Assignment - SLA

Subject: Second Language Acquisition

Assignment:

Students’ names: Juan Mariano Villamar Zambrano

María Isabel Sánchez Egüez

Group: 2019-10JVillamarMSanchezSLA

Date: 29 /02 2020

Practice Activity

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 Assignment - SLA

Index:

1. Introduction to Second Language Acquisition………………………………………

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2. Main theories; Krashen..………………………………………………………………
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3. Swain’s and other authors’ Behaviorism….…………………………………………
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4. Chomsky, the Interactionists
Schumann…………………………………………….5
5. Giles and Byrne’s, McLaughlin……………………………………………………….6
6. Skehan………………………………………………………………………………….7
7. Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….7
8. Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………...8

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During the past decades, there has been a rising interest in the way learners acquire
language with little effort provided that they have exposure to it and opportunities to
use it [ CITATION Har071 \l 12298 ]. The particular interest in this ease of
language acquisition has grown to the point that it has become a major area of inquiry
in second language acquisition (SLA).

Accordingly, the term “acquisition” is described as the way in which people get
languages with no real conscious effort. In other words, people are capable of learning
languages with an incredible facility without thinking about grammar or vocabulary or
worrying about which bits of language goes where. It is almost as if they can put on
and take off different languages like clothing items.

In the field of SLA, there exist various approaches advocating for the most effective
way to acquire new language structures. Among these theories, there are two, which
are the most important and most prominent: Swain’s comprehensible output theory and
Krashen’s input theory.

As Krashen’s input theory is concerned, it proposes that second language acquisition is

based on the comprehensible input received by the individual [CITATION
Kra82 \t \l 12298 ]. In other words, the listening and reading activities the
individual is exposed to which must be a little above the current level of his/her
understanding. Besides, it is essential to point out that fluency is seen as a natural
emerging result after enough comprehensible input has been presented [ CITATION
PwL16 \l 12298 ].

Krashen’s hypothesis explains how the learner acquires a second language, for
instance, is mainly concerned with the acquisition and not learning. This means that in
order for the learner to make progress in a natural order, he/she has to receive input
that is above his/her competence, which is difficult to determine since there are
individual differences on the learner’s current levels.

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Krashen’s claims that affective filter causes that learners will never master a second
language as they will do with the first language, this hypothesis has failed since there
are learners who have achieved a native-like proficiency. When it comes to monitoring,
this hypothesis has been criticized because of the impossibility to determine if the
process has been conscious or unconscious.

On the other hand, Swain proposed that the process of SLA lays its foundations on the
output. A person learns a language when trying to get a message across. Here the
acquisition process will involve the promotion of writing and speaking activities.
According to this theory, the individual will essentially get a language when the line of
communication is open and has no other alternative rather than trying to establish an
effective interaction. Accordingly, this individual will produce a coherent, appropriate
message in order to convey a significant meaning and get communication through.

At first sight, Krashen’s and Swain’s theories seem in direct opposition. Nevertheless,
teachers must have a completely different perception about them and be fully aware of
the extent to which we can see evidence of both theories in and outside the classroom;
and determine their effectiveness when trying to explain how learners actually acquire
languages.

At the same time, other expert’s ideas should be taken into consideration since they
are as relevant as the last two previously mentioned. For instance, the Affective Filter
Hypothesis proposed by Dulay and Burt. According to their theory, there are some
affective variables that can influence positively or negatively this process. They are (1)
Motivation, (2) Self-confidence and (3) Anxiety [ CITATION Dul77 \l
12298 ].

This theory points out that even when comprehensible input is presented to the
student, for acquisition to take place, affective conditions must be optimal. This theory
was later incorporated by Krashen and complemented the input theory. A person will
only acquire a second language when comprehensible input is provided and the
affective filters are low enough so that this input is properly assimilated [CITATION
Kra85 \l 12298 ].

Behaviorism is also an important theory of language learning that attempts to explain

language acquisition as the creation of habits formed through repetition and drilling,

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reinforcement and imitation. This implies that language is acquired by reproducing what
is heard or read, stressing the importance of input. Input for Behaviorism involves
stimuli and feedback (stimuli-response). Behaviorists stated that the SLA process could
be controlled presenting the right amount of Language 2 to the learner.

However, this theory was later questioned by Chomsky who claimed that language is
not a habit structure, neither an imitated behavior. He alleged that most of the language
is creative. He found a discrepancy between the input learners received and the output
they produced. All in all, language acquisition cannot be explained just by establishing
connections between stimuli and responses. Moreover, responses are not only caused
by external factors (environment) but by internal ones (motivation, anxiety, etc.)

Regarding the theory of Interaction, according to Lightbrown, and Spada [CITATION

LIg93 \n \t \l 12298 ] when learners are given opportunities to engage in
meaningful activities, they are obliged to “negotiate meaning” which means that if there
is a difficulty on the message comprehension, repetition and clarification might then be
used to gain understanding in order for the learners to express their thoughts, opinions,
intentions. This is relevant when learners are working together to achieve a goal.

Interactionists support this theory via exchanges of comprehensible input and output
that boost when meaning is negotiated and supported structures are used. Since this
theory places a greater emphasis on social factors rather than on individual cognitive
ones as well as individual capabilities and difficulties, it fails to explain how the
acquisition process actually happens.

