1

How to manage the threat of ecosystem?

ECOSYSTEM-BASED APPROACH

Many wildlife biologists believe that the best way to prevent the loss of wild species is
to establish and maintain a worldwide system of reserves, parks, and other protected
areas. The system should consist of at least 10% of the world's land area (Nelson, J. R.
1990). The goal would be to conserve and manage entire ecosystems instead of the
present species-centered approach to wildlife preservation. Existing terrestrial and
marine Protected Areas in Peninsular Malaysia was listed below:

Terrestrial Protected Areas

1 Batu Gajah Bird Reserve

2 Cameron Highlands Wildlife Reserve
3 Sungkai Wildlife Reserve
4 Fraser's Hill Wildlife Reserve
5 Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve
6 Bukit Kutu Wildlife Reserve
7 Kuala Selangor Nature Park
8 Kuala Selangor (Bukit Melawati) Wildlife Reserve
9 Klang Gates Wildlife Reserve
10 Bukit Nanas (Weld) Wildlife Reserve
11 Kuala Lumpur Golf Course Bird Reserve
12 Bukit Sungai Puteh Wildlife Reserve
13 Port Dickson Island Wildlife Reserve
14 Tanjung Tuan Wildlife Reserve
15 Endau - Kota Tinggi (West) Wildlife Reserve
16 Endau - Kota Tinggi (East) Wildlife Reserve
17 Four Islands Bird Reserve
18 Endau - Kluang Wildlife Reserve
19 Endau - Rompin National Park (Johor Sector)
20 Segamat Wildlife Reserve
21 Endau - Rompin State Park (Pahang Sector)
22 Tasek Bera (designated Ramsar site)
23 Krau Wildlife Reserve
24 Pahang Tua Bird Santuary
25 Taman Negara (Pahang-Kelantan-Terengganu)

Marine Parks

A Kedah: Pulau (P) Payar Marine Park (P. Payar, P.Kaca, P. Lembu, P.
Segantang)
B1 & B2 Terengganu: P. Redang Marine Park (P. Redang, P. Perhentian Kecil,
P. Perhentian Besar, P. Lang Tengah, P. Susu Dara, P. Lima, P. Ekor
Tebu, P. Pinang, P. Kapas)
 2

C Pahang: P. Tioman Marine Park (P. Tioman, P. Labas, P. Sepoi, P. Gut,

P. Tokong Bahara, P. Chebeh, P. Tulai, P. Sembilang, P. Seri Buat)
DI & D2 Johor: Mersing Marine Park (P. Rawa, P. Hujung, P. Tengah, P. Besar, P.
Tinggi,
P. Aur, P. Pemanggil, P. Goal, P. Mensirip, P. Sibu, P. Sibu Hujung, P.
Harimau,
P. Mentinggi)

Source figure and description: WWF 1998

Advantage: Potential benefits from conserving ecosystem

This ecosystem approach would protect the earth's existing biological and genetic
diversity. It would prevent species from becoming endangered by human activities
and reduce the need for human intervention to prevent extinction. The reserves would
be natural habitats for endangered species now in zoos and other artificial habitats.
They can also be used for wildlife research and education.

Using reserves and parks to help prevent extinction of many species is cheaper
than managing endangered species one by one. Certain parts of reserves and parks can
also be used for photographic safaris, school field trips, and other nondestructive
activities. Fees for these activities would provide money for managing these areas and
for educating local people and tourists about the need to conserve wildlife.

In addition, potential practical and physical benefits exist, especially in

medicine, in plant and breeding, and in developing the commercial use of species that
are not used commercially present are described in Table 2.

Table 2: Potential benefits from conserving ecosystem

Things Benefits
Agriculture Only 3000-7000 plant species have been used as food out of the 250
000 or more that have been identified. Only about 150 have been
cultivated on a significant scale, and the food supply for over 85 per
cent of the human population is based on a mere 20. Yet at least 75
000 plant species have edible parts. As plant breeding has proceeded,
the gene pools in crops such as rice and maize are becoming smaller.
 3

In Indonesia, 1500 local varieties of rice have disappeared since

1975, and nearly three quarters of the rice planted today is descended
from a single maternal plant. In Canada, three quarters of the wheat
crop is derived from four varieties, and the entire soybean production
in the United States is derived from six plants from one site in Asia.

