Jorge H.

Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Chapter 1

Differential Equations of Heat Transfer:

Unsteady State Conduction
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Introduction

What is heat transfer ?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature
difference.

What is thermal energy ?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect of
microscopic activities and is directly linked to the
temperature of matter.
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Modes of heat transfer

Mode Mechanism Equation

Conduction q = − k T

Convection  = h(Ts − T )
qconv

Radiation qrad (
 =  Ts4 − Tsur
4
)
Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata
Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Convección
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Differential equation for heat transfer

For a given fixed control volume, the thermal energy conservation equation in integral
form is given by:

q n
v
 u  dV = − u  ( v  n ) dS + q
d
V , ,Cp , q cond + W + qgen
dt
v rate of acumulation net rate of energy in
of energy

n W

After several theorems, definitions and simplifications, we get:

 T 
C p  + v  T  = k  2T + q
 t 
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Differential equation for heat transfer

Thermal energy conservation equations for an incompressible fluid in different coordinate systems assuming  y Cp
constants:
Rectangular
T T T T   2T  2T  2T  q
+ vx + vy + vz = 2 + 2 + 2 +
t x y z  x y z  C p

Cylindrical
T T v T T  1   T  1  T  T
2 2
q
+ vr + + vz =  r + 2 + 2 +
t r r  z  r r  r  r 
2
z   C p

Spherical
T T v T v T  1   T  1   T  1  2T  q
+ vr + + =   2  r2 + 2  sin  + 2 2 2 
+
t r r  r sin    r r  r  r sin      r sin     C p
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Condiciones de frontera
1. Dirichlet boundary condition: The temperature
value is given on a surface

T x =0
= T1

2. Neumann boundary condition: The heat flux

normal to a surface is given

q0 = n  q = − k T
x x =0
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Condiciones de frontera
(a) Insulated or adiabatic surface

− k T =0
x x =0

(b) Condition of symmetry

− k T =0
x x = L2

3. Robin boundary condition: The heat

conducing throughout the material is
transferred from/to the surface by convective
heat transfer

n  q = − k T = h (T − T ,2 )
x x=L
x=L
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Unsteady state conduction

• A heat transfer process for which the temperature varies with time, as well as
location within a solid.

• It is initiated whenever a system experiences a change in operating conditions

(surface convection, surface radiation, a surface temperature or heat flux,
and/or internal energy generation) and proceeds until a new steady state
(thermal equilibrium) is achieved.
• Solution Techniques
– Systems with negligible internal resistance
– Systems with significant internal resistance (exact solutions)
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Systems with negligible internal resistance

• It is based on the assumption of a

spatially uniform temperature distribution
throughout the transient process.

T (r, t )  T (t )

dT
VC p = − hAs (T − T )
dt

 T − T   hA  
 = exp  −  s
 t 
 Ti − T  VC p  
 
 
   t 
Q = VC p (Ti − T ) 1 − exp  − 
   t 
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

The Biot number

kA
L
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 ) = hA (Ts,2 − T )

Ts ,1 − Ts ,2
=
( L kA ) Rcond
= =
hLc
 Bi
Ts ,2 − T (1 hA ) Rconv k

If Bi < 0.1, the conductive

resistance is lower than the
convective resistance; therefore,
it is suitable suppose a uniform
temperature distribution inside
the solid.
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Example
Your mother ask to you to determine the time at which the household iron of
1200 W reaches 150°C. The aluminum plate ( = 2800 kg/m3, Cp = 900 J/kgK,
k = 240 W/mK) in contact with clothing is 0.6 cm thick. This plate has a
surface area of 300 cm2. Initially the plate is in thermal equilibrium with air at
20°C. Assume a surface convective heat transfer coefficient of 13 W/m2K and
that only 85% of the heat generated by the resistance is transferred to the plate.
Show the relevant energy balance
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Example
Batch processes are often used in chemical and
pharmaceutical operations to achieve a desired
chemical composition for the final product and
typically involve a transient heating operation to
take the product from room temperature to the
desired process temperature.

Consider a situation for which a chemical of

density 1200 kg/m3 and specific heat 2200
J/kgK occupies a volume of 2.25 m3 in an
insulated vessel. The chemical is to be heated
from 300 K to 450 K by passing saturated steam
at 500 K through a coiled, thin-walled, 20 mm
diameter tube in the vessel. Steam condensation
within the tube maintains an interior convection
coefficient of 10,000 W/m2K, while the highly
agitated liquid in the stirred vessel maintains an
outside convection coefficient of 2000 W/m2K.
If the chemical is to be heated in 60 min, what is
the required length of the submerged tubing?
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Exact solutions
If the negligible internal resistance
approximation can not be made, consideration
must be given to spatial, as well as temporal,
variations in temperature during the transient
process.


