energies

Article
Real-Time Forecasting of EV Charging Station
Scheduling for Smart Energy Systems
Bharatiraja Chokkalingam 1 , Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 2, *, Pierluigi Siano 3, *,
Ramesh Krishnamoorthy 4 and Raghu Selvaraj 5
1 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRM University, Chennai 603 203, India;
bharatiraja@gmail.com
2 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park,
Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
3 Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Salerno 84084, Italy
4 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SRM University, Chennai 603 203, India;
rameshk.tn@gmail.com
5 Department of Water Resource Development and Management, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee 247 667, India; raghu.selvaraj89@gmail.com
* Correspondences: sanjeevikumarp@uj.ac.za (S.P.); psiano@unisa.it (P.S.); Tel.: +27-79-219-9845 (S.P.)

Academic Editor: Chunhua Liu

Received: 7 November 2016; Accepted: 13 March 2017; Published: 16 March 2017

Abstract: The enormous growth in the penetration of electric vehicles (EVs), has laid the path to
advancements in the charging infrastructure. Connectivity between charging stations is an essential
prerequisite for future EV adoption to alleviate user’s “range anxiety”. The existing charging stations
fail to adopt power provision, allocation and scheduling management. To improve the existing
charging infrastructure, data based on real-time information and availability of reserves at charging
stations could be uploaded to the users to help them locate the nearest charging station for an EV. This
research article focuses on an a interactive user application developed through SQL and PHP platform
to allocate the charging slots based on estimated battery parameters, which uses data communication
with charging stations to receive the slot availability information. The proposed server-based
real-time forecast charging infrastructure avoids waiting times and its scheduling management
efficiently prevents the EV from halting on the road due to battery drain out. The proposed model is
implemented using a low-cost microcontroller and the system etiquette tested.

Keywords: electric vehicle (EV); charging station (CS); state of charge (SOC); structured query
language (SQL); personal home page (PHP)

1. Introduction
There is currently a focus on electric vehicles due to their eco-friendly benefits such as low CO2
emissions and decreased demand for fossil fuels and gases. It emerges that for the transportation
system to concentrate on EVs attention must be paid to the power network to utilize economies of scale
in their energy consumption. Unlike traditional vehicles, EVs don’t require such high maintenance
costs [1,2] and moreover, they have great potential advantages such as cost, convenience, travel range
and charging infrastructure. A compact, mid-family size car battery-based 22–32 kWh package runs the
EV for about 40–100 miles. The Toyota RAV4 electric cars with a rated battery size of 41.8 kWh provides
a driving range of 113 miles with a full energy charge. Hybrid electric vehicles utilize the combination
of an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electrical propulsion system to achieve a speed range of
29.93 kilometers per hour. The Chevrolet Volt officially unveiled an 18.4 kWh battery with fuel cell
usage, to improve the driving range from 38 to 53 miles/charge. A 120 V single phase system charging

Energies 2017, 10, 377; doi:10.3390/en10030377 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 377 2 of 17

53 miles/charge.
Energies
Energies 2017,
2017, 10, 10, A 120 V single phase system charging outlet with on board charging technology
377377 2 of 17 16
2 of
requires 11–36 h to charge a 16–50 kWh battery system for a driving range of 40 miles. Commercial
53 miles/charge.
public A 120 V
or private charging single phase
systems systemVcharging
use 208–600 systems outlet witha on
to charge board
20–50 kWh charging
batterytechnology
in 0.2–0.5 h
outlet with 11–36
requires on board h to charging
charge a technology
16–50 kWh requires
battery 11–36for
system h to
a charge arange
driving 16–50 of kWh
40 battery
miles. system for
Commercial
[1]. The global EV manufacturers have concentrated on developing the zero carbon emission
a driving
public or private charging systems use 208–600 V systems to charge a 20–50 kWh battery in V
range of 40 miles. Commercial public or private charging systems use 208–600 systems
0.2–0.5 h
vehicles with improved performance characteristics, driving the demand for EVs with compact
to charge
[1]. Thea 20–50
global kWh battery in 0.2–0.5
EV manufacturers haveh [1]. The global
concentrated onEV manufacturers
developing the zerohave concentrated
carbon emissionon
energy efficient and low cost cut off [2].
vehicles with
developing the zeroimproved
carbon performance
emission vehicles characteristics, driving
with improved the demand
performance for EVs withdriving
characteristics, compactthe
The compactness of the current EV power train only provides the capability for a short driving
energyfor
demand efficient
EVs with and compact
low cost cut off [2].
energy efficient and low cost cut off [2].
range. The researchers concentrating on the enhancement of the power train capability are focused
TheThe compactness
compactness ofofthe
thecurrent
currentEV EVpower
powertrain
train only
only provides
provides thethecapability
capabilityfor fora ashort
shortdriving
driving
on increasing
range. The
the driving range
researchersconcentrating
to 500
concentratingon
km with
onthe
a rated
theenhancement
battery
enhancement of
capacity of 75 kWh. The enhancement
range. The researchers of the
the power
powertraintraincapability
capabilityare arefocused
focused
makes the system exceedingly complex with ana added increase in the cost. Figure 1enhancement
gives an idea
on on increasing
increasing thethe driving
driving range
range toto500
500kmkm with
with rated battery
a rated battery capacity
capacityof of7575kWh.
kWh.The The enhancement
about the
makes relation between the propulsion system and battery packages.
makes thethe system
system exceedinglycomplex
exceedingly complexwith with an
an added
added increase
increase in in the
the cost.
cost.Figure
Figure1 1gives
givesananideaidea
about the relation between the propulsion system and battery packages.
about the relation between the propulsion system and battery packages.

Figure 1. Electric propulsions versus energy consumption.