Forestry and Species may be transferred from one part of the world to another.
tree crops Examples include Norway spruce (Picea abies) from mainland
Europe to Britain, Sitka. spruce and Lodgepole pine (Picea sitchensis
and Pinus contorta) from western Canada and Alaska to Britain and
Scandinavia, and Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) from California to
numerous other countries, including Chile and New Zealand.

Medicines Over 40 per cent of all prescriptions written in the United States
contain one or more drugs that originate from wild species, and the
annual sales of drugs are over US $8 billion. Around 3000 plant
species are known to have anticancer properties: 70 per cent of them
are found in tropical forests. It is estimated that the Rosy periwinkle,
found in Madagascar, now yields pharmaceutical products worth US
$88 million per year (1985 prices).

Tourism and The economic value of wildlife and scenery in tourism and recreation
recreation is enormous. In some countries, protected areas are major attractions:
over three-quarters of tourists in Ecuador and more than half in
Mexico and Costa Rica visit national parks or other protected areas.
Ecotourism is a major source of foreign exchange in some countries.
In Kenya, the viewing value of elephants has been estimated at US
$25 million per year. 'Ecotourism' is estimated to have accounted for
US $2-12 billion of the US $55 billion that tourism generated for
developing countries in the 1988. In effect, nature is exported' by
countries such as Kenya, and 'imported' by countries such as the
United States, Germany and Britain whose citizens make up the
majority of 'ecotourists'. In functioning as the basis for the economic
activity of tourism, nature is becoming commoditized, albeit in a less
 4

direct form than that represented by sale of plants or animals to

collectors.

Source: compiled from Alexandratos (1988), Barbier (1989).

SPECIES-BASED APPROACH
Methods of Wildlife Protection Governments use several methods to protect
endangered and threatened wildlife and to keep other wild species from becoming
endangered. One is to establish treaties and pass laws to protect species of wildlife.
Another is to set aside wildlife refuges to protect critical wildlife habitats from
destruction and degradation. Public and private gene banks, zoos, research centers,
and botanical gardens preserve critically endangered species in artificial habitats. Zoos
and research centers also breed individuals of critically endangered species for
eventual return to the wild. All of these methods protect individual species.
Department of Wildlife and National Parks was also take part in species-based
approach Conservation Project in Peninsular Malaysia (Table 1 and Figure 2)

Table 1: Department of Wildlife and National Parks Species-based approach

Conservation Project in Peninsular Malaysia

1. Elephant Training Center-Kuala Gandah, Lancang, Pahang

2. Seladang and Deer Farm-Jenderak Selatan, Kuala Krau, Pahang
3. Deer Farm-Sungkai. Perak
4. Pheasant Breeding Project-Sungkai, Perak
5. River Terrapin Breeding-Project Bota Kanan, Perak
6. River Terrapin Breeding-Bukit Pinang, Kepala Batas, Kedah
7. Sumateran Rhino Breeding Center-Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve, Selangor
8. River Terrapin Breeding-Bukit Paloh, Ulu Terengganu
9. Deer Farm-Gua Musang, Kelantan
10. Zoo Melaka-Melaka

Source: Jasmi (1996) refer to PERHILITAN 1994

Advantage: Recovery of Endangered Species

The long-range objective of endangered species programs is to develop programs for
the recovery of endangered species, so that they can eventually be removed from the
list. Recovery programs for species that have declined to the brink of extinction are
 5

often forced to utilize unusual or extreme techniques in efforts to encourage the

reestablishment of viable populations that include captive propagation, and
reintroduction to the wild (Cox, G. W. 1997).

i) Plant: Gene Banks and Botanical Gardens

A last-ditch method to save a critically endangered plant species is to gather or
capture some of its remaining wild population and protect these individuals or their
genetic material in a gene bank, a botanical garden, or some other artificial habitat.

