman-Kolmogorov Equation:

The transition probability is expressed by a relation is known as Chapman-Kolmogorov

equation. It means the following:

Let us consider 3 moments: s, t and t+h, where s < t < t+h. At the time s the system is
in state i. At time t the system is in state v. The probability, that there are j busy sources at
time t+h, when there are i busy sources at instant s, is a sum of probabilities of transitions
from i busy sources into j busy sources occurring through intermediary situation v, at
instant t. The main property of this equation is that the future j, of instant t+h depends
only on the present and not on the past (the transition from s to j is independent of s).
Therefore, we can write the transition probability P(i, s;j,t+h) as P(i;j,t+h). So

P( i, s; j, t + h ) = ∑ P( i, s; v , t ) ⋅ P( v , t; j, t + h )
v

Transition Prob. that Transition Prob. of Conditional Prob. that if

system in state j at system in state v at system in state v at
instant t+h, given that it instant t, given that it instant t, it will change
was in i at time 0 10in i at time 0
was into j during h
We can illustrate it as (Fig. 4.2):

T=0 T=t T=t+h

s=i s=v1,v2, ... s=j

Fig. 4.2

In order to analyze a B&D system we have to take the following assumptions:

The system changes through transitions from one state, j to its neighbor state j-1 or j+1.
If the system is in state j at instant t, then the conditional probability that at the following
time ∆t it will jump to state j+1 is:

Pr{Y ( t + ∆t ) = j + 1| Y ( t ) = j} = λj ⋅ ∆t + o( ∆t )

This is the birth transition caused by originating a call by a source.

If the system is in state j (j<N) at instant t, then the conditional probability that at the
following time ∆t it will jump to state j+1 is

Pr{Y ( t + ∆t ) = j − 1| Y ( t ) = j} = µj ⋅ ∆t + o( ∆t )

This is the death transition by a call termination of one call by a source.

Here:
o(∆t) is the probability that more then one transition occur during ∆t.
λi is called Birth coefficient.
µi is called Death coefficient.

From above the following conclusions can be stated:

The probability of transition is proportional to ∆t.

The chance of occurrence of birth is : λi /(λi + µi).
The chance of occurrence of death is : µi /(λi + µi).

B&D equations of state

The Chapman-Kolmogorov equation can be written (in order to show the transition
probability to be is state j) as follows :

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 ( )
P( i; j , t + ∆t ) = P( i; j − 1, t ) ⋅ λ j −1 ⋅ ∆t + P( i; j + 1, t ) ⋅ µ j +1 ⋅ ∆t + P( i; j , t ) ⋅ 1 − λi ⋅ ∆t − µi ⋅ ∆t + o( ∆t )

No Transaction
Transaction Transaction occurred More then one
from j-1 to j from j+1 to j Transaction
occured

A common type of representation this process is by Fig. 4.3:

1-λj˙∆t- µj˙∆t

λj-1˙∆t
λj˙∆t

j-1 µj˙∆t j µj+1˙∆t j+1

dP( i; j, t ) P( i; j, t + ∆t ) − P( i; j, t )
= lim ∆t →0
dt ∆t

P( i; i,0) = 1; P( i; j,0) = 0, i≠ j

Equation above is the forward Kolmogorov difference- differential equation that also
known as equations of state.

For 0<i, j<N:

The initial conditions:

The boundary conditions for j=0 and j=N:

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 dP(i;0, t )
= − λ 0 ⋅ P (i;0.t ) + µi ⋅ P (i;1, t )
dt

dP(i; N , t )
= − λ 0 ⋅ P(i; N − 1.t ) + µi ⋅ P (i; N , t )
dt

The Congestion Functions

In This chapter we denote some definitions of systems features, in a view of congestion.

Using the transactions probability P(i ; j ,t) we obtain the probability that a new call will
arrive:
N
Λi = ∑ λjdt ⋅ P( i; j, t )
j =0

The absolute probability can be defined as:

N
Λ( t ) = ∑ λjP( j, t ) and Λ( t )dt = pr{Y ( t + dt ) − Y ( t ) = 1}
j =0

which is called the Calling Rate for a system comprising N sources, which is the
probability of originating a new call by source in dt.

The averaging of the calling rate for a long time called the Average Calling Rate (C)

For the ergodic process :

N
lim Λ( t ) = ∑ λj ⋅ P( j ) = C
t →∞
j =0

C remains the same for (L) and (Lh) systems.

The absolute probability can be defined as:

N
Γ( t ) = ∑ µjP( j, t ) and Γ( t )dt = pr{Y ( t + dt ) − Y ( t ) = −1}
j =0

which is called the Termination Rate for a system comprising N sources, which is the
probability of originating a new call by source in dt.
The limit value of termination rate over a long time is the Average Termination Rate .

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Congestion functions in (L) and (Lh) systems:

The calling and termination rates (Λ(t) and Γ(t) ) are valid for (L) and (Lh) systems.
But for (L) systems the birth coefficients vanish while j>R-1:
R R
Λ( t ) = ∑ λj ⋅ Q( j, t ) ; C = ∑ λjQ( j )
j =0 j=0

‫ג‬j differ between (L) and (Lh) systems.