Figure1.1.Electric
Figure Electricpropulsions
propulsions versus
versus energy
energy consumption.
consumption.
The various EV propulsion trends can be summarized as 720 W starter battery, 1500 W hybrid
The various EV propulsion trends can be summarized as 720 W starter battery, 1500 W hybrid
electric
The vehicles
various(HEV), PHEV with
EV propulsion 12.5 can
trends kW beand an EV with as
summarized 25720kWW [3].starter
Cousland et al.
battery, planned
1500 the
W hybrid
electric vehicles (HEV), PHEV with 12.5 kW and an EV with 25 kW [3]. Cousland et al. planned the
monitoring
electric
monitoring
andand
vehicles control
(HEV),
control
of of
PHEVlithium-ion
with 12.5cells
lithium-ion kW [4].
cells and Haghbin
[4]. an EV with
Haghbin
et al.
et 25
surveyed
al. kW
the literature
[3]. Cousland
surveyed
onvarious
et al.on
the literature
various
planned the
compact
monitoring battery
and chargers
control of for EV
lithium-ionapplications
cells [4]. [5]. In
Haghbinlevel-1
et al. charging
surveyed
compact battery chargers for EV applications [5]. In level-1 charging infrastructures, the usersinfrastructures,
the literature the
on users
various
predominately
compact battery
predominately usechargers
thethe
use nightfortime
night EV
timetotopower
powerup
applications the
[5].
up EV
theIn with
with their
EVlevel-1 portable
charging
their single phase
phasethe
infrastructures,
portable single outlets.
users
outlets.
Semi-fast charging
predominately
Semi-fast charging EVs
use the can
night
EVs canbe
timeplugged
be to power
plugged ininup
240
240 VVEV
the single
with
single or three
ortheir phase
portable
three public orprivate
single or
phase public phaseprivate outlets
outlets. and
Semi-fast
outlets and
taketake 2 to 6 h to charge to a full usable capacity. A pictorial view of several EV charging levels is6ish
2 to
charging 6
EVsh to
cancharge
be to
pluggeda full
in usable
240 V capacity.
single or A
three pictorial
phase view
public of
or several
private EV charging
outlets and levels
take 2 to
shown
shownin Figure
to charge to full2.usable
in aFigure 2. capacity. A pictorial view of several EV charging levels is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Levels of charging requirements.

Figure 2. Levels of charging requirements.
Figure 2. Levels of charging requirements.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 3 of 16

From the commercial view points, EVs must indeed charge fast within a short span of time.
The various charging systems receive power from the grid or from high penetration renewable energy
sources integrated with the charging system to maintain the grid flexibility [6]. Verzijlbergh et al.
have identified the optimized strategy for EV charging and discharging based on the peak power
demand for flexible operation of the power grid [7]. The EV battery performance is estimated and
communicated to the user regularly to avoid battery drain out. The battery performance is analysed
through the SOC technology. Chang et al. reviewed various battery SOC estimation methods and
concluded that the Coulomb counting method is efficient for storage systems [8]. Future transportation
systems will focus strongly on vehicle to vehicle (V2V), vehicle to infrastructure (V2I), a vehicle to
grid (V2G) communication and vice versa [9]. The data communication deliberately uses the two-way
communication between user and charging station for scheduled power management. The SOC of
the EV is estimated using the user interface which is communicated to the next-door charging station
to allocate a power provision slot based on distributed system power demand [10,11]. Research has
been conducted to forecast EV vehicle battery power management to best utilize the advantages of the
charging process [12,13]. However, these concepts are not included in the dynamic charge scheduling
management facilities based on the vehicle location and SOC [14–16]. In order to achieve this, the
vehicle and charging station communicate with each other for the reservation of slots according to the
availability and the cost functions [17]. The progress in EVs in the near future is expected to be high and
must be supported with the help of available and future communication systems [18–20]. The proposed
real-time EV charge scheduling depends upon the battery dynamics and availability of charging slots.
Based on the scheduling management facility, the system will deliver the information to the user
regarding the nearest charging station, best cost function and booking slots with respect to estimated
vehicle battery SOC. The information sharing through webpages allows the energy management
system to respond based on the vehicle peak demand and the vendor perspective [20,21]. The webpage
is developed based on PHP scripting, which helps the user view the aforementioned information.
With this, the vendors can even sell their services by means of bidding processes which can be done
by adding the charging station through an online GPRS map. Therefore the viewer can choose the
nearest charging station and available slots based on cost per unit. Here the coulomb counting method
is used to estimate the SOC and the database is created in the SQL form with the purpose of storing
information like SOC, the cost of charge, cost per kWh for the prevailing average rate, etc. The database
is linked to a webpage which keeps track of information and transfers to the user by means of 3G/4G
networks, or Wi-Fi protocols. Our analysis begins with a discussion of load forecasting in Section 2.
This is followed by the SOC measurement in Section 3 and communication network architecture
in Section 4. Section 5 deals with system topology, which is followed by computational algorithm
development for server interfacing.

2. Load Forecasting
A load consumption graph can be used to improve the energy management system and also
strengthen the resourcefulness of the proposed approach. This will help to overcome energy supply
shortages on the vendor side and avoid inconveniences for the user as well. The following are arbitrary
samples of load forecasting at charging stations in different regions directed to the user [10]. These
samples will help to predict the peak hour demand, the number of customers expected during the
precise time of the day. Figure 3a shows that the increase in charging rates will change according to
the peak demands. The particular station will have high demand during a specific time interval where
other stations will not, as shown in Figure 3b.
The unit cost variations in those stations vary accordingly as shown in Figure 3c. To reduce these
variations the proposed communication network setup will work in such way that it will inform the
user about the availability of charging slots and charging stations with the purpose of helping the user
save time for selecting a preferred station where there is availability (see Figure 3d).
Energies 2017, 10, 377 4 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 377 4 of 17

(a)
50
No of Cars

40
30
20
10 Station 1
0
Station 2
10 -12 pm

2 -4 pm

6 -8 pm

10 -12 am
6 - 8 am

12 - 2 pm

8 - 10 pm

2 - 4 am
8 - 10 am

4 -6 pm

12 -2 am

4 - 6 am
station 3

Hours

(b)
60
50
Cost/kWh

40
30
20
10 Station 1
0
Station 2
10 -12 pm

12 - 2 pm

2 -4 pm

6 -8 pm

8 - 10 pm

10 -12 am
6 - 8 am

2 - 4 am
8 - 10 am

4 -6 pm

12 -2 am

4 - 6 am
station 3

Hours

(c)

Station 1
Station 2
No of Cars

station 3
Cost/kwhr

Hours
(d)

Figure 3. (a) The increase in cost/kWh as the number of vehicles increases; (b) Peak demands at three
Figure 3. (a) The increase in cost/kWh as the number of vehicles increases; (b) Peak demands at three
different stations; (c) Cost per kWh of charging in three different stations; (d) Stabilized peak
different stations;
demand (c) per
and cost CostkWh
perin
kWh of charging
all three stations. in three different stations; (d) Stabilized peak demand
and cost per kWh in all three stations.
Implementing this model would improve the energy management system of the grid, as the
peak demands atthis
Implementing eachmodel
station would
are equally distributed,
improve while the
the energy cost per kWhsystem
management will not of
varythetogrid,
a largeas the
extent. The charging stations form an essential part of the EV reliability scenario in addition to
peak demands at each station are equally distributed, while the cost per kWh will not vary to a large
energy utilization. With respect to the present EV market, the major shortcoming is that there are not
extent. The charging stations form an essential part of the EV reliability scenario in addition to energy
sufficient charging stations to cater to the need [17,22]. This is further aggravated by the fact that the
utilization. With
locations respect
of these to thestations
charging presentare EVnot
market,
uniform.theThus
majorEVshortcoming is thatlimited
usage is currently there are not sufficient
to particular
charging stations to cater to the need [17,22]. This is further aggravated by the fact that the locations of
these charging stations are not uniform. Thus EV usage is currently limited to particular countries or
states. When users drive out of state, they may not find abundant charging stations at regular intervals.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 5 of 16