Gene banks preserve genetic information by storing seeds of plants (H. Zedan
1995). Dry seeds of many plant varieties can be stored for long periods in a
refrigerated environment with low humidity. Gene banks of most known and many
potential varieties of agricultural crops and other plants now exist throughout the
world. Scientists have urged that many more be established. The world's botanical
gardens help preserve some of the genetic diversity found in the wild. In Figure 3,
there are thirteen agricultural research centers and genetic storage banks play a key
role in developing high-yield crop varieties (G. T. Miller 1989).

ii) Animal; Egg Pulling and Captive Breeding in Zoos and Animal Research
Centers
Zoos and animal research centers are increasingly being used to preserve a
representative number of individuals of critically endangered animal species. Two
techniques for preserving such species are egg pulling and captive breeding (Nelson,
J. R. 1990).

Egg pulling involves collecting eggs produced in the wild by the remaining
breeding pairs of a critically endangered bird species and hatching them in zoos or
research centers. Removing these eggs sometimes causes parents to nest again and lay
more eggs, increasing the number of eggs that can be hatched in the wild and in
captivity. In 1983, scientists began an egg-pulling program to help save the critically
endangered California condor.
 6

For captive breeding some or all of the individuals of a critically endangered

species still in the wild are captured and placed in zoos or research centers to breed in
captivity. Scientists hope that after several decades of captive breeding and egg
pulling the captive population of an endangered species will be large enough that
some individuals can be successfully reintroduced into protected wild habitats.

Some species, such as the panda, bats, cheetahs, and whooping cranes don't
breed well in captivity (Nelson, J. R. 1990). In such cases, females may be artificially
inseminated with collected male sperm. Embryos may also be collected from wild or
captive females, frozen, and then transplanted to captive females or surrogate mothers.

Some captive species have difficulty or show little interest in raising their
young. To overcome this problem, wildlife scientists have used foster parenting;
adults of a related species raise the new offspring parents of an endangered species.
Often, a variety of approaches is used to save an endangered species.

On the other hand, it is not easy to provide learning experiences, such as how
to find food, how to recognize and avoid predators, and even how to locomote in
natural habitats such as that of a forest canopy (Cox, G. W. 1997. For reintroductions
to be successful, all of these challenges must be overcome. Several species of
mammals and birds have been reduced to populations that have survived only in
captivity for example the California condor (Cox, G. W. 1997).

A few species have been propagated in captivity for many years, and then
reintroduction attempted to their original ranges. The red wolf, extinct in the wild by
the 1970s, has been bred in captivity since 1975 at the Point Defiance Zoo in Tacoma,
Washington. Animals from this population were reintroduced to Alligator River
National Wildlife Refuge, located on a peninsula on the North Carolina coast (Rees
1989). Captive propagation has also contributed to the recovery of other species such
as the peregrine falcon in North America (Cox, G. W. 1997).
 7

FORMAL EDUCATION
i) Use the Formal Education System to Increase Awareness.
Schools can become powerful vehicles for increasing public awareness about
biodiversity. Primary and secondary schools are particularly important since they
shape young people’s perceptions and attributes and reach far more people than
universities, particularly in developing countries. Of course, nothing will happen in
the classroom if educators themselves are not enthusiastic and informed about the
topic, so classroom instructors as much as students themselves must be viewed as the
in school for the biodiversity message.

At the national level, ecological literacy belongs alongside other basic skills.
National curricula on biodiversity should be developed by teachers’ associations,
other non-governmental organization, and national education, and environment
ministries (Swaminathan M.S. 1992). These curricula should emphasize biodiversity’s
contribution to community health and welfare, as well as to ecosystems, and should tie
ecological, economic, and social themes together (Swaminathan M.S. 1992).

But national curricula on biodiversity must be supplement by locally

developed curricula that bring biodiversity issues close to home (Swaminathan M.S.
1992). Ultimately, it is far more importance of healthy local ecosystems, than it is for
educators to champion a few ecosystems of global importance or extraordinary
beauty.