The probability that a free channel will become busy during dt is called the Calling Rate
for Channel .
R −1
Λo( t ) = pr{Z ( t + dt ) − Z ( t ) = 1) = ∑ λjdt ⋅ Q( j, t )
j =0

The average calling rate is therefore:

 λR
R −1

Co = ∑ λjQ( j ) = C 1 − ⋅ Q( R )
j =0  C 

Congestion in (Lh) system:

The Time Congestion Function (S) in (Lh) system

As was defined before:

N
S = ∑ P( j )
j= R

The Call Congestion (H) in (Lh) system:

As mentioned before, the Call Congestion is the probability that a call arrived to a system
will find it at least in state R:

P( t ) = pr{Y ( t ) ≥ R| Y ( t + dt ) − Y ( t ) = 1)
we get:

1 N ∑ λj ⋅ P( j, R)
P( t ) = ⋅ ∑ λj ⋅ P( j, t ) = J =R
Λ( t ) j = R R

∑ λj ⋅ P( j, R)
j =0

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and in equilibrium conditions:

Congestion in (L) system:

The Time Congestion Function (S) in (L) system can be defined as before:
1 N
P (t ) = ⋅ ∑ λj ⋅ P ( j )
C j=R

S = Q( R )

The Time Congestion Function (H) in (L) system:

When a new call arrives, all channels are engaged:

P( t ) = pr{Y ( t ) = R| Y ( t + dt ) − Y ( t ) = 1)

Pr(Y ( t + dt ) − Y ( t ) = 1 and Y ( t ) = R ) = λ R dt ⋅ Q( R, t )
and ‫ג‬i = 0 for j>R.
so we get:

P (t ) = λ R ⋅ Q ( R, t )
Λ (t )
and in equilibrium:

Traffic properties using congestion functions:

Traffic Carried By Group Of Sources is the average number of busy sources:

or {Lh) system :
N N
E{Y (t )} = ∑ j ⋅ P ( J , t ) → ∑ j ⋅ P( j )
t →∞
j =0 j =0

For (L) system, since N=R :

R R
E{Z (t )} = ∑ j ⋅ Q( J , t ) → ∑ j ⋅ Q( j )
t →∞
j =0 j =0

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In order to find the expression for Y(t) - From the Chapman-Kolmogorov differential
equation we obtain:
N
d
Ei{Y (t )} = ∑ λ j −1 ⋅ P (i; j − 1, t ) − µ ⋅ P (i; j , t )
dt j =0
j

Where Ei{Y(t) } defined as:

N
Ei{Y (t )} = ∑ j ⋅ P (i; j , t )
j =0

Since the process is ergodic, the limit of Ei{Yt)} is constant , independent of i. If the
initial distribution of state i at t=0 is known, the averaging of all initial states yields for
(Lh) systems:

d
E{Z (t )} = Λo(t ) − Γ(t )
dt
and for (L) systems we get:

Γ = C for ( Lh) and Γ = Co for ( L)

Number of calls in Average Holding Time:

Suppose all calls have the same distribution of holding time, F(s), with mean value
T=1/u .
If the initial distribution is known so in the interval (t-s, t) the number of incoming calls i:

∫ Λ(t − τ )dτ
0

The average number of incoming calls during the average holding time is:

A(t ) = ∫ Λ (t − τ ) ⋅ [1 − F (τ )]dτ + E{Y (0)} ⋅ F 1 (t )

c

In equilibrium A(t) is constant so the average traffic offered for (Lh) is:

A = C ⋅T

And for (L) system is:

16
 E{Z (t )} = Co ⋅ T

4.2.3. The Solution Of B&D Equation

In this section we derive the solution of the transition probability Pr(i;j,t) for both cases
of (L) system as well as (Lh).
The final goal is to formulate the limit P(j) for each case under some assumptions
regarding the birth and death coefficients.
In this chapter we summarize the solution of the B&D equation without tracking all the
way to the solution (as in [1] pp 132-148).

We take some assumptions about the birth coefficients:

B1: The probability of a new call in (t,t+dt) is proportional to the number of idle sources:
λj = ( N − j ) ⋅ λ , j = 0,1,...., N ( N finite)

This is the most common case.

B2: The probability of a new call in (t, t+dt) is independent of the number of busy
sources.

λj = λ , j = 0,1,...., N ( N in − finite)
This a case of high number of users that tends to infinity.

B3: The probability of a new call in (t, t+dt) is independent of the number of busy
sources,
unless all channels are busy.

λj = λ , j = 0,1,...., N − 1
λ N = 0, ( N finite)
This is a variant of B2 for (L) systems.