T ( x,0) = Ti
 T
 2T 1 T  =0
=  x x=0
x2  t 
− k T = h T L ,t − T 
 x  
 x= L
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Exact solutions
Defining the following dimensionless variables
T − T x t r t
 = , x = , Fo = , r = , Fo =
Ti − T L L2
R R2
Plane wall Cylinder and Sphere

The analytic solution, for a plane wall, is given by:


4sin  n
 =

( ) (
cos  n x exp − n2 Fo , ) where  n tan  n = Bi
n =1 2 n + sin ( 2 n )

Cn

The one-term approximation (Fo > 0.2) Total heat transfer

  =  0 cos ( 1 x )  sin  1  
Q = Q0 1 − 0 
 1 
 0 = C1 exp ( − 12 Fo )
Q0 = VC p (Ti − T )
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Exact solutions
The analytic solution, for a long cylinder (L/R  10), is given by:

 2  J1 (  n ) J1 (  n )
 = 

 2 (J  ) r 
(
exp − 2
)
n Fo , where  n
J 0 ( n )
= Bi
n =1   n  J 0 (  n ) + J1 (  n )
2 0 n

Cn

The one-term approximation (Fo > 0.2) Total heat transfer

 =  J (  1r
 
0 0

)  2 0
Q = Q0 1 −

J1 (  1 ) 
 1 
 0 = C1 exp ( − 12 Fo )
Q0 = VC p (Ti − T )
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Exact solutions
The analytic solution, for a sphere, is given by:

4 sin ( n ) −  n cos ( n )   1 

 =


2 n − sin ( 2 n )
   ( ) ( )
sin  n r  exp − n2 Fo , where 1 −  n cot ( n ) = Bi
n =1   nr 
Cn

The one-term approximation (Fo > 0.2) Total heat transfer

 =
 1


 1r 
0 sin  1 r 
( )  3 0 
Q = Q0 1 − 3 sin ( 1 ) −  1 cos ( 1 )  
 1 
 0 = C1 exp ( − 12 Fo ) Q0 = VC p (Ti − T )
Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Exact solutions
Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Exact solutions
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Bessel functions of the first kind

 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Example
The 150-mm-thick wall of a gas-fired furnace is constructed of fire-clay brick and is well insulated at
its outer surface. The wall is at a uniform initial temperature of 20 °C, when the burners are fired and
the inner surface is exposed to products of combustion for which the temperature is 950 °C and the
convection coefficient is 100 W/m2K.

1. How long does it take for the outer surface to reach a temperature of 750 °C?
2. What is the heat flux to the wall at this time?
3. How much energy per meter of wall length has been transferred from the combustion gases to the
wall at that time?

k = 1.5 W/m  K

 = 2600 kg/m3
C p = 1000 J/kg  K
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Example
1) A long rod of 60 mm diameter and thermophysical properties  = 8000 kg/m3, Cp = 500 J/kgK,
and k = 50 W/mK is initially at a uniform temperature and is heated in a forced convection
furnace maintained at 750 K. The convection coefficient is estimated to be 1000 W/m2K. What is
the centerline temperature of the rod when the surface temperature is 550 K?

2) Steel ball bearings are to be hardened by quenching them in a water bath at a temperature of 37°C.
You are asked to devise a continuous process in which the balls could roll from a soaking oven at
a uniform temperature of 870°C into the water, where they are carried away by a rubber conveyor
belt. The rubber conveyor belt, however, would not be satisfactory if the surface temperature of
the balls leaving the water is above 90°C. If the surface coefficient of heat transfer between the
balls and the water can be assumed to be equal to 590 W/m2K, (a) calculate the cooling time, in
seconds, required for a ball having a 2.5-cm diameter, and (b) calculate the total amount of heat in
watts that would have to be removed from the water bath in order to maintain a uniform
temperature if 100,000 balls of 2.5-cm diameter are to be quenched per hour.

k = 15 W/m  K

 = 7900 kg/m3
C p = 477 J/kg  K
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

The semi-infinite solid

A semi-infinite solid is one that is initially of uniform temperature Ti and is assumed to
extend to infinity from a surface at which thermal conditions are altered.

T ( x → , t ) = Ti
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

The semi-infinite solid

• Change in Surface Temperature (Ts)

T ( x, t ) − Ts  x  k (Ts − Ti )
= erf   , q  =
Ti − Ts  2 t  t
s


• Constant Surface heat flux ( qo )

2qo ( t  )
12
 − x 2  qo x  x 
T ( x, t ) − Ti = exp   − erfc  
k  4 t  k  2 t 

• Surface heat transfer by convection

T ( x, t ) − Ti  x    hx h 2 t     x h  t 
= erfc   − exp  k + k 2   erfc  + 
T − Ti  2  t        2  t k  
 Jorge H. Sánchez and Zulamita Zapata

Example
In areas where the air temperature remains below 0°C for prolonged periods of time, the
freezing of water in underground pipes is a major concern. Fortunately, the soil remains
relatively warm during those periods, and it takes weeks for the subfreezing temperatures
to reach the water mains in the ground. Thus, the soil effectively serves as an insulation to
protect the water from subfreezing temperatures in winter. What minimum burial depth xm
would you recommend to avoid freezing under conditions for which soil, initially at a
uniform temperature of 15°C, is subjected to a constant surface temperature of -10°C for
90 days?

What is the minimum burial depth if the

ambient conditions are T = −10°C and
h = 100 W/m2K?