ii) Building Biodiversity Awareness in Primary and Secondary School

The awareness and commitment of teachers is the key in building biodiversity
awareness among primary and secondary school students. Goods teachers know best
how to get the message across to their students, but some suggestions follow:

i. Explain that all things that live are encompassed by “biodiversity”, including
those small to see with the naked eye. Points out that people and their cultures
are part of the diversity of life. As an out of class assignment, ask students to
describe the biodiversity of an area near their home.
 8

ii. Point out the importance of biodiversity’s components mentioning medicines,

industrial products, foods, and the contribution of breeding programs to
agriculture. Stress the role that biodiversity and biological resources play in
shaping human cultures, for examples, citing the relationships between
nomads and migratory species. Ask students to describe life without one aspect
of biodiversity use, or to asses how using various biological resources
influences local economies and local environments
iii. Emphasize biodiversity conservation effort close to home, acquainting
students with any nearby protected areas, off-site conservation centers, and
local management techniques that foster biodiversity conservation. Point out
the importance of using resources sustainable. Arrange for the students to visit
and tour a local conservation facility. Discuss respect for nature, self-
preservation, and other components of a conservation ethic. Stage a
biodiversity management meeting, assigning each student a different group
interest to represent.
iv. Ask students to design posters or write essays about the historic contributions
of biodiversity, to recommend management plans for resources areas, to list
ways that individuals can contribute to conservation, and to develop a board
game demonstrating the obstacles to and rewards of sound biodiversity
management.
v. Get the children out of the classroom and into the fields and forests, and let
them experience and study the diversity of life directly.

Source: Wilson, E.O. 1992.

iii) Integrate biodiversity concerns into education of the classroom.

Many educational experiences take place outside of formal institutions and process the
classroom. Particularly in rural communities in developing countries, agricultural
extension, primary health-care clinics, literacy campaigns, and many other institutions
and activities convey important information and ideas (Wilson, E.O. 1992).

These same channels can become vehicles for practical education on

biodiversity conservation and use. Indeed, biodiversity conservation ideas are more
likely to be accepted in rural communities if they more likely to be accepted in rural
communities if they answer immediate and tangible need (Wilson, E.O. 1992).
Appeals for saving species and genetic diversity may be futile where bare survival is a
daily issue. But if those aspects of biodiversity that help maintain or enhance local
agricultural production are promoted, for instance, even destitute people will see the
reason to conserve it. Similarly, efforts to safeguard medicinal plants are more likely
 9

to be effective where traditional medicines are advanced as a part of an integrated

primary health-care strategy. Along with carrying the right message, extension
workers must also be the primary farmers and resource managers, most agricultural
extension workers should be women too (Akawaio T.I. 1992).

Extension workers and other educators outside of the classroom must respect
and mobilize local knowledge of biodiversity, as well as bring new information and
ideas into the community. The most effective “education” about diversity often is not
transmitting new, but rather fostering appreciation of what is already known- practical
knowledge about biodiversity and ways to manage resources sustainable (Akawaio
T.I. 1992). The knowledge elders’ posses of the value of the certain species, the
location or habitat needs of rare species, or the history of local ecological change, for
example, may be far more valuable for biodiversity conservation than any imported
expert knowledge (Miller, Kenton. R. and Steven M. L. 1995).

LOCAL COMMUNITIES
i) Recognize the ancestral domains of tribal and indigenous peoples
Some indigenous peoples live in and have special claims to territories that, in many
cases, harbor exceptionally high levels of biodiversity. Their claim rests on their long
occupation of a particular place, their cultural, spiritual, and economic lies to the area
and their ability to manage it sustainable. At the same time, the cultural diversity
inherent in the world's indigenous groups is imperiled by the encroachment of
dominant societies and economies (Swaminathan M.S. 1992). Preserving indigenous
territorial rights thus protects biodiversity and the local culture, including knowledge
and resource management skills with potentially wide applications, as well as spiritual
ties to the environment that could provide direction for the development of a
biodiversity (C. F. Jordan 1995).

Governments should legally recognize tribal and indigenous territories under

national law help indigenous communities defend their land against incursions, and
permit indigenous peoples to develop organizations to directly represent them in
national and international fare (Swaminathan M.S. 1992). For example, Jawatankuasa
 10

Orang Asli that was in charge the welfare of the indigenous people in Malaysia.
Ultimately, the indigenous peoples themselves should determine their own future.

ii) Semelai people of Tasek Bera

Mohala (2002) reports that the Semelai are indigenous people living along the banks
and surrounding forests of Tasek Bera. He also report that not much is known of their
origins but, archeological findings reveal that they have lived here for more than 600
years. He also described these tribe was gentle and soft-spoken with a great sense of
burnout, the Semelai are an attractive race that continues to hold on to their old way of
life even as they adapt to modern living.