Apart from these issues, there are other problems related to the power distribution to several customers
during peak hours. Since EVs take several hours to charge their battery, the user has to occupy a
charging slot in a station for a considerable amount of time, yet when the vendor employs a method
to forecast load at peak hours, there may not be sufficient charging slots to hold many customers
simultaneously. Thereby, knowing the availability of charging slots during a particular time will avoid
traffic at charging stations during peak hours. As a result of the insufficiency of charging stations,
energy distribution and peak hour load forecasting will pose an inconvenience for EV users.

3. State of Charge Measurement

Users expect that the vehicles will measure the present SOC of the battery and communicate it
at any time. There are several methods to evaluate the SOC of a battery [8]. The method proposed is
straightforward and convenient as it uses Arduino codes where the outputs are obtained in digital
format. Unlike the lithium-ion batteries used in laptops and smartphones, which uses smart chips
inserted within them to measure SOC, the lead acid batteries used in EVs cannot do the same.
Their SOC can only be measured externally (using the terminal voltage), so the Arduino is programmed
to continuously measure the SOC and is looped within time delays to keep running the program.
This updated SOC data should be communicated to the user, which involves transmitting the data
from the Arduino to a smartphone. This data becomes essential as it determines the remaining
capacity of the battery, the maximum possible distance the vehicle can traverse with the current SOC
of battery, also the speed at which the EV can be operated to derive maximum desired output—either
in terms of speed or distance. SOC refers to indicating whether the battery is fully or partially charged.
The remaining SOC percentage will be displayed after computation using some appropriate method.
It is necessary to estimate this so consequently the user can plan for travel based on the available SOC,
otherwise the user should wait and charge the vehicle. There are lots of ways to measure the SOC of
the battery; the preferred ones are Amp-Hour or Watt-Hour or the Coulomb Counting method.

Coulomb Counting Method

The battery charge is measured before and after discharging and integrated over time using
Ampere-hours (Ah). SOC can be calculated by measuring the current in and out of the battery during
charging/discharging with respect to the time of current flow [8,22]:

Remaining Capacity
SOC = (1)
Rated Capacity

If the Ah capacity is used, the change of SOC can be expressed as:

Z t
1
SOC = SOC(t) − SOC(t0 ) = i(t)dt (2)
Ah Capacity t0

SOC is a critical condition parameter for battery management. Accurate gauging of SOC is very
challenging, but key to the healthy and safe operation of batteries [23]. Figure 4 shows an EV Battery
SOC profile. Here the voltage limitation is essential to avoid the generalized problems outlined in
literatures are taken into consideration for the operating range of the SOC. Less than 20% and more
than 90% of SOC limits are harmful to the battery lifetime [24].
Here the method (Coulomb Counting) used to be more accurate with lithium ion batteries is
by using constant current charging method for ensuring the SOC in within the recommend range of
values. The estimation of battery SOC is defined as:

QT − QD
SOC = × 100% (3)
QT
Energies 2017, 10, 377 6 of 16

Energies Q
where 2017,
T is10,
the377charge available before discharging of the battery, QD is the existing charge during 6 of 17
discharging of the battery. The measurement of the current entering and leaving the battery during
charge and
charge and discharge
discharge of of the
the battery
battery is
is called
called the
the Coulomb
Coulomb method
method because
because 11 Amp
Amp of
of current
current flowing
flowing
for 1 h is equal to 3600 coulomb. 1 Ah = 3600 C, as a Coulomb is defined as
for 1 h is equal to 3600 coulomb. 1 Ah = 3600 C, as a Coulomb is defined as the one Ampere ofthe one Ampere of
current following
current following in in one
one second.
second. Watt-hour
Watt-hour is is the
the battery
battery voltage
voltage multiplied
multiplied by
by the
the Ampere-hour
Ampere-hour
value. This is used to calculate the rate for charging the
value. This is used to calculate the rate for charging the battery. battery.

Figure 4. EV Battery SOC profile.

4. Communication
4. Communication Network
Network Architecture
Architecture
The transfer
The transferofofinformation
information between
between twotwo devices
devices is carried
is carried out through
out through wired wired or wireless
or wireless means.
means. The information is first stored for future consideration in a storage
The information is first stored for future consideration in a storage device (server), which is connected device (server), which is
connected
to another to another
device device
(client). In(client). In wired communication
wired communication there is a there
physical is a connection
physical connection
betweenbetween
the two
the two devices, whereas the wireless communication will not have
devices, whereas the wireless communication will not have any physical connection in between the any physical connection in
between the devices. In this system, communication takes place between
devices. In this system, communication takes place between the server or cloud and the user’s mobile the server or cloud and the
user’s mobile
devices throughdevices through Wi-Fi/ZigBee/GSM
Wi-Fi/ZigBee/GSM networks. To enjoy networks. To enjoy
all the benefits ofall the EV
smart benefits
chargeofscheduling,
smart EV
charge scheduling, decisions must be taken at the right time in order to
decisions must be taken at the right time in order to optimize the overall system. The EV charging optimize the overall system.
The EV charging control system consists of several network devices
control system consists of several network devices that work mutually to ensure optimal charging that work mutually to ensure
of
optimal
EVs and charging of EVs [1].
grid robustness and grid robustness [1].
Figure 55 shows
Figure shows thethe communication
communication network network architecture,
architecture, where where the the electric
electric power
power fromfrom thethe
grid is controlled from the power station and fed into the user end,
grid is controlled from the power station and fed into the user end, and through the gateway, and through the gateway, the
power
the poweris transferred to thetoElectric
is transferred Vehicle
the Electric SupplySupply
Vehicle Equipment (EVSE),(EVSE),
Equipment and otherandapplicable entities.
other applicable
The EV charging station systems operate through the cloud, or with efficient
entities. The EV charging station systems operate through the cloud, or with efficient Internet access. Internet access. EVs
will will
EVs communicate
communicate withwiththe the
EVSEEVSE through
through wireless
wireless interfaces
interfaces like
likeZigBee
ZigBeeororwired
wired interfaces
interfaces like
like
RS232, ethernet, etc. The EV charging points will be able to interact themselves
RS232, ethernet, etc. The EV charging points will be able to interact themselves through the ZigBee through the ZigBee
protocol. Whenever
protocol. Whenever an an EV
EV reaches
reaches thethe charging
charging station,
station, SOC
SOC is initially communicated
is initially communicated with with the
the
EVSE to
EVSE to make
make aa decision
decision in in assigning
assigning thethe slot
slot to
to that
that particular
particular EV. EV. TheThe SAE
SAE J1772
J1772 Electric
Electric Vehicle
Vehicle
Connector communicates
Connector communicateswith withthethe vehicle
vehicle by means
by means of theof charging
the charging cable.cable. The unique
The unique user and user and
vehicle
vehicle information are communicated using a smartphone with Internet
information are communicated using a smartphone with Internet availability. The SAE J1772 standard availability. The SAE J1772
standard
is used forisconnecting
used for EVsconnecting
with EVSEs EVsand with EVSEs
ensures and safety
system ensures system safety
requirements and requirements
network interfaces and
network interfaces through cables. The data sharing between the EV
through cables. The data sharing between the EV and EVSE is carried out through the J1772 connector and EVSE is carried out
through
using the J1772
a wired connector
interface. Tableusing
1 listsathe
wired
SAEinterface.
standard Table
codes1and listsnorms
the SAE for standard codes
EV batteries andand norms
interfaces.
for EV batteries and interfaces.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 7 of 17
16