B4: The probability of a new call in (t, t+dt) proportional to the number of busy sources
(except for j=0 and j=N:

λj = j ⋅ λ , j = 1,2,...., N − 1
λ 0 =, λN = 0 ( N finite or not )

B5: The birth coefficient is a linear function of the number of busy sources:

17
 λ j = α + j ⋅ β, j = 0,1,...., N − 1

λN = 0 ( N finite or not )

This case includes all the other cases. We take the following assumptions for the
death coefficients:

D1: The probability of a call termination in (t, t+dt) is proportional to the number of
busy sources.
µ j = j ⋅ µ, j = 0,1,...., N (N finite or not )

D2: The probability of a call termination in (t, t+dt) is independent of the number of
busy sources.

µ j = µ, j = 0,1,...., N ( N finite or not )

µ0 = 0

D3: The probability of a call termination in (t, t+dt) is proportional to the number of
idle sources.

µ j = ( N − j) ⋅ µ , j = 0,1,...., N ( N finite)

µ 0 = 0; λN = µ

We consider holding time that have n.e.d and the coefficient is equal to the inverse of
the average holding time T.
T= 1
µ

Theorem : if 1/ µ is the average duration of each holding time, and if the holding times
are independent, then the only form of death coefficient is D1.

The principle of the B&D equation

In order to solve the B&D equation, we use the generating function (g.f) that defined as:
∞

ψ i
( z , t ) = ∑ P(i; j , t ) ⋅ Z i , Z <1
j =i

And initial conditions:

ψ i
( Z ,0) = Z i ψ i
(1, t ) = 1
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 We follow the following steps:
• Get the transformed partial differential equation, so we get the expression for ψ i
(Z , t )
• By the inverse transform, get the required P(i;j,t).
• By limiting this expression, we get the limit distribution P(j).
• Using the expression of time congestion for [L] or [Lh] we compute (S).
• Using the expression of call congestion for [L] or [Lh] we compute (H).

For each case we show the differential equation, the solution P(i;j,t), P(j), S and H.

Solution of B&D equation for [Lh] system

B1-D1 case (Lh)

∂ψ ( z , t )  ∂ψ ( z , t ) 
i
= (1 − Z ) (λZ + µ ) i
− λ ⋅ N ⋅ψ ( z , t )
∂t  ∂z i 
 

ψ [ ] [
i
( z , t ) = 1 − (1 − Z λ) a1 ⋅ 1 − (1λ− Z ) ⋅−a(0λ + µ )t ]( N −i )

a0 = P(0;1, t ) = λ + µ − λ + µ ⋅ e
i

where :

And the explicit solution is:

λ µ
⋅e
− (λ + µ )t
a1
= P(1;1, t ) =
λ+µ
+
λ+µ
j
 i  j −k  N −i k
P (i; j , t ) = ∑   ⋅ a1 ⋅ (1 − a1) i − j + k ⋅   ⋅ a0 ⋅ (1 − a0) N −i − k
k =0  j − k   k 

By limiting P( ) we get P(j):

j N− j
N  λ   µ 
P ( j ) =   ⋅   ⋅  
 j  λ+µ  λ+µ 

We define :
 λ 
a =  
λ+µ 

So, using the expressions of S and H and using the average calling rate we get:
N −1 N − 1
N
N j   j
S = ∑   ⋅ a ⋅ (1 − a) N − j ; H = ∑   ⋅ a ⋅ (1 − a) N −1− j
j=R  j  j=R  j 

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B2-D1 case (Lh)
The equation:
∂ψ ( z , t )  ∂ψ ( z , t ) 
i
= (1 − Z )  µ ⋅ i
− λ ⋅ ⋅ψ ( z , t )
∂t  ∂z i 
 
The solution:
λ
i − ⋅(1− z )⋅(1− e − µt )
− µt  µ
ψ ( z , t ) = 1 − (1 − Z )e ⋅e
i  

We get from this expression the Poison Distribution for the probability that exactly j
sourses are busy in equilibrium condition:
j
λ λ
  −
µ
P( j ) =  ⋅e u j = 0,1,...
j!
The average calling rate :
λ
lim( E{Y (t )} = ⋅= A
µ

And the congestion functions:

∞
Aj −A
S=H =∑ ⋅e
j=R j!
B3-D1 case (Lh)

j
1 λ
⋅ 
j!  µ 
P( j ) = j
N
1 λ
∑ ⋅  
j = 0 j!  µ 

If we assume C= λ , so we get S=H

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 j j
N
1 λ 1 λ
N −1

∑ ⋅  
j = R j!  µ 
∑ ⋅ 
λ j = R j!  µ 
S= j
H= ⋅
N
1 λ C N 1 λ j
∑ ⋅  
j = 0 j!  µ 
∑ ⋅  
j = 0 j!  µ 

Solution of B&D equation for [L] system

B1-D1 case (L)

λj = λ = C
λ
A=
µ
j
1  λ
⋅ 
J !  µ
Q( j ) = j j = 0,1,2.... R
R
1  λ
∑
j=0
⋅ 
j!  µ

The congestion function is known more as the Erlang-B formula.

AR
S = H = R R! J
A
∑j =0 J !

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