Shifting cultivators by tradition, many of them discarded their nomadic

lifestyles when they were relocated due to the Communist insurgency or
'Emergency'(1948-1960) and now live in permanent villages in Pas Iskandar (Mohala,
S. 2002).

About their income, Mohala report that their main source of income is from
tapping rubber on each of their six-acre government-sponsored land. The latex
gathered is sold as scrap rubber as they lack the funds to invest in equipment for
making sheet rubber. Mohala adds that as alternatively they operate sundry shops or
work as factory workers and as labourers for timber companies and palm oil
plantations.
In the past the Semelai lived as hunters and gatherers obtaining the bulk of
their food from hunting, fishing and trapping of land and water animals as well as
collecting forest produce such as rattan, keruing resin and medicinal plants like the
renowned Kacip Fatimah (Mohala, S. 2002). Today these activities are still pursued,
though less intensively, to supplement their income.

As a summary, Mohala was conclude that the Semelai are a true wetland
people in that they use the natural resources of the lake such as sanitarium and tube
sedge for thatching or to weave mats and baskets for household use. They also eat the
leaves, buds, fruits and seeds of some wetland plants as well as wetland fauna such as
fish, freshwater turtles or shellfish.
 11

iii) Compensate individuals and local communities

Compensation (whether cash, alternative tracts of land, or services) directly supports
biodiversity conservation (Jordan C. F. 1995). Where the creation or expansion of a
protected area or restrictions on the use of particular species constrains ownership or
use of land, compensation helps garner local support for conservation objectives.
Where land is needed for other development purposes (such as a road or dam),
compensation can reduce the need for displaced people to invade fragile forest or
upland areas (Jordan C. F. 1995). In all cases, however, compensation must be
perceived as fair, and must reach the hands of affected communities.

v) Increase the local benefits of ecotourism in natural areas

Tourism entrepreneurs and officials have taken note of this trend, opening ever wider
natural areas to both independent travelers and package tours. Ecotourism can, in
theory, increase the value of maintaining ecosystems in their natural state, thereby
providing both governments and local communities with incentives for conservation.
In practice, however, the benefits accruing to local communities have not been great,
while the negative impacts on local ecosystems and cultures have often been highs
combination that discourages conservation (Carl F. Jordan 1995).

Typically, the ecotourism industry employs personnel from outside a region or

country for all but the lowest-paid positions, and any government entrance and
concession fees charged go to the government (Wilson, E.O. 1992), not the
community. Meanwhile, local residents pay ecotourism's price. Residents' rights to use
the natural "attraction" are often restricted. Meanwhile, heavy tourist traffic in forests,
game parks, and on coral reefs can degrade these resources directly.

If ecotourism is to contribute seriously to conservation and development, rather

than simply drive a wedge of well-heeled tourists into biologically rich pristine areas,
certain basic guidelines should be followed. In general, ecotourism should:

i. provide significant benefits for local residents;

ii. contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources;
iii. incorporate environmental education for tourists and residents; and,
 12

iv. be developed and managed to minimize negative impacts on the environment

and local culture.
Source: Wilson, E.O. 1992

Few ecotourism programs have followed these principles scrupulously. To put

them into practice, government and industry should involve local communities as
equal partners in all phases of ecotourism planning and development. Concrete
financial benefits are obviously an important part of such a partnership. Most
important, local communities must have the final say about how much and what kind
of tourism develops in their areas.

This new partnership should be based on a commitment to hire local residents as

managers in protected areas and tourism operations. In addition, programs for
providing credit for rural enterprises should be initiated or expanded so that more
local entrepreneurs can develop tourism-related businesses (Wilson, E.O. 1992).

vi) Community-based Ecotourism project at Tasek Bera

On 1 January 2002, a Community-based Ecotourism project at Tasek Bera was
implemented by Wetlands International Malaysia Office, in close partnership with the
local Semelai People's Association for Boating and Tourism (SABOT) (Mohala, S.
2002). It provides a good alternative source of income for the Semelai whose usual
means of livelihood is tapping rubber, selling forest produce and handicrafts, and
small-scale commercial fishing. Mohala reports that income from ecotourism is a
crucial consideration since half of the Semelai people residing in this protected area
are an economically disadvantaged group, living below the National Poverty Line
(earning approximately less that RM200 per month).