Figure 5.
Figure Communication Network
5. Communication Network Architecture.
Architecture.

1. Communication
Table 1.
Table Communication Network:
Network: SAE
SAE standard
standard codes
codes for
for EV
EV batteries
batteries and
and interfaces.
interfaces.

Recommended Practice forPractice

Recommended Electric
forand Hybrid
Electric and Electric Vehicle
Hybrid Electric Battery
Vehicle Systems
Battery Crash
Systems
SAE J-1766
SAE J-1766
Integrity Testing
Crash Integrity Testing
SAE J-1797 Recommended
SAE J-1797 Practice forPractice
Recommended Packaging of Electric
for Packaging VehicleVehicle
of Electric Battery Modules
Battery Modules
SAE J-1798 Recommended Practice for Performance Rating of Electric Vehicle Battery
Recommended Practice for Performance Rating of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules
SAE J-1798
SAE J-2288 Life Cycle Testing
Modulesof Electric Vehicle Battery Modules
SAE J-2289 Electric Vehicle
SAE J-2288 Life Battery Pack of
Cycle Testing System:
ElectricFunctional Guidelines
Vehicle Battery Modules
SAE J-2380 Vibration
SAE J-2289 Testing of Electric Vehicle Batteries
Electric Vehicle Battery Pack System: Functional Guidelines
Electrically propelled road vehicles—Test specification for lithium-ion traction battery
ISO/CD 12405-1
SAE J-2380 Vibration Testing of Electric Vehicle Batteries
packs and systems—Part1 High power applications
Electrically propelled road vehicles—Test specification for lithium-ion traction
SAE J-1772 SAE Electric battery
ISO/CD 12405-1 Vehiclepacks
Conductive Charge Coupler
and systems—Part1 High power applications
SAE J-1773 SAE Electric Vehicle Inductive Coupled Charging
SAE J-1772 SAE Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler
SAE J-1850 Class B Data Communications Network Interface
SAE J-1773 SAE Electric Vehicle Inductive Coupled Charging
Energy Transfer System for EV Part2: Communication Requirements and Network
SAE J-2293 Part
SAE 2J-1850
ArchitectureClass B Data Communications Network Interface
SAE J-2836 Part
SAE Use2Cases forEnergy
1 Part
J-2293
Transfer System
Communications for EV Part2:
between Communication
Plug-In Vehicles andRequirements
Utility Gridand
Use Cases forNetwork Architecture
Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Supply Equipment
SAE J-2836 Part 2
SAE J-2836 Part 1 Use Cases for Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and Utility Grid
(EVSE)
SAE J-2836
Use Cases forUseCommunications between between
Cases for Communications Plug-In Plug-In
Vehicles and the
Vehicles andUtility Grid for
the Supply
SAE J-2836 Part 3 Part 2
Reverse FlowEquipment (EVSE)
SAE J-2847 Part 1 Part
CommunicationsUse Cases for Communications
between Plug-In Vehicles between Plug-In Grid
and Utility Vehicles and the Utility Grid for
SAE J-2836 3
Reverse Flow
SAE J-2847 Part 2 Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Supply Equipment (EVSE)
SAE
SAE J-2847 J-2847
Part 3 Part 1
CommunicationsCommunications betweenVehicles
between Plug-In Plug-In Vehicles
and theand Utility
Utility Grid
Grid for Reverse Flow
SAE J-2847 Part 2 Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Supply Equipment (EVSE)
The proposed system
SAE J-2847 Part 3 as shown in Figure
Communications 6 consists
between Plug-Inof an Arduino
Vehicles Microcontroller
and the Utility Grid for Reverse(MC)
Flow with
the aim of determining SOC, charging cost and unit cost and avoiding unexpected exceptions and
protecting batteries system
The proposed from excess charging
as shown and discharging
in Figure soan
6 consists of as Arduino
to increase the battery lifetime.
Microcontroller (MC) with
the aim of determining SOC, charging cost and unit cost and avoiding unexpected exceptions and
protecting batteries from excess charging and discharging so as to increase the battery lifetime.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 8 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 377 8 of 17

Figure6.6.Schematic
Figure Schematic of
of the
thesystem.
system.

