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The term agriculture is derived from the Latin words “ager” or “agri” meaning “soil” and
‘cultra’ meaning ‘cultivation’
Agriculture is a very broad term which includes all aspects of crop production, livestock
farming, fisheries, forestry etc.
It is the cultivation of lands for production of crops for a regular supply of food and
other needs for progress of the nation.
Agriculture means the cultivation of the soil. But in reality agriculture is NOT confined
in soil cultivation alone; it includes all aspects of crop production, livestock farming,
fisheries forestry etc.
“Agriculture is the science and art of farming including the work of cultivating the soil,
producing crops, planting forest plants/trees, raising livestock and rearing fishes.”
Note: Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and
practices of soil, water and crop management. It deals with methods which provide
favourable environment to the crop for higher productivity.
Spheres of agriculture
Branches of Agriculture
The term Agronomy is derived from the Greek words “agros” meaning “Field” and
“nomos” meaning “to manage.”
So, Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and
practices of soil, water and crop management.
It can also be defined as a branch of agricultural science that deals with methods which
provide a favorable environment to the crop for higher productivity.
It is considered as the mother or primary branch of agriculture. Like agriculture, it is
nothing but an integrated and applied aspect of different disciplines of pure sciences.
The nature of agronomy is based on soil-plant- environment relationship.
Field crops may be classified in more than one way. It may be on the basis of:
1)Climate:
Tropical: Crops grow well in warm & hot climate. E.g. Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc
Temperate: Crops grow well in cool climate. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato etc.
2) Growing Season:
Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: The crops grown in monsoon months from June to Oct-
Nov, Require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth, also required short
day length for flowering. E.g. Cotton, Rice, Jowar, bajara.
Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops: require winter season to grow well from Oct to March
month. Crops grow well in cold and dry weather. Require longer day length for
flowering. E.g. Wheat, gram, sunflower etc.
Summer/Zaid crops: crops grown in summer month from March to June. Require warm
day weather for major growth period and longer ay length for flowering. E.g.
Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.
3)Use/Agronomic classification:
Grain crops: may be cereals as millets cereals are the cultivated grasses grown for their
edible starchy grains. The larger grain used as staple food is cereals. E.g. rice, Jowar,
wheat, maize, barley, and millets are the small-grained cereals which are of minor
importance as food. E.g. Bajara.
Pulse/legume crops: seeds of leguminous crops plant used as food. On splitting, they
produced dal which is rich in protein. E.g. green gram, black gram, soybean, pea,
cowpea etc.
Oilseeds crops: crop seeds are rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oil to
meet various requirements. E.g. Groundnut, Mustard, Sunflower, Sesamum, linseed
etc.
Forage Crop: It refers to vegetative matter fresh as preserved utilized as food for
animals. Crop cultivated & used for fickler, hay, silage. Ex- sorghum, elephant grass,
guinea grass, berseem & other pulse bajara etc.
Fiber crops: crown for fiber yield. Fiber may be obtained from seed. E.g. Cotton, steam,
jute, Mesta, sun hemp, flax.
Roots crops: Roots are the economic produce in root crop. E.g. sweet, potato, sugar
beet, carrot, turnip etc.
Tuber crop: crop whose edible portion is not a root but a short thickened underground
stem. E.g. Potato, elephant, yam.
Sugar crops: the two important crops are sugarcane and sugar beet cultivated for
production for sugar.
Starch crops: grown for the production of starch. E.g. tapioca, potato, sweet potato.
Dreg crop: used for preparation of medicines. E.g. tobacco, mint, pyrethrum.
Spices & condiments/spices crops: crop plants as their products are used to flavor taste
and sometime color the fresh preserved food. E.g. ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion,
coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
Vegetable crops: may be leafy as fruity vegetables. E.g. Palak, mentha, Brinjal, tomato.
Green manure crop: grown and incorporated into soil to increase fertility of soil. E.g. sun
hemp.
Medicinal & aromatic crops: Medicinal plants include cinchona, isabgoli, opium poppy,
senna, belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice and aromatic plants such as lemon grass,
citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese mint, peppermint, rose geranicem, jasmine, henna
etc.
4) Life of crops/duration of crops:
Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one season-Karin, Rabi. summer. E.g.
rice, Jowar, wheat etc.
Two seasonal crops: crops complete its life in two seasons. E.g. Cotton, turmeric, ginger.
Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete its life in a cycle. E.g. sugarcane.
Biennial crops: which grows in one year and flowers, fructifies & perishes the next year?
E.g. Banana, Papaya.
Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.
5) Cultural method/water:
Rainfed: crops grow only on rainwater. E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
Irrigated crops: Crops grows with the help of irrigation water. E.g. Chili, sugarcane,
Banana, papaya etc.
6) Root system:
Taproot system: The main root goes deep into the soil. E.g. Tur, Grape, Cotton etc.
Adventitious/Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into
the soil. E.g. Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc.
7) Economic Importance:
Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g. Sugarcane, cotton.
Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for cattle. E.g.
Jowar, wheat, rice etc.
8) No. of Cotyledons:
Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed.
Gramineae: includes the following crops: wheat, barley, rice, maize, oat, sugar cane,
sorghum, ryegrass, and sudangrass.
Liliaceae: includes onion and garlic.
An “Agro-climatic zone” is a land unit in terms of major climates, suitable for a certain
range of crops and cultivars. The planning aims at scientific management of regional
resources to meet the food, fiber, fodder, and fuelwood without adversely affecting the
status of natural resources and environment.
Agro-climatic conditions mainly refer to soil types, rainfall, temperature and water
availability which influence the type of vegetations. An agro-ecological zone is the land
unit carved out of agro-climatic zone superimposed on landform which acts as a
modifier to climate and length of growing period.
The Planning Commission has categorised 15 agro-climatic zones in India, taking into
account the physical attributes and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the regions.
Sole Cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density.
Relay Cropping: Growing the succeeding crop when previous crop is at its maturity
stage-or-sowing of the next crop immediately after the harvest of the standing crops.
Or it is a system of cropping where one crop stands overland to the crop in quick
succession. e.g.
1) Paddy - lathyrus
2) Paddy - Lucerne.
3) Cotton - Berseem.
4) Rice – Cauliflower – Onion - summer gourds.
Overlapping Cropping: In this system, the succeeding crop is sown in the standing
crop before harvesting. Thus, in this system, one crop is sown before the harvesting of
preceding crops. Here the lucerne and berseem are broadcasted in standing paddy
crop just before they are ready for harvesting.