Mohala also reported that under the Community-based Ecotourism project,

SABOT now has 5 fully trained and experienced Semelai guides to run Nature Camps
at various locations throughout Tasek Bera. Another 5 Semelai guides are under
training by the core guides to handle more tourists and visitors to Tasek Bera

To ensure these guides become responsible stewards of their land, the

Semelai's training in managing ecotourism also incorporates the conservation
 13

message. Aside from public relations, accounting, handicraft marketing, the English
language and even scientific knowledge of the lake's fish and aquatic plants, they are
well-informed about species conservation, unsustainable use of resources and other
threats to Tasek Bera (Mohala, S. 2002). With this knowledge they will be able to
enlighten visitors to the lake of its many treasures, while also dedicating their energies
to the conservation of Tasek Bera hence preserving their culture and wetland home.

GOVERNMENT TASK
i) Build awareness of the importance and values of biodiversity into popular
culture
Our country need for trained biodiversity professionals must not overshadow the need
to ensure that skilled workers end up in the places and positions where they can do the
most good. All too often, those best trained for hands-on biodiversity conservation
work end up in capital cities as administrators and bureaucrats; as long as financial,
promotion, and other incentives point in this direction, this brain drain from the field
is likely to continue (Swaminathan M.S. 1992).

Governments need to provide irresistible incentives for biodiversity

professionals to spend years working in the field as protected area managers,
taxonomists, or resource managers (Swaminathan M.S. 1992). They must provide a
career ladder that will attract highly qualified individuals into resource management
fields and other incentives-training, equipment, health care, education allowances,
salaries, performance bonuses that will bring out the best in the field staff. Along with
financial incentives and benefits, the decentralization of decision-making power
would help tremendously since people tend to gravitate to the center of power in their
professions.

ii) Strengthen research on ethical, cultural and religious concerns related to

conserve biodiversity
The world's many cultures, faiths, and ethical traditions give people their basic
orientation toward the natural world, and guide their actions. Often these values are so
deeply ingrained that their importance is overlooked. For this reason, national research
programs, as well as international donors, should fund systematic research on how
 14

ethical norms, culture, and religion condition human behavior toward nature
(Swaminathan M.S. 1992). For this reason, work on environmental ethics should take
place primarily at the bioregional level, led by inter-disciplinary teams and community
representatives from the region. This initiative should be incorporated within the
wider campaign to develop, promote, and apply the world ethic for living sustainable
called for in Caring for the Earth.

iii) Revise career incentives provided by governments to increase the

attractiveness of work in the field
The worldwide need for trained biodiversity professionals must not overshadow the
need to ensure that skilled workers end up in the places and positions where they can
do the most good. All too often, those best trained for hands-on biodiversity
conservation work end up in capital cities as administrators and bureaucrats; as long
as financial, promotion, and other incentives point in this direction, this brain drain
from the field is likely to continue (Wilson, E.O. 1992).

Governments need to provide irresistible incentives for biodiversity

professionals to spend years working in the field as protected area managers,
taxonomists, or resource managers. They must provide a career ladder that will attract
highly qualified individuals into resource management fields and other incentives-
training, equipment, health care, education allowances, salaries, performance bonuses-
that will bring out the best in the field staff (Swaminathan M.S. 1992).
 15

CONCLUSION
The preparation of the biodiversity is not new for the federal and state, but for the
public is still questionable. The biodiversity is no meaning for them. As a result, they
take it for granted all of the biodiversity conservation and preservation that have been
done.

The work that we talk about is not just lone ranger effort. So the government
must combine with non government organization to give awareness about biodiversity
to the public. This will give them a new vision, knowledge and culture to take part for
the conservation biodiversity. This book is just a simple guideline for them to refer
and become the milestone for the future planning and strategies for public awareness
of the conservation of biodiversity.
 16

REFERENCES
Akawaio T.I. 1992. Managing Biodiversity Throughout the Human Environment. Kathleen,
C. Global Biodiversity Strategy. World Resources Institute (WRI), The World
Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).97-
116

Alexandratos, N. (ed.) (1988) World agriculture towards 2000. London and New York:
Pinter/Belhaven Press.