As explained in Section 3 the Coulomb counting method is used to estimate the value of SOC.
As
Fromexplained in Section
the Arduino-MC the3SOCthe Coulomb
is transferred counting method
to a personal is used to estimate
computer/laptop USB porttheinvalue
orderof to SOC.
Frommonitor
the Arduino-MC
the status ofthe the SOC is transferred
battery. The PC in thetocharging
a personal computer/laptop
position is connected with USB port in order to
a WiFi-enabled
Internet
monitor connection.
the status of theThus the SOC
battery. Thetransferred by the Arduino
PC in the charging positionis read by the PC and
is connected withstored in the
a WiFi-enabled
database server and the same will be received by the mobile
Internet connection. Thus the SOC transferred by the Arduino is read by the PC and storeddevice of the particular EV user. The in
database is in the configuration of a SQL server, which will store SOC,
the database server and the same will be received by the mobile device of the particular EV user. the cost of charge, and cost
per kWh for customary average rates and routes of travel. There is another database which will keep
The database is in the configuration of a SQL server, which will store SOC, the cost of charge, and cost
track of the charging stations and present the travel route plan. These databases are concurrent with
per kWh for customary average rates and routes of travel. There is another database which will keep
the created webpage and display it through a WiFi-enabled Internet connection of
track 3G/4G/WiFi/ZigBee,
of the charging stations and present the travel route plan. These databases are concurrent with the
etc. This webpage can show the map (place) at which the charging station is
created webpage
located and display
and connects to the itGooglemaps
through a WiFi-enabled
based on the user Internet
request. connection
The Arduino of board
3G/4G/WiFi/ZigBee,
is interfaced
etc. This webpage can show the map (place) at which the charging
to the PC through the USB cable. The entire system code is written by means of Embedded station is located and connects C to
the Googlemaps
language. The database is linked with a user-friendly webpage. The system operates with a baud USB
based on the user request. The Arduino board is interfaced to the PC through the
cable.rate
The (number of bits transferred
entire system code is writtenper second)
by meansof 9600 ofBPS, to connect
Embedded C the ArduinoThe
language. withdatabase
the PC. Then
is linked
with athe measured SOC
user-friendly from theThe
webpage. Arduino
systemis transferred
operates with without any rate
a baud issues. After initializing
(number the baud per
of bits transferred
rate,ofmeasured
second) 9600 BPS,values of all the
to connect the Arduino
functions withis initialized
the PC. to
Thenzerotheto measured
have a preventative
SOC frommeasure to
the Arduino is
protect saved data. The battery input is applied to the analog input pins of the Arduino (voltage
transferred without any issues. After initializing the baud rate, measured values of all the functions is
input of either 5 V or 3.3 V) through the voltage divider circuit.
initialized to zero to have a preventative measure to protect saved data. The battery input is applied
The Amp-hour of the battery is 400 mAh. This means that the battery will deliver 400 mA for
to theone
analog input pins of the Arduino (voltage input of either 5 V or 3.3 V) through the voltage
hour; this is said to be the initial charge or initial Ah of the battery. For the experimental setup a
divider circuit.
9 V, 68 mA DC motor is used as the load, therefore the motor can run for 5 h at the rate of 68 mA, or
The Amp-hour
run for of the battery
an even longer is 400 mAh.
time depending uponThis meansThe
the usage. thatbattery
the battery
shouldwill deliver 400
be recharged mA
after 30%for one
hour;usage
this isand
said to be the
maintain the initial
load below charge25%or ofinitial
the rated Ahcurrent
of the inorder
battery.toFor havethe
anexperimental
extended life ofsetup
usagea 9 V,
68 mA of DC
the motor
battery,issoused
the C asrate
the (determined
load, therefore rate the
at which
motoracan battery
run is forreleased relative
5 h at the rate ofto its utmost
68 mA, or run
capacity) of this battery is 5 C. The amp hour is obtained by the Arduino
for an even longer time depending upon the usage. The battery should be recharged after 30% usage by calculating the current
flow and time
and maintain of flow
the load belowand multiplying
25% of the ratedit. Then the remaining
current inorderamp-hour
to have an is obtained
extended bylife
theofdifference
usage of the
between initial and final amp hours:
battery, so the C rate (determined rate at which a battery is released relative to its utmost capacity) of
this battery is 5 C. The amp hour Remaining Amphours
is obtained by the = Initial − Final
Arduino Amp Hour the current flow and
by calculating (4) time
of flow and multiplying
Then it. Then the
SOC is calculated by theremaining amp-hour
ratio between is obtainedvalue
the remaining by theanddifference
the initial between
value ofinitial
and final amp hours:
Amp-hours of the battery:
Remaining Amp − hour
SOC
Remaining =
Amphours × 100%
= (Initial − Final )Amp Hour (5) (4)
Initial Amp − hour

Then SOC is calculated by the ratio =

Kilo watt hour between the remaining
Battery voltage value and the initial value
× Amp Hour (6) of
Amp-hours of the battery:

Remaining Amp − hour

SOC = × 100% (5)
Initial Amp − hour
Energies 2017, 10, 377 9 of 16

Energies 2017, 10, 377 9 of 17

Kilo watt hour = Battery voltage × Amp Hour (6)

Cost of charging the

Cost of charging battery =
thebattery = kWh ×Cost
kWh × Costper
perkWh
kWh (7) (7)

These parameters
These parameters areare
processed andand
processed thenthen
imported
importedto thetodatabase and then
the database andsent
thentosent
the webpage.
to the
Thewebpage. The information
information concerning concerning
the charging thestations
chargingis stations
created is increated in the database
the database separatelyseparately by
by gathering
gathering
tariff tariff
data from data
the from the
charging charging
stations andstations and itupdating
updating into theitdatabase
into the database and presenting
and presenting it to the itusers.
to
theFor
users.
estimation, a 9 V battery is used, the initial Ampere hours of the battery is 400 mAh. Table 2
Forthat
illustrates estimation, a 9 Visbattery
if the motor drivenisfor
used, the initial
an hour, Ampere
it utilize hoursHence
68 mAh. of the the
battery is 400 value
observed mAh. Table 2
of battery
illustrates that if the motor is driven for an hour, it utilize 68
SOC is 99.83%. i.e., 0.17% has been used and hence the observed kWh is 0.612 kWh.mAh. Hence the observed value of
battery SOC is 99.83%. i.e., 0.17% has been used and hence the observed kWh is 0.612 kWh.
Table 2. Observed Values.
Table 2. Observed Values.
Ampere Hour
Ampere Hour 68××
68 1 =1 68
= 68
mAhmAh
SOC SOC (68/400) × 100 = 99.83%
(68/400) × 100 = 99.83%
kWh kWh 68 × 9 = 0.612
68 × 9 = 0.612

5. Algorithm for
5. Algorithm forSOC
SOCEstimation
Estimationand
andDatabase
Database Creation
Creation

5.1.5.1.
Algorithm &&Flowchart
Algorithm Flowchartfor
forSOC
SOCEstimation
Estimation as
as Shown inFigure
shown in Figure77
Step 1: 1:
Step Initialize thethe
Initialize Arduino
Arduino and
andsetset
the
thevoltage
voltagetotozero
zero
Step
Step 2: 2:
SetSet
thethe baud
baud rate
rate to to establish
establish communicationbetween
communication betweenthe
the Arduino
Arduino and PC PC
Step 3: After determining the Amp hour of the Li-ion battery that will feed into theanalog
Step 3: After determining the Amp hour of the Li-ion battery that will feed into the pin
analog of of
pin thethe
Arduino its equivalent digital value (ADC Value) is stored
Arduino its equivalent digital value (ADC Value) is stored in it. in it.
Step 4: Based on the updated battery status, the remaining usage hours of the battery will be
Step 4: Based on the updated battery status, the remaining usage hours of the battery will be computed
computed
Step 5: Cost of charging will vary depending on the charging distance and time
Step 5: Cost of charging will vary depending on the charging distance and time
Step 6: 6:
Step Repeat
Repeatfrom
fromStep3
Step3