There are two types (major) of seed production i.e. Varietal and hybrid based on the
type of seed used for multiplication
1) Varietal Seed Production: Single Parent multiplication, Isolation distance requirement
is comparatively less, Production is by open pollination, Seed can be used continuously
for 3/4/5 generations, Production technique is uniform (multiplication), Production care
is comparatively less, Yield will be lower and hence Profit is lower
2) Hybrid Seed Production: Needs two to many parents for multiplication, Isolation
distance requirement is comparatively less, Production is by managed control
pollination(Female), Seed has to be changed every time, Production technique differs
with crop, Production care is comparatively more, Yield will be higher and hence Profit
is more.
SEED PROCESSING
Seed lots received from the field are often at high moisture content and contain trash
and other inert material, weed seeds, deteriorated and damaged seeds, off-size seeds,
etc. Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level;
remove or reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable material, weed seeds,
other crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds. Other than this the seed lot
heterogeneity in its physical characters like size, colour, shape etc.
The seed lot is heterogeneous due to the following reasons:
1) The soil is heterogeneous and there is a lot of variability in the fertility status of the
soil due to the availability of nutrients, physical, chemical and biological properties.
2) Variability is introduced due to the position of seed set on the plant/ fruit, time of
pollination and fertilization over a period of time
3) Variability is created by biotic factors like pest and variability infestation.
4) Variability is also due to the management practices like water, land preparation,
levelling, staggered sowing, and uneven distribution of fertilizer and irrigation water,
uneven plant protection sprays and uneven maturity at harvest.
Agricultural Meteorology
A branch of applied meteorology which investigates the physical conditions of the
environment of growing plants or animal organisms. An applied science which deals
with the relationship between weather/climatic conditions and agricultural production.
A science concerned with the application of meteorology to the measurement and
analysis of the physical environment in agricultural systems. To study the interaction
between meteorological and hydrological factors on the one hand and agriculture in
the widest sense, including horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry on the other
(WMO).
The distance from the equator, either from south or north, largely creates variations in
climate. Based on latitude, the climate has been classified as tropical, subtropical,
temperate and polar climates. The height from mean sea level adds to variation in
climate. Temperature and pressure decrease with increasing height from mean sea
level. Based on altitude, The climate is described as mountainous and valley climates.
Nearness to large bodies of water also causes variation in climate. The climates are
referred to as continental and maritime.
Crop-Weather Advisory
(1) Weather warnings issued by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA),
Government of India
(2) Crop Weather Outlook: Considering the growing acceptance of farmers for the
internet and mobile-based services, ICAR made an attempt to provide valuable
agromet information to the users through a common platform - 'Crop Weather
Outlook'. Key information available from this site are -Daily Weather Report, Monsoon
Status, Districts of deficit rainfall
(3) Advisories & Forecasts from Indian Meteorological Department: The Agricultural
Meteorology Division of IMD was established at Pune in 1932 and from its inception,
the Division supports and participates in multi-disciplinary activities in this field.
Forecasts and advisories for farmers are issued by IMD’s Forecasting Offices located at
different State capitals.
(4) Advisories from State Agricultural Universities
(5) National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA): National Initiative on
Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) is a network project of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched in February, 2011. The project aims to enhance
resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change and climate vulnerability through
strategic research and technology demonstration. The research on adaptation and
mitigation covers crops, livestock, fisheries and natural resource management.
Precision Farming
Precision agriculture is a management philosophy or approach to the farm and is not a
definable prescriptive system. It identifies the critical factors where yield is limited by
controllable factors and determines intrinsic spatial variability. It is essentially more
precise farm management made possible by modern technology. The variations
occurring in crop or soil properties within a field are noted, mapped and then
management actions are taken as a consequence of continued assessment of the
spatial variability within that field by adoption of site-specific management systems
using remote sensing (RS), GPS, and geographical information system (GIS).
Precision Farming is used to enhance productivity in agriculture, prevent soil degradation
in cultivable land, reduction of chemical use in crop production, efficient use of water
resources and dissemination of modern farm practices to improve quality, quantity &
reduced cost of production in agricultural crops.
In Precision agriculture, the field is broken into “management zones” also
called ‘Grids’based on soil pH, nutritional status, pest infestation, yield rates, and other
factors that affect crop production.
Organic Farming
Organic farming “is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed
additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic agriculture systems rely upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, off-farm organic wastes,
mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks, and aspects of biological pest control to
maintain soil productivity, tilt, to supply plant nutrients, and to control insects, weeds, and
other pests”.
Crop production and health in organic farming systems is attained through a combination
of structural factors and tactical management components to ensure products of
sufficient quality and quantity for human and livestock consumption.
1. Diverse crop rotations
2. Soil fertility management
3. Weed control
4. Natural pest and disease control
5. Integrated nutrient management
a) Bulky organic manures
b) Recycling of organic wastes
c) Bio-fertilizers
d) Green Manuring
Soil Fertility
“The capability of the soil to provide all the essential plant nutrients in available form is
called as soil fertility”.
Soils are composed of five main components:
a) mineral particles derived from rocks by weathering;
b) organic materials - humus from dead and decaying plant material;
c) soil water - in which nutrient elements are dissolved;
d) soil air - both carbon dioxide and oxygen;
e) Living organisms including bacteria that help plant decomposition.
Fertilizers
Fertilizer, natural or artificial substance containing the chemical elements that improve
growth and productiveness of plants. Fertilizers enhance the natural fertility of the soil
or replace the chemical elements taken from the soil by previous crops.
Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two ways, the traditional
one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilisers
act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and
aeration.
Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions three main macronutrients:
Nitrogen (N): leaf growth
Phosphorus (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit
Potassium (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of
flowering and fruiting
Three secondary Macronutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S)
Micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn),
boron (B), and of occasional significance there are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium
(V) plus rare mineral catalysts.
Types of Fertilizers
1. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: The nitrogenous fertilizers are divided into four groups —
nitrate, ammonia and ammonium salts, chemical compounds containing nitrogen in
the amide form, and plant and animal byproducts. Major varieties are Sodium Nitrate,
Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium Nitrate, Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate, Ammonium
Chloride, Urea, Calcium Ammonium Sulphate
2. Organic Nitrogenous Fertilizers: These fertilizers include plant and animal by-products,
such as oil cakes, fish manure etc.. Before use by the crops these materials are
converted by bacterial fermentation into utilizable ammonium-nitrogen and nitrate-
nitrogen.
3. Phosphate Fertilizers: Phosphate fertilizers are classified as natural phosphates,
treated phosphates, by-product phosphates and chemical phosphates. Major varieties
are Rock Phosphate, Super Phosphate, Basic Slag, Bone-Meal
4. Potassic Fertilizers: In India most of the soils contain sufficient amount of potash.
Potassic fertilizers are used as muriate of potash (potassium chloride)and sulphate of
potash (potassium sulphate).