Barbier, E.B. (1989) Economics, natural resources scarcity and development: conventional
and alternative views. London: Earthscan.

Berger, R. 1990 Malaysia's Forests: A Resource without a Future? Packard Publishing

Limited, Chishester, Porstmouth. 136-137pp

Bump, G. 1951. Game introductions-when, where, and how. Trans. N. Am. Wildlife. Conf.
316-325.

Bump, G. 1963a. Status of the Foreign Game Introduction Program. Trans. N. Am Wildlife
and Nature Resources. Conf. 240-247.

Bump, G. 1968. Exotics and the role of the State-Federal Foreign Game Introduction
Program. Pp. 5-8 in Symposium on introduction of exotic animals: ecological and
socioeconomic considerations. Caesar Kleberg Res. Pgm. in Wildl. Ecology, Tex.
A&M Univ., College Station. 25 pp.

C. F. Jordan 1995. Conservation Replacing Quantity with Quality as a Goal for Global
Management, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York Pg30-33

C. M. Tarzwell (Editor), Biological Problems in Water Pollution. Transactions of the Second

Seminar, 1959. R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare. 285pp.

Cox, G. W. 1997.Consevation Biology Concepts and Applications 2 nd ed., The Mc Graw Hill
Companies. 26:273-275.

E. G. Bolen & W. L. Robinson 1995. Wildlife Ecology and Management. 3rd ed .Northern
Michigan University, Prentice Hall. Pg 119

G. T. Miller. 1990, Water Resources, Resources Conservation and Management. Wadsworth

Publishing Company. Pg. 200-201

Hynes, H. B. N. 1960. The Biology of Polluted Waters. Liverpool University Press,

Liverpool. xiv + 202pp.

Jasmi 1996. The Biodiversity Crisis and Conservation. Zainal A. A. H & Zubaid A.
Conservation and Faunal Biodiversity in Malaysia, Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.Pg 11-23

Miller, Kenton. R. and Steven M. L. 1995. National Biodiversity Planning: Guidelines Based
on Early Experiences Around the World. World Resources Institute, United Nations
Environment Programme and the World Conservation Union. Washington D. C.;
Nairobi: Gland, Switzerland. 35-45
 17

Mohala, S. 2002. Knowledge, Culture and Beliefs of the Semelai People in Tasek Bera.
Wetlands International, Malaysia.Pg 5-6 & 42-43

Nelson, J. R. 1990, Wildlife Protection and Management, G. T. Miller, Resources

Conservation and Management. Pg. 440.

Nelson, J. R. 1990, Wildlife Protection and Management, G. T. Miller, Resources

Conservation and Management. Pg. 437-439.

Owen, O. S. & Chiras, D. 1990. Natural Resource Management for a Sustainable Future
Conservation, PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Pg 218

Owen, O. S. 1971. Natural Resource Conservation An Ecological Approach. The Macmillan

Company New York United States of America.

Renn, C. E. 1960. Biological aspectj of industrial waste problems. Pages 156-159. In

Swaminathan M.S. 1992. Expanding Human Capacity To Conserve Biodiversity Kathleen, C.

Global Biodiversity Strategy. World Resources Institute (WRI), The World
Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Pg.
147-168

Tarzwell, C. 1963. Sanitational limnology.. In D. G. Frey (Editor), Limnology in North

America. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. xvii. Pages 653-666

Thomas, H. K. 1996. The Biodiversity Crisis and Conservation. Zainal A. A. H & Zubaid A.
Conservation and Faunal Biodiversity in Malaysia, Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.Pg 11-23

Warren, C. E. 1971. Biology and Water Pollution Control..W. B. Saunders Company, West
Washington Square, Philadelphia, 23:387-395
Wilson, E.O. 1992. The Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation. Kathleen, C. Global
Biodiversity Strategy. World Resources Institute (WRI), The World Conservation
Union (IUCN), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).Pg 19-36

World Tourism Organization (WTO) & United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
1992. Guidelines: Development of National Parks and Projected Areas for Tourism

World Wide Fund March 1998 WWF series of fact sheets Ecosystems for Conservation.
WWF Malaysia, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.