Another crucial theory is the one proposed by Schumann [CITATION Sch78

\n \t \l 12298 ] which states that language acquisition by L2 immigrants is
the result of adapting to second language environments, and it is often characterized
by the exclusion of formal instruction settings. It is a process to adapt to a new culture,
this is what he named “Acculturation”.

There are several facts that influence the Acculturation process, there is a distance
between the learner and the target language. Regarding the mentioned facts, the
social one determines if the learning process is good or bad. And the psychological
facts include language shock, culture shock, motivation, and ego boundaries. (in
Funiber p. 51)

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According to Schumann, in the first stages of SLA, a type of pidgin language is

produced by the learner, which is a very basic language with simple grammar
structures. Schumann named this process the “pidginization process” when this
happens, there is the possibility for the learners to stop making progress, which is
known as fossilization.

However, a major drawback with Schumann’s theory is that it does not involve
individual cognitive factors and variables like age which can also interact with social
and psychological ones and condition SLA. Besides, this model has not been able to
verify through observable data as “acculturation” cannot be measured, strictly
speaking.

Giles and Byrne’s and their Accommodation theory which is similar to the Acculturation
theory, since it is based on the acquisition of the language in a multilingual
environment. For these authors, motivation is a key factor for L2 proficiency. They
were interested in the linguistic output which seeks to explain the differences between
learners’ use of “ingroup speechmakers” (in Funiber p. 53). If they are highly motivated,
towards the target community, the social group is barely noticeable but when the
learners are not fully motivated, the opposite occurs.

Additionally, McLaughlin [CITATION McL78 \n \t \l 12298 ]and its

information process model takes the acquisition process to a cognitive level. Through
systematic practice, language is acquired and responses become more automated.
These automatic responses are quickly activated when needed. Yet there must be a
prior process of controlled practice to reach this stage of internalization. During this
time, the learner pays attention and devotes some time so that situations become more
familiar. McLaughlin emphasizes the idea that practice is essential for restructuring.
However, he does not provide specific details of how this process occurs, that is, there
is a restriction of satisfactory and reliable tools that allow data collection.

Another extremely important aspect to be mentioned is the difference between Second

Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Acquisition. The former refers to a
situation in which the learner is surrounded by the target language outside the
classroom whereas the latter implies that the classroom is almost or generally the
unique source of input. Therefore, if the input is so relevant EFL students obviously

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have fewer opportunities both for input as well as output exposure. As stated by
Arzamendi & Ball [CITATION Arznd \n \t \l 12298 ]:
“Language learners differ in the total amount of time they spend on the task. In the L1
situation learners, in fact, do not need to devote any time to language learning as this
takes place spontaneously. In a second language situation, this will vary according to
the situation of the individual, number of class hours, opportunities for language
practice and so on.”

Furthermore, Skehan [CITATION Ske89 \n \t \l 12298 ] claimed that:

“The learning of a second language is not the result of a single factor, but of several
variables of different types: contextual (environment), plus individual or personal (age,
cognitive style, intelligence, aptitude, attitudes and motivation, personality, affective
factors, learning opportunities, type of instruction, etc.).” What can be deduced here is
that the context or environment in which the language acquisition process takes place
plays a crucial role in the input and output opportunities that learners are given.

Both theories complement each other as all the elements mentioned, strongly
contribute to language acquisition. The language acquisition process is so complex and
the learners so diverse that a single theory seems to be insufficient to explain the wide
range of possibilities that a teacher might face in a classroom.

One aspect to be taken into account is the positive environment a teacher must create
during the lesson as it makes a difference in the students’ motivation and interest in
acquiring the second language. Feedback plays an important role as well as correct
production, and interesting, appealing and meaningful materials which may challenge
and motivate learners.

Other facts that we must consider as well, are that every learner is an individual that
learns at a different pace, characteristics and learning style. It is also necessary to
consider the age, social background, aptitude, anxiety, abilities, confidence in order to
have better learning results.

To sum up, SLA research is a very wide field of study that has carried out a variety of
theoretical and empirical work, which results are arguably and not conclusive. Most of
the theories have tried to explain how the internal and external factors influence over
SLA, but what is clear is that one theory on its own is insufficient to handle and explain

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all the process of Second Language Acquisition. Each one has valid points and is
complement one another.

Bibliography
Arzamendi, J., Palacios, I., & Ball, P. (n/d). Second
Language Acquisition. in FUNIBER.
Dulay, H., & Burt, M. (1977). Remarks on creativity in
language acquisition”. M. Burt, H. London: Cambridge
University Press.
Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Essex: Person
Education Limited.
Krashen. (1985). The Input Hyporhesis: Issues and
Implicacions. London: Longman.
Krashen, D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second
Language Acquisition. California: Pergamon Press Inc.
LIghtbrown, P., & Spada, N. (1993). How Languages are
learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McLaughin, B. (1978). Second Language Acquisition in
Childhood. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Inc.
Schumann, J. (1978). The Acculturation Model for Second.
London: Gingras Ed.
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual Differences in Second
Language Learning. London: Arnold Inc.