5. Compound Fertilizers: These fertilizers contain two or three plant nutrients
simultaneously. When both nitrogen and phosphorus are deficient in soil, a compound
fertilizer, e.g., amorphous, can be used.
6. Complete Fertilizers (NPK): mixtures containing all the three principal nutrients (N, P
and K) are called complete fertilizers as most soils usually remain deficient in these
three elements.
Soil Science
“The science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth,
including Pedology (soil genesis, classification, and mapping), physical, chemical,
biological and fertility properties of soil and these properties in relation to their
management for crop production.”
Soil Science has six well defined and developed disciplines
Soil fertility: Nutrient supplying properties of soil
Soil chemistry: Chemical constituents, chemical properties, and the chemical reactions
Soil physics: Involves the study of physical properties
Soil microbiology: Deals with microorganisms, its population, classification, its role in
transformations
Soil conservation: Dealing with protection of soil against physical loss by erosion or
against chemical deterioration i.e excessive loss of nutrients either natural or artificial
means.
Soil Pedology: Dealing with the genesis, survey and classification
Composition of Soil on volume basis
Mineral matter: 45%
Organic matter: 5%
Soil water: 25%
Soil air: 25%
Erosion
A process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals which are
brought about by physical agents and chemical processes, leading to the formation of
Regolith (unconsolidated residues of the erosion rock on the earth’s surface or above
the solid rocks).
Types of erosion
There are two major types of soil erosion
a) Geological erosion (Natural or normal erosion): is said to be in equilibrium with soil
forming process. It takes place under natural vegetative cover completely undisturbed
by biotic factors. This is a very slow process.
b) Accelerated erosion: is due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the activities of
man and animals through land mismanagement, destructing of forests over grazing
etc., Soil loss through erosion is more than the soil formed due to soil forming process.
Soil conservation
Soil conservation is using and managing the land based on the capabilities of the land
itself involving application of the best management practices leading to profitable crop
production without land degradation.
Measures of water erosion control
a) Agronomic measures: Land preparation, Contour cultivation, Choice of crops, Strip
cropping, Crop rotation /cropping systems, Cover crops, Mulching, Application of
manures and fertilizers, Application of chemicals
b) Mechanical measures (Engineering measures): involve construction of mechanical
barriers across the direction of flow of rainwater to retard or retain runoff and thereby
reduce soil and water loss. The mechanical measures include: Contour bunding;
Graded bunding; Bench terracing; Gully control /plugging; Vegetative barriers
c) Forestry measures: Forest lands are usually found at higher elevations where the
slopes are steepest, soils are less stable and easily eroded and precipitation is heavy.
The leaves and branches of trees and shrubs intercept the rain and reduce the impact
of raindrops. Contour trenching and aforestation is recommended for improving the
productivity of forests.
d) Agrostological measures: Grasses prevent erosion by intercepting rainfall and by their
binding power of the soil particles. The desirable characters of grasses for soil
conservation are: Should be perennial; Drought resistant; Rhizomniferous; Develop
good canopy; Deep root system; Prostate growth habit; Less palatable to cattle; Useful
for cottage industries
Watershed Management
A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which runoff from precipitation is
collected and drained through a common point or outlet. In other words, it is a land
surface bounded by a divide, which contributes runoff to a common point. It is defined
as unit of area, which covers all the land, which contributes runoff to a common point.
It is synonymous with a drainage basin or catchment area. The basic unit of
development is a watershed, which is a manageable hydrological unit.
Watershed management is the rational utilization of land and water resources for
optimum production with minimum hazard to natural resources.
Watershed management has been taken up under different programmes launched by
Government of India. The Drought Prone Area Development Programme (DPAP) and
the Desert Development Programme (DDP) adopted watershed development approach
in 1987. The Integrated Watershed Development Project (IWDP) taken up by the
National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in 1989 also aimed at the
development of wastelands on watershed basis. The fourth major programme based
on watershed concept is the National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed
Areas (NWDPRA) under the Ministry of Agriculture.The ministry of Rural development
funds watershed development schemes under DDP, DPAP, and IWDP.
Irrigation
Irrigation is defined as “Artificially supplying & systematically dividing of water for
agriculture & horticulture in order to obtain higher or qualitatively better production”. It is
one of the most important critical inputs for enhancing the productivity that is required
at different critical stages of plant growth of various crops for optimum production.
Irrigation Management
Management of water based on the soil and crop environment to obtain better yield by
efficient use of water without any damage to the environment. Management of water,
soil, plants, irrigation structure, irrigation reservoirs, environment, social setup and it’s
inter liked relationship are studied in the irrigation management.
For this we have to study soil’s physical and chemical properties, biology of crop plants,
quantity of water available, time of application of water, method of application of
water, climatological or meteorological influence on irrigation and environment and &
changes due to irrigation.
Management of all the above-said factors constitutes Irrigation Agronomy.
Management of irrigation structures, conveyances, reservoirs constitutes Irrigation
Engineering.
Importance of Irrigation
a) Uncertainty due to insufficient, uncertain and irregular rain causes: The period of rain is
restricted to only four months in a year, June to September, when monsoon arrives.
The remaining eight months are dry. There is some rainfall during the months of
December and January in some parts of the country. Even during monsoon, the rainfall
is scanty and undependable in many parts of the country. Sometimes the monsoon
delayed considerably while sometimes they cease prematurely. This pushes large areas
of the country into drought conditions. With the help of irrigation, droughts and
famines can be effectively controlled.
b) Higher productivity on irrigated land: Productivity on irrigated land is considerably
more than the productivity on un-irrigated land.
c) Multiple cropping possible: Since India has a tropical and sub-tropical climate, it has
potentialities to grow crops on a year-round basis. However, since 80% of the annual
rainfall is received in less than four months, multiple cropping is generally not possible.
Provision of irrigation facilities can make possible the growing of two or three crops in
a year in most areas of the country.
d) Role in new agricultural strategy: The successful implementation of the High Yielding
Programme enhances agricultural production to a great extent.
e) Bringing more land under cultivation: Cultivable wasteland comprises another 13.83
million hectares. Cultivation On all such lands is impossible in some cases while in
others it requires substantial capital investment to make land fit for cultivation.
Provision of irrigation facilities can make some portion of this land cultivable.
f) Reduces instability in output levels: Irrigation also plays a protective role during
drought years. Irrigation has enabled many states to acquire ‘partial immunity’ from
drought.
g) Indirect benefits of irrigation: Irrigation confers indirect benefits through increased
agricultural production. Employment potential of irrigated lands, increased production,
helps in developing allied activities, means of water transport etc. are improved income
of government from agriculture. Availability of regular water supply will increase the
income of farmers imparting a sense of security and stability in agriculture.