Figure7.
Figure 7. SOC
SOC estimation
estimation flowchart.
flowchart.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 10 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 377 10 of 17

5.2. Database Creation

5.2. Creation
The database
The database creation
creation isis done
done with
with the
the help
help ofof the
the MySQL
MySQL workbench,
workbench, which which is is the
the unified
unified tool
tool
for database
for databasecreation.
creation.Workbench
Workbenchprovides provides data
data modeling
modeling andand a comprehensive
a comprehensive administration
administration tooltool
for
for server
server configuration.
configuration. TheThe database
database architect
architect visually
visually designs
designs an interface
an interface to generate
to generate and and manage
manage the
the pre-loaded
pre-loaded data its
data from from its virtual
virtual memory. memory.
The data The data modeler
modeler is involvedis involved
in creatingincomplex
creatingmodels
complex to
modelsthe
deliver to feature
deliver changes
the feature
in thechanges
data. Ininthe
theserver
data.configuration,
In the server the configuration,
initializationthe initialization
of serial data from of
serial
the data from
Arduino the Arduino
is patched through is patched
the serialthrough the serial
transmission. Thetransmission.
main database Thereceives
main database receives
the information
the it
and information
assigns theand it assigns
database the database
id (127.0.0.1). id (127.0.0.1).
The server The server
initially displays the initially displays
data fetched with the help
data
fetched
of with the help
PHP language. of PHP
The PHP language.script
server-side The language
PHP server-side
is used script language
for webpage is used for based
development webpage on
development
flowchart based oninflowchart
represented Figure 8. represented
The data read in from
Figure the8.port
The like
dataSOCreadand from the port like
Amp/hour SOC and
is displayed
Amp/hour
on is displayed
the webpage. on the
If the data webpage.
fails to arriveIffrom
the data fails toport
the serial arrive from
to the the serial
server port
it rolls to the
back server
to its initialit
rolls back to its initial stage. Then the server enables the source and destination
stage. Then the server enables the source and destination option for the user to access the data. Based option for the user to
access
on the input
the user data. theBased on tries
server the user inputthe
to handle thepreloaded
server tries datatofrom
handle the preloaded
its database managementdata from its
system.
database
The chargingmanagement system.
station distance, Theand
price charging station distance,
slot availability may varypricebased andon slot availability
the updating mayserver
of the vary
basedthe
from onvendor
the updating of theonserver
side. Based from the vendor
the availability, the userside.mayBased
preferon the availability,
a charging station.the
By user may
choosing
prefer
the a charging
option book, the station. By choosing
user can book a slot.theOnce
optionthebook,
bookingthe user canisbook
of a slot donea the
slot.server
Once will
the booking
update its of
a slot is done
database the server
and send will updatetoits
the information database
the user and and send the information to the user and vendor.
vendor.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Flowchart
Flowchart for
for database
database creation.
creation.

6. Area of Charging Station Selection

6. Area of Charging Station Selection
In this work the area chosen to identify the CS locations is between SRM and Chengelpettu
In this work the area chosen to identify the CS locations is between SRM and Chengelpettu
(NH47), a part of Chennai in South India. As shown in the Google Map (Figure 9) the distance
(NH47), a part of Chennai in South India. As shown in the Google Map (Figure 9) the distance between
between each CS location is roughly indicated.
each CS location is roughly indicated.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 11 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 377 11 of 17

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Google
Google map-tested
map-tested charging
charging station
station selection.
selection.

In India, as the EV market is comparatively small, so users often cannot find any EV charging
In India, as the EV market is comparatively small, so users often cannot find any EV charging
infrastructure along a journey path. In view of this aspect the system assumes CS is available at fuel
infrastructure along a journey path. In view of this aspect the system assumes CS is available at fuel
stations. The price of electricity (kWh) for charging the EVs varies predominantly by considering the
stations. The price of electricity (kWh) for charging the EVs varies predominantly by considering the
characteristics like the distance between the CS, volume of EVs, the number of charging slots
characteristics like the distance between the CS, volume of EVs, the number of charging slots available
available and ownership of the charging infrastructure, as shown in Table 3. The table illustrates that
and ownership of the charging infrastructure, as shown in Table 3. The table illustrates that with
with reference to charging station 1 (SRM University), the approximate volume of EVs in this
reference to charging station 1 (SRM University), the approximate volume of EVs in this location is
location is 3600 per day. A fast charging facility is available at this location, while it is left up to the
3600 per day. A fast charging facility is available at this location, while it is left up to the user preference
user preference to book a slot in the same location, then the cost of charging will get increase
to book a slot in the same location, then the cost of charging will get increase significantly. Considering
significantly. Considering the charging station 3 (SP Kovil), due to the unavailability of fast charging
the charging station 3 (SP Kovil), due to the unavailability of fast charging points, EV traffic density is
points, EV traffic density is comparatively low in this region, so the time taken to charge the vehicle
comparatively low in this region, so the time taken to charge the vehicle is very high whereas the cost
is very high whereas the cost of charging will be decreased.
of charging will be decreased.
Table 3. Characteristics of charging stations with reference from Google Map.
Table 3. Characteristics of charging stations with reference from Google Map.
Charging Distance
Population of the EV No. of Charging Fast Charging Reserved/Not
Station Reference from Distance
SRM No. of Charging Fast
Charging Station EstimatedPopulation
Per Day of thePoint
EV Availability SlotsAvailability Working
Reserved/Not
Locations Reference from SRM Point Charging
LocationsUniversity (1) in km Estimated Per Day Working
University (1) in km Availability SlotsAvailability
1 0 3600/Day 35 Yes 2
2 1 0.75 0 1200/Day 3600/Day 21 35 No Yes 32
2 0.75 1200/Day 21 No 3
3 3 1.02 1.02 1100/Day 1100/Day 23 23 No No 44
4 4 2.02 2.02 5600/Day 5600/Day 41 41 Yes Yes 44
5 5 5.17 5.17 3200/Day 3200/Day 38 38 Yes Yes 44