Irrigation systems are often designed to maximize efficiencies & minimize labor &
capital requirements. There are three broad classes of irrigation system:
a) Pressurized distribution: The pressurized systems include sprinkler, trickle, in which
water is conveyed to & distributed over the fields through pressurized pipe networks.
b) Gravity flow distribution: This system conveys & distributes water at the field level by a
free surface, overland flow regime.
c) Drainage flow distribution: Irrigation by control of the drainage system sub-irrigation is
not so common but is interesting. Relatively large volumes of applied irrigation water
percolate through the root zone & become a drainage or groundwater flow. By
controlling the flow at critical points, it is possible to raise the level of the groundwater
to within reach of the crop roots.
To supply water the entire field uniformly so that each plant would get sufficient
amount of water, there are various types of irrigation techniques that differ in how the
water obtained from the source is distributed within the field. These are:
a) Surface Irrigation: In this irrigation system water moves over & across the land by
simple gravity flow in order to wet it & to infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can
be subdivided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood
irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land.
b) Ditch Irrigation: This is the simplest & oldest irrigation system & it is still common in
many parts of the world. The only technology essential is the manpower or machines
to dig ditches or furrows between the rows of plants. Water is added to the ditches by
means of gravity flow, pumps & siphons.
c) Localized Irrigation: It is a system where water is distributed under low pressure
through a piped network, in a predetermined pattern, & applied as a small discharge.
d) Drip Irrigation: This is also known as trickle irrigation. Water is delivered at or near
the root zone of plants; drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient
method of irrigation.
e) Overhead Irrigation: This is the artificial application of water to crops from above.
Central pivot systems, which are in wide use in areas of flat terrain, have sprinklers
spaced along very long aluminum or steel pipes that extend in two directions from a
central supply point. Sprinkler systems are another very common overhead irrigation
system. In these systems, water is piped to a point within the area to be irrigated.
f) Sub-Irrigation: This is also called as seepage irrigation used for many years in the
fields where water table is high. This method artificially raises the water table by
allowing the soil to be moistened from below the plant's root zone.
g) Manual Irrigation: This system has low requirements for infrastructure & technical
equipment but needs high labor inputs by using buckets or watering cans.
According to the different sources of irrigation, there are two major divisions found.
These are:
a) Flow Irrigation: The water of a reservoir or tank usually remains at a higher level &
when a channel is connected to it, water automatically flows down the channel which
fulfills the purpose of a canal for irrigation. In this case, water level remains higher than
the fields. Such irrigation is known as the flow irrigation.
b) Lift Irrigation: Where the fields lie at a higher level & the canals or tanks lie at a lower
level, it becomes essential to lift the water by pump etc. to irrigate land. Water is lifted
from tanks, wells & tube wells by pumps for irrigation through channels. This method
of irrigation is known as the lift irrigation.
Limitations of Irrigation:
Despite large-scale investment and expansion of irrigation facilities, it is a matter of
serious concern that about 60 percent of the total cropped area is still dependent on
rain. There are a number of problems related to irrigation and they have to be solved.
a) Delays in completion of projects
b) Inter-state water disputes
c) Regional disparities in irrigation development
d) Waterlogging and salinity
e) Increasing cost of irrigation
f) Losses in operating irrigation projects
g) Decline in water table
Sources of Irrigation
Depending upon the availability of surface or groundwater, topography, soil, rainfall
conditions and rivers, various types of irrigation are practiced in India.
Canal Irrigation:
A canal is an artificial watercourse constructed for water supply and irrigation. Canals
can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low relief, deep fertile soils, perennial
source of water and an extensive command area. Therefore the main concentration of
canal irrigation is in the northern plains. The canals are practically absent from the
peninsular plateau region because of rocky terrain. However, the coastal and the delta
regions in South India have some canals for irrigation.
There are two types of canals:
Inundation Canals – These are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system
like weirs etc at their head. Such canals are useful only during the rainy season
Perennial Canals – These are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by
constructing a barrage across the river. Most of the canals at present in India are
perennial.
Merits: Perennial Source; Provides safety from droughts; Brings fertile sediments to the
fields; Economical to serve a large area
Demerits: Canal water soaks into the ground and leads to waterlogging, increases
salinization, and leads to marshy conditions leading to malaria and flooding; Wastage
of water.
Merits: Simplest and cheapest; Well is an independent source of irrigation and can be
used as and when the necessity arises. Canal irrigation, on the other hand, is controlled
by other agencies and cannot be used at will; Some groundwater salts are useful for
crops ;Does not lead to salinization and flooding problems; There is a limit to the extent
of canal irrigation beyond the tail end of the canal while a well can be dug at any
convenient place.
Demerits: Only limited area can be irrigated; Not suitable for dry regions; Overuse may
lead to lowering of water table.
Tank irrigation
A tank is a reservoir for irrigation, a small lake or pool made by damming the valley of a
stream to retain the monsoon rain for later use. It is practiced mainly in the peninsular
region due to the following reasons:
a) Undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and well
b) Little percolation of water due to hard rock structure and groundwater is not
available in large quantities
c) Most of the rivers are seasonal; there are many streams which become torrential
during the rainy season – so the only way to use this water is to impound it by
constructing bunds and building tanks. Also, it is easy to collect rainwater in natural or
artificial pits because of impermeable rocks.
d) Scattered nature of agricultural fields
Merits: Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve cost for their construction;
Independent source for an individual farmer or a small group of farmers; longer
lifespan; can be used for fishing also
Demerits: Depends on rain and these tanks may dry up during the dry season; Silting of
their beds; Require large areas; Evaporation losses; Sometimes there might be a need
to lift the water to take it to the field
Crop Water Requirement
Crop water requirement is the water required by the plants for its survival, growth,
development and to produce economic parts. This requirement is applied either
naturally by precipitation or artificially by irrigation. Hence the crop water requirement
includes all losses like:
a) Transpiration loss through leaves (T)
b) Evaporation loss through soil surface in cropped area (E)
c) Amount of weather used by plants (WP) for its metabolic activities which is estimated
as less than 1% of the total water absorption. These three components cannot be
separated so easily. Hence the ET loss is taken as crop water use or crop water
consumptive use.
d) Other application losses are conveyance loss, percolation loss, runoff loss, etc., (WL).
e) The water required for special purposes (WSP) like puddling operation, ploughing
operation, land preparation, leaching, requirement, for the purpose of weeding, for
dissolving fertilizer and chemical, etc.
The following features which mainly influence the crop water requirement are:
a) Crop factors: Variety; Growth stages; Duration; Plant population; Crop growing
season
b) Soil factors: Structure; Texture; Depth; Topography; Soil chemical composition
c) Climatic factors: Temperature; Sunshine hours; Relative humidity; Wind velocity;
Rainfall
d) Agronomic management factors: Irrigation methods used; Frequency of irrigation
and its efficiency; Tillage and other cultural operations like weeding, mulching etc /
intercropping
Micro-Irrigation
It can be defined as the application of water at low volume and frequent interval under
low pressure to plant root zone. Micro-irrigation, also called localised irrigation, low
volume irrigation, low-flow irrigation, or trickle irrigation is an irrigation method with
lower pressure and flow than a traditional sprinkler system. Low volume irrigation is
used in agriculture for row crops, orchards, and vineyards. It is also used in horticulture
in wholesale nurseries, in landscaping for civic, commercial, and private landscapes and
gardens, and in the science and practice of restoration ecology and environmental
remediation.
Micro irrigation is defined as the frequent application of small quantities of water
directly above and below the soil surface; usually as discrete drops, continuous drops
or tiny streams through emitters placed along a water delivery line.
Farm Power
Farm Power is an essential input in agriculture for timely field operations for increasing
production and productivity of land. Farm power is used for operating different types
of machinery like tillage, planting, plant protection, harvesting and threshing machinery
and other stationary jobs like operating irrigation equipment,
threshers/shellers/cleaners/ graders, etc.
Human Power
Human power is the main source for operating small implements and tools at the farm.
Stationary work like chaff cutting, lifting, water, threshing, winnowing etc are also done
by manual labour. An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for
doing farm work.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work.
Demerits: Costliest power compared to all other forms of power; Very low efficiency;
Requires full maintenance when not in use; Affected by weather condition and
seasons.
Animal Power
Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
Bullocks are employed for all types farm work in all seasons. Besides bullocks, other
animals like camels, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules and elephants are also used at
some places. The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body
weight.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work; Low initial investment; Supplies
manures to the field and fuels to farmers; Lives on farm products.
Demerits: Not very efficient; Seasons and weather affect the efficiency; Cannot work at a
stretch; Requires full maintenance when not in use; Creates unhealthy and dirty
atmosphere near the residence; Very slow in doing work.
Mechanical Power
Broadly speaking, mechanical power includes stationary oil engines, tractors, power
tillers and self-propelled combines. Internal combustion engine is a good device for
converting liquid fuel into useful work (mechanical work). These engines are two types
a) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine)
b) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines)
The thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from 32 to 38 percent whereas that of
petrol engine varies from 25 to 32 percent. In modern days, almost all the tractors and
power tillers are operated by diesel engines. Diesel engines are used for operating
irrigation pumps, flour mills, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff cutter, sugarcane crusher,
threshers, winnowers etc.
Merits: Efficiency is high; Not affected by weather; Cannot run at a stretch; Requires less
space; Cheaper form of power.
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Fuel is costly; Repairs and maintenance needs
technical knowledge.
Electrical Power
Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms. Motor is a
very useful machine for farmers. It is clean, quest and smooth running. Its maintenance
and operation needs less attention and care. The operating cost remains almost
constant throughout its life. Electrical power is used for water pumping, diary industry,
cold storage, farm product processing, fruit industry and many similar things.
Merits: Very cheap form of power; High efficiency; Can work at a stretch; Maintenance
and operating cost is very low; Not affected by seasons.
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Requires good amount of technical knowledge;
If handled carelessly, it may cause great danger.
Renewable Energy
It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind,
biomass etc. Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and
domestic purposes with suitable devices. Renewable energy can be used for lighting,
cooking, water heating, space heating, water distillation, food processing, water
pumping, and electric generation. This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.
Usage of renewable energy sources
a) Solar energy- Solar dryers, lantern, cooker, solar still, solar refrigeration, solar
lighting etc
b) Wind energy- Water pumping, electricity generation etc.
c) Biomass energy- Gasifiers to produce producer gas, pyrolysis to produce liquid fuels,
Biogas etc
d) Tidal energy – electricity generation
e) Geothermal energy- Heat and electricity production
Biomass
Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in
biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be burned directly or converted to liquid
biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels.
Four types of biomass are:
a) Wood and agricultural products: Most biomass used today is homegrown energy.
Wood-logs, chips, bark, and sawdust-accounts for about 79 percent of biomass energy.
But any organic matter can produce biomass energy. Other biomass sources include
agricultural waste products like fruit pits and corn cobs.
b) Solid waste: There is nothing new about people burning trash. What's new is burning
trash to generate electricity. This turns waste into a usable form of energy. A ton (2,000
pounds) of garbage contains about as much heat energy, as pounds of coal.
c) Landfill gas: Bacteria and fungi eat dead plants and animals, causing them to rot or
decay. Even though this natural process is slowed in the artificial environment of a
landfill, methane gas is still produced as the waste decays. Landfills can collect the
methane gas, purify it, and then use it as an energy source. Methane, which is the same
thing as natural gas, is a good energy source.
d) Alcohol fuels: Wheat, corn, and other crops can be converted into a variety of liquid
fuels including ethanol and methanol.
Advantages
1) Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of heat,
steam, and electricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.
2) Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.
3) Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds value to
agricultural crop.
4) Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbon dioxide.
5) The use of waste materials reduce landfill disposal and makes more space for
everything else.
6) Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in by plants.
7) Less money spent on foreign oil.
Disadvantages
1) Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer grown.
2) Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.
3) Land used for energy crops may be in demand for other purposes, such as farming,
conservation, housing, resort or agricultural use.
4) Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are relatively small
and therefore are limited.
5) Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass-based fuels.
6) Is in some cases is a major cause of pollution.
Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future
usage. The collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used
for recharge purposes. With depleting groundwater levels and fluctuating climate
conditions, RWH can go a long way to help mitigate these effects. Capturing the
rainwater can help recharge local aquifers, reduce urban flooding and most
importantly ensure water availability in water-scarce zones.
Farm Ponds
Farm Pond is a dug out structure with definite shape and size having proper inlet and
outlet structures for collecting the surface runoff flowing from the farm area. It is one
of the most important rain water harvesting structures constructed at the lowest
portion of the farm area. The stored water must be used for irrigation only.
For recharging the ground water, the structures require high capacity and are generally
located in the soils having high infiltration rates and are called percolation tanks.
Percolation tank is meant for only recharge purpose and not for irrigation. Such
structures conceptually differ in their hydrology and physical location. A farm pond
must be located within a farm drawing the maximum runoff possible in a given rainfall
event. A percolation pond can be dug out in any area where the land is not utilized for
agriculture.
Farm ponds can be designed for three strategies of irrigation in rainfed regions as
given below:
a) Meeting the crop water requirement of growing season
b) Meeting water requirement of critical irrigation(CRI) during the critical stages of crop
growth
c) Meeting water requirement in cropping system approach( Irrigation during critical
stages of kharif crop plus the water requirement of rabi vegetable).