7. Results and Discussion

The SOC
SOCofofa abattery
battery is periodically
is periodically measured
measured by theby Arduino
the Arduino and
and the the issame
same is transferred
transferred and/to
and/to
store thestore
datathe data
in the in the database.
database. This dataThis data is connected
is connected seamlesslyseamlessly
to a server, to a server,
such that thesuch
user,that the
vendor
user, vendor and
and concerned concerned
parties may useparties
this SOCmay
datause this SOCthe
to improve data
energyto improve
managementthe energy
system management
and to utilize
system andmore
the energy to utilize the energy
efficiently more
as well. efficiently
Once the SOCas is well. Once
received the the
from SOC is received
Arduino on thefrom
PC,the
theArduino
PC will
on thethe
store PC, theinto
data PC will store the
the server. Thedata intowebpage
below the server. The live
shows below webpage
data that hasshows live data from
been received that has
the
been received
Arduino. Upon from the Arduino.
selecting Upon
the specific selecting (SOC,
parameter the specific
mAh)parameter (SOC,inmAh)
the data stored the data will
the database stored
be
in the database
linked will be and
to the webpage linked to the webpage
displayed. The userandcandisplayed. The user
find the existing can find
charging the existing
stations charging
in between the
stations
source and in destination
between the sourceFigure
journey. and destination
10 shows thejourney.
homepage Figure 10communication
of the shows the homepagenetwork of the
which
communication network which is displayed when the user opens the webpage. The webpage is
created with the options for the SOC, amp-hours and total cost.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 12 of 16

is displayed when the user opens the webpage. The webpage is created with the options for the SOC,
amp-hours and
Energies 2017, 10, 377total cost. 12 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 377 12 of 17

Figure 10. Homepage

Figure 10.
10. for
Homepage for charging
for charging slot reservation.
charging slot
slot reservation.
Figure Homepage reservation.
Upon giving the inputs in these options the result will be displayed as shown in Figure 11. This
Upon giving
giving the
theinputs
inputsininthese
theseoptions
optionsthethe
result willwill
result be displayed as shown
be displayed in Figure
as shown 11. This
in Figure 11.
architecture ensures the charge planning strategy of EV are optimized in consequence the user can
architecture
This ensures
architecture the the
ensures charge planning
charge strategy
planning strategyof of
EVEV are
areoptimized
optimizedininconsequence
consequencethe
the user
user can
know the details of charging stations, charging slot, the cost of charging and distance need to travel
the details
know the details of
of charging
chargingstations,
stations,charging
chargingslot,
slot,the
thecost
costofofcharging
charging
andand distance
distance need
need to to travel
travel to
to reach the near/far charging station.
to reach
reach thethe near/far
near/far charging
charging station.
station.

Figure 11. Estimated SOC Value.

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Estimated
Estimated SOC
SOC Value.
Value.
As shown in Figure 11, the charging parameters (SOC, kWh, cost, distances) were taken into
As shown in Figure 11, the charging parameters (SOC, kWh, cost, distances) were taken into
account, so as toinfulfill
As shown the 11,
Figure future
the electric
chargingtransportation
parameters requirements.
(SOC, kWh, cost, That distances)
is, when the usertaken
were does
account, so as to fulfill the future electric transportation requirements. That is, when the user does
not have
into any idea
account, so asabout city the
to fulfill andfuture
destination distances,
electric after that
transportation the user mayThat
requirements. face is,
trouble
whenwiththe
not have any idea about city and destination distances, after that the user may face trouble with
charging
user doesthe
notvehicle on the
have any ideaway if required.
about city andConsider
destinationwhile the user after
distances, has tothat
travel
thefrom
userthemay source
face
charging the vehicle on the way if required. Consider while the user has to travel from the source
location with
trouble (SRM) to the destination
charging the vehiclelocation (Mahindra
on the way City), next
if required. the user
Consider canthe
while loguser
into has
the webpage
to travel
location (SRM) to the destination location (Mahindra City), next the user can log into the webpage
and search
from for available
the source locationcharging
(SRM) stations in between location
to the destination the location SRM andCity),
(Mahindra Chengalpattu
next the as shown
user can
and search for available charging stations in between the location SRM and Chengalpattu as shown
in Figure 12. The webpage is linked to Google Maps, it searches for existing
log into the webpage and search for available charging stations in between the location SRM charging stations and
in Figure 12. The webpage is linked to Google Maps, it searches for existing charging stations and
displays
and them for the
Chengalpattu as user’s
shownconvenience.
in Figure 12. The webpage
The webpage created not only
is linked shows Maps,
to Google the charging stations,
it searches for
displays them for the user’s convenience. The webpage created not only shows the charging stations,
but it helps
existing the user
charging know about
stations other information
and displays them for thelikeuser’s
cost per kWh, the total
convenience. Thenumber
webpage of charging
created
but it helps the user know about other information like cost per kWh, the total number of charging
slotsonly
not available,
showsthe thenumber
charging of free slots available,
stations, but it helpsthethe
number of slotsabout
user know already booked
other by otherlike
information EV
slots available, the number of free slots available, the number of slots already booked by other EV
users and the distance between the user’s location to the destination location. Shortly the user can
users and the distance between the user’s location to the destination location. Shortly the user can
enter the slot number and station name, and a booking will get confirmed.
enter the slot number and station name, and a booking will get confirmed.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 13 of 16

cost per kWh, the total number of charging slots available, the number of free slots available,
the number of slots already booked by other EV users and the distance between the user’s location to
the destination location. Shortly the user can enter the slot number and station name, and a booking
will get confirmed.
Energies 2017, 10, 377 13 of 17

Energies 2017, 10, 377 13 of 17

Figure12.
Figure 12. Charging
Charging station
station reservation.
reservation.