Depending on the source of water and their location, farm ponds are grouped into four
types:
a) Excavated or Dug out ponds
b) Surface ponds
c) Spring or creek fed ponds and
d) Off stream storage ponds.
Watershed Management
Watershed is an ideal natural unit over which hydrological processes are integrated
and for which a water balance may be constructed to show the disposal of
precipitation into a number of subsequent forms i.e. interception, soil moisture and
ground storages, evapo-transpiration and run-off. Also, watershed approach is logical
for evaluating the biophysical linkages of upland and downstream activities, this
approach is holistic and environmental impacts can readily be evaluated.
An integrated watershed management framework should generally be based on the
practices that protect a watershed or prevent it from damage, reduce the effect of
land-use to an acceptable level, and restore degraded environments for the benefit of
the people living in them.
Watershed Management is the management of all the natural resources available
within the watershed. These resources are agriculture, forests, water, land, biodiversity
etc. Watershed management implies management of all the resources in integration.
For integrated way of managing watershed, one institution should take a strong role
(lead agencies) for coordination and integration and other responsible agencies should
act as line agencies and support the integrated programme by implementing their
responsible activities in integration.
Agro Processing
Agro processing could be defined as set of technoeconomic activities carried out for
conservation and handling of agricultural produce and to make it usable as food, feed,
fibre, fuel or industrial raw material. Hence, the scope of the agro-processing industry
encompasses all operations from the stage of harvest till the material reaches the end
users in the desired form, packaging, quantity, quality and price. Ancient Indian
scriptures contain vivid account of the post harvest and processing practices for
preservation and processing of agricultural produce for food and medicinal uses.
Controlled Storage
A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations
of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, as well as the temperature and humidity of a
storage room are regulated. Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can
be stored in controlled atmospheres. Controlled or modified atmosphere storage
should be used as a supplement to, and not as a substitute for, proper temperature
and relative humidity management. Some simple methods for modifying the
composition of air in the storage environment are listed below. Air coming into the
storeroom or being re-circulated within the room must pass through a monitoring and
control system.
Oxygen gas control:
a) to Decrease:
i) purging with nitrogen
ii) from liquid nitrogen through an evaporator
iii) from a membrane system nitrogen generator
iv) from a molecular sieve system nitrogen generator
Carbon dioxide control:
a) to Increase:
i) dry ice
ii) pressurized gas cylinder
b) to Decrease:
i) molecular sieve scrubber
ii) activated charcoal scrubber
iii) sodium hydroxide scrubber
iv) hydrated lime
Ethylene control:
a) to Decrease:
i) potassium permanganate
ii) activated charcoal
iii) catalytic oxidation
Modified Storage
Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal
atmosphere of a package (commonly food packages, drugs, etc.) in order to improve
the shelf life.
The modification process often lowers the amount of oxygen (O 2), typically from 20.9%
to 0%, in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation
reactions. The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen (N 2), a comparatively
inert gas, or carbon dioxide (CO2), which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of
bacteria. Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat. Re-
balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such
as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing “breathable” films
known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP). Packets containing
scavengers may be used
Farm Power
Farm Power is an essential input in agriculture for timely field operations for increasing
production and productivity of land. Farm power is used for operating different types
of machinery like tillage, planting, plant protection, harvesting and threshing machinery
and other stationary jobs like operating irrigation equipment,
threshers/shellers/cleaners/ graders, etc.
Human Power
Human power is the main source for operating small implements and tools at the farm.
Stationary work like chaff cutting, lifting, water, threshing, winnowing etc are also done
by manual labour. An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for
doing farm work.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work.
Demerits: Costliest power compared to all other forms of power; Very low efficiency;
Requires full maintenance when not in use; Affected by weather condition and
seasons.
Animal Power
Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
Bullocks are employed for all types farm work in all seasons. Besides bullocks, other
animals like camels, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules and elephants are also used at
some places. The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body
weight.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work; Low initial investment; Supplies
manures to the field and fuels to farmers; Lives on farm products.
Demerits: Not very efficient; Seasons and weather affect the efficiency; Cannot work at a
stretch; Requires full maintenance when not in use; Creates unhealthy and dirty
atmosphere near the residence; Very slow in doing work.
Mechanical Power
Broadly speaking, mechanical power includes stationary oil engines, tractors, power
tillers and self-propelled combines. Internal combustion engine is a good device for
converting liquid fuel into useful work (mechanical work). These engines are two types
a) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine)
b) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines)
The thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from 32 to 38 percent whereas that of
petrol engine varies from 25 to 32 percent. In modern days, almost all the tractors and
power tillers are operated by diesel engines. Diesel engines are used for operating
irrigation pumps, flour mills, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff cutter, sugarcane crusher,
threshers, winnowers etc.
Merits: Efficiency is high; Not affected by weather; Cannot run at a stretch; Requires less
space; Cheaper form of power.
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Fuel is costly; Repairs and maintenance needs
technical knowledge.
Electrical Power
Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms. Motor is a
very useful machine for farmers. It is clean, quest and smooth running. Its maintenance
and operation needs less attention and care. The operating cost remains almost
constant throughout its life. Electrical power is used for water pumping, diary industry,
cold storage, farm product processing, fruit industry and many similar things.
Merits: Very cheap form of power; High efficiency; Can work at a stretch; Maintenance
and operating cost is very low; Not affected by seasons.
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Requires good amount of technical knowledge;
If handled carelessly, it may cause great danger.
Renewable Energy
It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind,
biomass etc. Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and
domestic purposes with suitable devices. Renewable energy can be used for lighting,
cooking, water heating, space heating, water distillation, food processing, water
pumping, and electric generation. This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.
Usage of renewable energy sources
a) Solar energy- Solar dryers, lantern, cooker, solar still, solar refrigeration, solar
lighting etc
b) Wind energy- Water pumping, electricity generation etc.
c) Biomass energy- Gasifiers to produce producer gas, pyrolysis to produce liquid fuels,
Biogas etc
d) Tidal energy – electricity generation
e) Geothermal energy- Heat and electricity production
Biomass
Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in
biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be burned directly or converted to liquid
biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels.
Four types of biomass are:
a) Wood and agricultural products: Most biomass used today is homegrown energy.
Wood-logs, chips, bark, and sawdust-accounts for about 79 percent of biomass energy.
But any organic matter can produce biomass energy. Other biomass sources include
agricultural waste products like fruit pits and corn cobs.
b) Solid waste: There is nothing new about people burning trash. What's new is burning
trash to generate electricity. This turns waste into a usable form of energy. A ton (2,000
pounds) of garbage contains about as much heat energy, as pounds of coal.
c) Landfill gas: Bacteria and fungi eat dead plants and animals, causing them to rot or
decay. Even though this natural process is slowed in the artificial environment of a
landfill, methane gas is still produced as the waste decays. Landfills can collect the
methane gas, purify it, and then use it as an energy source. Methane, which is the same
thing as natural gas, is a good energy source.
d) Alcohol fuels: Wheat, corn, and other crops can be converted into a variety of liquid
fuels including ethanol and methanol.
Advantages
1) Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of heat,
steam, and electricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.
2) Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.
3) Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds value to
agricultural crop.
4) Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbon dioxide.
5) The use of waste materials reduce landfill disposal and makes more space for
everything else.
6) Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in by plants.
7) Less money spent on foreign oil.
Disadvantages
1) Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer grown.
2) Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.
3) Land used for energy crops may be in demand for other purposes, such as farming,
conservation, housing, resort or agricultural use.
4) Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are relatively small
and therefore are limited.
5) Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass-based fuels.
6) Is in some cases is a major cause of pollution.
Being the nodal Ministry for most of the development and welfare activities in the rural
areas, the Ministry of Rural Development plays a pivotal role in the overall
development strategy of the country. The vision and mission of the Ministry are
sustainable and inclusive growth of rural India through a multipronged strategy for
eradication of poverty by increasing livelihoods opportunities, providing the social
safety net and developing infrastructure for growth. This is expected to improve the
quality of life in rural India and to correct the developmental imbalances, aiming in the
process, to reach out to most disadvantaged sections of the society.
The Ministry of Rural Development consists of two Departments, viz.,
1. Department of Rural Development,
2. Department of Land Resources.
Path Behind
Initially, the main thrust for development was laid on agriculture, industry,
communication, education, health and allied sectors. Later on, realising that
accelerated development can be provided only if governmental efforts are adequately
supplemented by the direct and indirect involvement of people at the grass root level,
the thrust shifted.
In order to ensure that the fruits of economic reform are shared by all sections of
societies five elements of social and economic infrastructure, critical to the quality of
life in rural areas, were identified. These are health, education, drinking water, housing
and roads. To impart greater momentum to the efforts in these sectors the
Government launched the Pradhan Mantri Gramdoya Yojana (PMGY) and the
Ministry of Rural Development was entrusted with the responsibility of implementing
drinking water, housing and rural roads component of PMGY.
During the Ninth Plan period, several anti-poverty Programmes have been restructured
to enhance the efficiency of the Programmes for providing increased benefits to the
rural poor. Self Employment Programmes were revamped by merging the Integrated
Rural Development Programme (IRDP), the Development of Women and Children in
Rural Areas (DWCRA), the Supply of Improved Tool-Kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), the
Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), the Ganga Kalyan
Yojana (GKY) and the Million Wells Scheme (MWS) into a holistic self-employment
scheme called Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY).
Keeping in view the needs and aspirations of the local people, Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs) have been involved in the programme implementation and these
institutions constitute the core of the decentralized development of planning and its
implementation. The Ministry vigorously pursue with the State Governments for
expeditious devolution of requisite administrative and financial powers to PRIs as
envisaged under 73rd Amendment Act of the Constitution of India. On 25th
December 2002, under Drinking Water Sector, a new initiative 'Swajal
Dhara' empowering the Panchayats to formulate, implement, operate and maintain
drinking water Projects was launched. In order to further involve PRIs in the
development process, a new initiative 'Hariyali' was launched by Hon'ble Prime
Minister on 27th January 2003. Hariyali was launched to strengthen and involve
Panchayati Raj Institutions in the implementation of watershed development
programmes namely IWDP, DPAP and DDP.
Realising that empowerment of rural women is crucial for the development of rural
India, a women's component is introduced in the programmes for poverty alleviation to
ensure the flow of adequate funds to this section. The Constitutional Amendment
(73rd), Act 1992 provides for reservation of selective posts for women. The
Constitution has placed enormous responsibility on the Panchayats to formulate and
execute various programmes of economic development and social justice, and a
number of Centrally Sponsored Schemes are being implemented through Panchayats.
Thus, women Members and Chairpersons of Panchayats, who are basically new
entrants in Panchayats, have to acquire the required skill and be given appropriate
orientation to assume their rightful roles as leaders and decision makers. Imparting
training to elected representatives of PRIs is primarily the responsibility of the State
Governments/Union Territory Administrations. Ministry of Rural Development also
extends some financial assistance to the States/UTs with a view to improve the quality
of training programmes and to catalyse capacity building initiatives for the elected
members and functionaries of PRIs.
The Eleventh Plan saw the injection of huge resources from the Union Budget to the
rural and farm sector. This thrust formed the substance of the Bharat Nirman
Programme. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act has
provided a major foundational support. Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation
has been separated from the Ministry of Rural Development from 13th July 2011 and
renamed as Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation.
Schemes
The following major programmes are being operated by the Ministry of Rural
Development in rural areas,
1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) for
providing wage employment,
2. National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) for self-employment and skill
development,
3. Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) for providing housing to BPL households,
4. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) for construction of quality roads
5. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) for social pension
6. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) for improving the
productivity of the land.
7. Monitoring & Evaluation
8. Council for Advancement of People's Action and Rural Technology (CAPART)
9. DIKSHA (Training Portal)
10. National Rurban Mission (NRuM)
11. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna - Gramin
12. DAY-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM)
13. National Rural Livelihood Mission
14. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)
15. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
16. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY)
In addition, the Ministry also has schemes for capacity development of rural
functionaries; Information, Education and Communication; and Monitoring and
Evaluation.
1. Minimum Support Price (MSP) of all crops shall increase to at least 1.5 times that of
the production cost.
2. The government will set up a fund of Rs 2,000 crore for developing agricultural
markets.
3. MSP for Kharif cost will be 1.5 times the cost of production.
4. As per the FM, APMCs will be linked with ENAM.
5. The government will develop 22,000 Gramin agricultural markets.
6. The cluster-model approach will be adopted for agricultural production.
7. Allocation in food production sector doubled to Rs 1400 crore.
8. Operation Green will be launched for agriculture and the Minister allocates Rs500
crore for this.
9. Agricultural corpus worth Rs 2000 crore will be set up. 470 APMCs have been
connected to eNAM network, the rest to be connected by March 2018.
10. A fund for the fishery, aquaculture development, and animal husbandry will be set
up with a total corpus to be Rs 10,000 crore.
11. Union Govt will also allocate Rs 1290 crore for a bamboo mission, as it is green
gold.
12. In all, we are providing Rs 10 lakh crore to Rs 11 lakh crore as credit for
agricultural activities.
13. FM Arun Jaitley proposes to increase the target of providing free LPG connections to
8 crores to poor women.