The serial port which reads the output of the Arduino as shown in Figure 13, where the voltage
The serial port which reads the output Figure 12.of the Arduino
Charging as shown in Figure 13, where the voltage is
station reservation.
is read and displayed by the Arduino in the serial port monitor through converting the analog value
read
to and displayed
a digital value. by the Arduino
There are three indifferent
the serialcasesporttaken
monitor into through
concern,converting
in 13,
which thefully
analog value to a
The serial port which reads the output of the Arduino as shown in Figure wherea the discharged
voltage
digital value.
battery of There
about
is read are
and0.06 three different
V hasbygot
displayed cases taken
1.27% ofin charge,
the Arduino into
the serialwhereasconcern,
port monitor in which
thethrough
partially a fully
discharged
converting discharged
battery
the analog battery
valueof about of
about
3.650.06 V ahas
to
V contains got
digital
73% 1.27%
value. of charge,
There
of charge are whereas
three
remaining andthe
different partially
cases
a fullytaken discharged
into
charged concern, battery
batteryinofwhich
abouta of about
fully
5V 3.65 Vcharge.
discharged
has 100% contains
battery of about 0.06 V has got 1.27%
73%Theofdisplayed
charge remaining
results areand a fully
in the range ofof0charge,
charged 5 Vwhereas
to battery the partially
of about
because discharged
5 V has
the Arduino 100% battery
can readcharge.
whenof The
aboutdisplayed
the input is
3.65 V contains 73% of charge remaining and a fully charged battery of about 5 V has 100% charge.
results
eitherare
3.3inVthe
or 5range
V. Thusof 0the
tobattery
5 V becausevoltage the is Arduino
convertedcan read when the
to demonstrate input
in the is either
range of 0 to3.3 V or 5 V.
5 V.
The displayed results are in the range of 0 to 5 V because the Arduino can read when the input is
Thus the battery
either 3.3voltage
V or 5 V.is converted
Thus the battery tovoltage
demonstrate
is convertedin to
the range of 0in to
demonstrate the5range
V. of 0 to 5 V.

Figure 13. SOC estimated through the Arduino device.

Figure 13. SOC estimated through the Arduino device.

Figure 13. SOC estimated through the Arduino device.

Energies 2017, 10, 377 14 of 16
Energies 2017, 10, 377 14 of 17

Energies 2017, 10, 377 14 of 17

The database
The database contains
contains the charging station
the charging station details
details in
in the form shown
the form shown inin Figure
Figure 14,
14, which
which is
is
displayed todatabase
Theto
displayed the user
the usercontains
when the
when the source
the and station
charging
source and destination areinentered
details
destination are entered
the formin the
in the webpage.
shownwebpage.
in Figure 14, which is
displayed to the user when the source and destination are entered in the webpage.

Figure 14. Database of charging stations.

Figure 14.Database
Figure14. Database of charging stations.
of charging stations.

TheTheoutput
output of the Arduino isislinked to
to the database shown ininFigure
Figure 15,which
whichcontains
contains the
The output of of
thethe Arduino
Arduino linked
is linked to the the database
database shown
shown in Figure 15, 15,
which contains thethe
table
table of of
table allall
thethe
data
datathat are
areobtained by the
the Arduino and linked
linkedtoto theuser
userwebpage.
webpage.The
The earliest or
of all the data that arethat obtained
obtained by theby Arduino Arduino and
and linked to the the
user webpage. earliest
The earliest ororthe
thethe
latest data is
latestisdata displayed
is displayed when the user clicks on the button on the webpage.
latest data displayed whenwhen the user
the user clicksclicks on button
on the the button on the
on the webpage.
webpage.

Figure15.
Figure 15. Database
Database of SOC
SOC data.
data.
Figure 15. Database of SOC data.
In the case of multiple vehicle scenarios based on the SOC availability, the user can book a slot
In the case of multiple vehicle scenarios based on the SOC availability, the user can book a slot at
at In
thethe
available
case ofcharging
multiple stations,
vehicle as shown inbased
scenarios Figureon16.
the SOC availability, the user can book a slot
the available charging stations, as shown in Figure 16.
at theThis
available charging stations, as shown in Figure 16.
system has been considered for five EVs with different SOC levels. The vehicle 1 and vehicle 2
users have the same location of Maraimalai Nagar (MM Nagar) for charging, therefore, the cost per
kWh and distance remains the same. The vehicle 3 user has reserved the SRM location for charging,
Energies 2017, 10, 377 15 of 16

whereas, the vehicle 4 and vehicle 5 users reserved other charging stations as their SOC is sufficient to
reach the destination. Note that the cost per kWh varies with respect to available charging stations.
Thus,Energies 2017, 10, 377
it is left 15 of 17
up to the user preference to choose the desired charging slot in the appropriate station.

Figure 16.EVs
Figure16. EVsCharging SlotReservation
Charging Slot Reservation Chart.
Chart.

This system has been considered for five EVs with different SOC levels. The vehicle 1 and
8. Conclusions
vehicle 2 users have the same location of Maraimalai Nagar (MM Nagar) for charging, therefore, the
The proposed
cost per kWh andapproach will overcome
distance remains the same. Thethevehicle
charge3 user
scheduling limitations
has reserved posed by
the SRM location for EVs.
By communicating
charging, whereas, the vehicle 4 and vehicle 5 users reserved other charging stations as their SOC can
vital parameters like SOC to the user through a proper interface, EVs is be
usedsufficient
more efficiently
to reach and effectively. Note
the destination. The user cancost
that the savepera lot
kWhof varies
time in waiting
with respectfortocharging
available slots
at thecharging
chargingstations.
stationThus, it is leftthis
by using up framework.
to the user preference
Further,tothe
choose the desired
applications charging slot
developed areinbased
the on
appropriate
the Java station. platforms which can be improved further according to future technological
and Android
advancements thereby giving more flexibility to the network system. As a part of our future work,
8. Conclusions
load forecasting may be incorporated into the webpage so as to ensure the reliability of the grid in the
charging The proposed approach
infrastructure side, andwill theovercome
user will the charge
charge thescheduling limitations
electric vehicle posed by
accordingly, EVs. leads
which By to
communicating vital parameters like SOC to the
the evolution of vehicle to grid communication and vice versa. user through a proper interface, EVs can be used
more efficiently and effectively. The user can save a lot of time in waiting for charging slots at the
Authorcharging station byBharatiraja
Contributions: using this Chokkalingam
framework. Further, the applications
and Sanjeevikumar developed as
Padmanaban aredeveloped
based on the
the Java
proposed
andconcept
research Android platforms the
and developed which can study
complete be improved further results
with implemented according to future
and wrote technological
the article; Pierluigi Siano
as contributed his experience
advancements thereby in Smartmore
giving Gridflexibility
system fortofurther development
the network system.andAsverification of theoretical
a part of our future work,concepts
and involved in providing suggestion to wrote the article; Ramesh Krishnamoorthy and Raghu Selvaraj
load forecasting may be incorporated into the webpage so as to ensure the reliability of the grid in involved
in the work to set the task in numerical study and assisted with authors to implement and moreover to verify the
the as
proposal charging infrastructure
researchers side,inand
and involved the userthe
developing will charge
concept thewrote
and electric
the vehicle
article asaccordingly,
co-authors. which
leads to the evolution of vehicle to grid communication and vice versa.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author Contributions: Bharatiraja Chokkalingam and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban as developed the proposed
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