What is Poverty?
Poverty refers to socially perceived deprivation in terms of basic human needs. It has
both material and nonmaterial dimensions. The material dimension relates to
deprivation in consumption including items such as food, clothing, durables, shelter,
health, education and connectivity. Nonmaterial dimension relates to deprivation
associated with such phenomena as discrimination based on gender, religion, race or
caste.
Note: The conventional approach to measuring poverty focuses on the material
dimension.
Measuring Poverty
The first step in measuring poverty is to specify a threshold level of expenditure that
separates the poor from non-poor.
The threshold expenditure, which is called the poverty line, is the amount necessary to
purchase a basket of goods and services deemed necessary to satisfy basic human
needs at socially acceptable levels.
The basket itself may be referred to as the poverty line basket (PLB).
Rangarajan Committee Poverty Line
The Planning Commission appointed the committee in 2012 under the chairmanship of
economist C. Rangarajan.
It submitted the report in June 2014.
It recommended separate consumption baskets for rural and urban areas which
include food items that ensure recommended calorie, protein & fat intake and non-
food items like clothing, education, health, housing, and transport.
It again de-links the rural and urban poverty lines.
The recommended methodology of Rangarajan committee raised the Tendulkar
national rural poverty line from Rs. 816 per-capita per month at 2011-12 prices to Rs.
972 and the Tendulkar national urban poverty line from Rs. 1000 per capita per month
at 2011-12 prices to Rs. 1407.
The recommended increase was 19% in the rural poverty line and 41% in the urban
poverty line.
These revisions lead to the total national poverty estimate in 2011-12 to rise from 21.9
percent under the Tendulkar line to 29.5 percent.
The government’s approach to poverty reduction was of three dimensions. The first
one is the growth-oriented approach. It is based on the expectation that the effects of
economic growth — rapid increase in gross domestic product and per capita income —
would spread to all sections of society and will trickle down to the poor sections also.
The policy makers started thinking that incomes and employment for the poor could be
raised through the creation of incremental assets and by means of work generation.
This could be achieved through specific poverty alleviation programmes. This was the
second approach & was initiated from the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66).
Expanding self-employment programmes and wage employment programmes are
being considered as the major ways of addressing poverty. Examples of self-
employment programmes are Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP),
Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) and Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana
(SJSRY).
The third approach to addressing poverty is to provide minimum basic amenities to the
people. Programmes under this approach are expected to supplement the
consumption of the poor, create employment opportunities and bring about
improvements in health and education.
Three major programmes that aim at improving the food and nutritional status of the
poor are Public Distribution System, Integrated Child Development Scheme, and
Midday Meal Scheme. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya
Yojana, Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana are also attempts in the same direction.
National Social Assistance Programme is one such programme initiated by the central
government.
Govt. Programmes to generate wage employment for the poor unskilled people living
in rural areas are National Food for Work Programme (NFWP) and Sampoorna
Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY). In August 2005, the Parliament has passed a new Act
to provide guaranteed wage employment to every household whose adult volunteer is
to do unskilled manual work for a minimum of 100 days in a year. This Act is known as
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act–2005. Under this Act, all those among the
poor who are ready to work at the minimum wage can report for work in areas where
this programme is implemented.
1. Jan Dhan Yojana, Aadhar and Mobile (JAM): Towards Cash Transfers
Two key instruments- Jan Dhan bank accounts under PMJDY and biometric identity
cards under Aadhar- promise to revolutionize the anti-poverty programmes by
replacing the current cumbersome and leaky distribution of benefits under various
schemes by the Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT).
On 15th August 2014, PM Modi announced the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, the
biggest financial inclusion initiative in the world. He launched the scheme on 28th
August 2014 across the country. India is also moving towards completion of the Aadhar
project that aims to give a biometric identity to all Indians.
Under MGNREGA, direct transfers of wages have already begun taking place. The
employer records employment of a worker in a central database using the Aadhar
identity. This triggers a transfer of the wage payment from a central government
account to the worker’s bank account.
Jan Dhan, Aadhar and mobile cum banking correspondent initiatives together provide a
powerful platform to convert most of the existing transfers and subsidies into DBT.
Nehru and many other leaders and thinkers combined the best features of socialism
without its drawbacks. In this view, India would be a socialist society with a strong
public sector but also with private property and democracy; the government would
plan for the economy with the private sector being encouraged to be part of the
planning effort.
The ‘Industrial Policy Resolution’ of 1948 and the Directive Principles of the Indian
Constitution reflected this outlook.
In 1950, the Planning Commission was set up with the Prime Minister as its
Chairperson. The era of five-year plans had begun.
1. In a market economy, also called Capitalism, only those consumer goods will be
produced that are in demand, i.e., goods that can be sold profitably either in the
domestic or in the foreign markets. In a capitalist society, the goods produced are
distributed among people not on the basis of what people need but on the basis of
Purchasing Power—the ability to buy goods and services. That is, one has to have the
money in the pocket to buy it. Low-cost housing for the poor is much needed but will
not count as demand in the market sense because the poor do not have the
purchasing power to back the demand.
3. Most economies are Mixed Economies, i.e. the government and the market
together decides what to produce, how to produce and how to distribute what is
produced. In a mixed economy, the market will provide whatever goods and services it
can produce well, and the government will provide essential goods and services which
the market fails to do.
The policy makers of independent India address the issues in this sector through land
reforms and promoting the use of ‘High Yielding Variety’ (HYV) seeds which ushered in
a revolution in Indian agriculture.
Land Reforms
At the time of independence, the land tenure system was characterised by
intermediaries (variously called zamindars, jagirdars etc.) who merely collected rent
from the actual tillers of the soil without contributing towards improvements on the
farm.
Equity in agriculture called for land reforms which primarily refer to change in the
ownership of landholdings. Just a year after independence, steps were taken to abolish
intermediaries and to make the tillers the owners of the land. The idea behind this
move was that ownership of land would give incentives to the tillers to invest in making
improvements provided sufficient capital was made available to them.
Land ceiling was another policy to promote equity in the agricultural sector. This means
fixing the maximum size of land which could be owned by an individual. The purpose
of land ceiling was to reduce the concentration of land ownership in a few hands. The
ownership conferred on tenants gave them the incentive to increase output and this
contributed to growth in agriculture. However, the goal of equity was not fully served
by the abolition of intermediaries.
CONCLUSION
The progress of the Indian economy during the first seven plans was impressive
indeed. Our industries became far more diversified compared to the situation at
independence.
India became self- sufficient in food production thanks to the green revolution. Land
reforms resulted in the abolition of the hated zamindari system.
Excessive government regulation prevented the growth of entrepreneurship.
Our policies were ‘inward oriented’ and so we failed to develop a strong export sector.