IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION
Irrigation is the controlled application of water to croplands.
pH of irrigation water should be between 6-8.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Irrigation
Advantages and disadvantages of irrigation are listed below.
Advantages of Irrigation
 Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops which give good returns to the
cultivators. Examples of cash crops are; sugarcane, potato, tobacco etc.
 It improves the groundwater storage as water lost due to seepage adds to
groundwater storage.
 It improves the yields of crops which mean more income for the farmer
people prosperous.
 We use it to help the growth of crops during the period of inadequate rainfall.
 Generation of hydro-electric power.
Disadvantages of Irrigation
 Water logging.
 Salinity and alkalinity of land.
 Ill aeration of soil.
 Pollution of underground water.
 Results in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of diseases like
malaria.
Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

TYPES OF IRRIGATION
Other than this, the modern methods of irrigation are Sprinkler irrigation and Drip
irrigation.
In India 75% is Surface irrigation.
Flow Irrigation canbe again classified as below:
Direct irrigation or River canal system:

In direct irrigation system water is directly diverted from the river into canal by
construction of diversion weir or barrage across the river without attempting to store
water. This method is practiced where the river has adequate perennial supply to
feed the canal system at the times of crops periods and flat topography (Deltaic
topography).
Eg. Ganga Canal (Constructed in 1856)

Indirect irrigation:
It is also termed as storage irrigation. Here water is stored in reserved during
monsoon period by construction of a dam across the river for supply into the off
taking canals. Evidently indirect irrigation is adopted where the river is non perennial
or flow in the river is inadequate during lean period and undulated topography(Non
deltaic). Storage irrigation has greater irrigation potential the direct irrigation but is
costly due to the cost of construction of dam.
Eg. Ramganga dam in UP
Tank irrigation is also a storage irrigation method, where small bunds are
constructed to store water. It is commonly seen in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
some parts of Tamil Nadu.

Combined system
In multipurpose river valley projects.

Classification of Irrigation projects
Classification of irrigation work or projects •
The irrigation projects can be classified as three based on Culturable Commandable

Area.
• Major – more than 50 million Rupees : It covers cultural command area of more
than 10,000 hectares
• Medium – 2.5 million to 50 million Rupees : It covers cultural command area of

2000 – 10,000 hectares.
• Minor – less than 2.5 million Rupees: It covers cultural command area of 2,000
hectares. The minor irrigation work consists of irrigation tanks, canals and diversion
work for the welfare of small of farmers.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION

Surface Irrigation Methods
1. Free flooding
From the main or field ditch, laterals are taken across the fields. The laterals run
along the contours. The water flows out through the openings in laterals to flood the
field. On the other side of the field a drain ditch is provided to take away excess
water.
Eg. Rice and wheat
2. Basin flooding
The basin flooding method is check flooding adapted to orchards (eg. Orange).
Basins are constructed around one or more trees depending on the topography, and
the flow is turned into the basin to stand until it infiltrates.

3. Border Strip method
In this method a field is divided into number of strips. The width of strip varies from
10 to 15 metres and length varies from 90 m to 400 m. Strips are separated by low
embankments or levees. The arrangement is as shown in Fig.
The water is diverted from the field channel into the strips. The water flows slowly
towards lower end, wetting the soil as it advances.
Eg. Rice and wheat
4. Check Basin method

Check flooding is accomplished by turning water into relatively level plots, or checks,
surrounded by levees.
If the land is initially level, the plots may be rectangular with an area of 400 to 500
sq.m but with some initial slope the checks will usually follow the contours.
Eg. Rice and wheat

5. Furrow irrigation
In this method of surface irrigation, water is applied to the field by furrow. This is the
method where crop is not coming in direct contact with water.
The area wetted varies from 1/2 to 1/5 of total area over which crops are grown. Thus
the losses due to evaporation, deep percolation, etc., are reduced.
When furrows are 8 to 12 cm deep they are called corrugations or shallow furrows.
Depth of deep furrows may vary from 20 to 30 cm. Overall width shall be 25 cm and
water depth 10 cm.
Eg. Maze, Groundnut

6. Zig-zag Method:
In this method, the agricultural area is sub-divided into small plots by low bunds in a
zig-zag manner. The water is supplied to the plots from the field channel through the
openings. The water flows in a zig-zag way to cover the entire area. When the
desired depth is attained, the openings are closed.
Contour Farming:
Contour farming is practiced in hilly areas with slopes and with falling contour. The
land is divided into series of horizontal strips called terraces. Small bunds are
constructed at the end of each terrace to hold water up to equal height.

Drip Irrigation (Sub surface Irrigation)
Drip irrigation is also known as trickle irrigation. In this method water is applied in
the form of drops directly near the base of the plant. It is one of the latest developed
methods of irrigation which is more popular in the regions facing scarcity of water.
Water application efficiency is the highest.
This system involves laying of system of heads, mains, sub- mains, laterals, and drop
nozzles. Water oozes out of these small drip nozzles uniformly and at very small rate,
directly into the plant roots area.

Evaporation losses are less. Can be used for almost all crops except rice and wheat.
This is used especially where there is shortage of water and salt problem. The drip
method of irrigation, also called trickle irrigation.
Fertigation: Fertigation is a method of fertilizer application in which fertilizer is

incorporated within the irrigation water by the drip system.
Mulching is a practice of covering the topsoil surface with organic materials like
straw, grass, stones inorganic materials like plastics, etc. Mulching is a process of
reducing the evaporation, to keep down weeds.
Sprinkler irrigation:
Sprinkler method consists of applying the water in the form of a spray through a
network of pipes and pumps. It is a kind of an artificial rain and therefore, gives very
good results. Water application efficiency is high.
Applications
 Water scarce area

 Steep topography
 High water table areas
 For all vegetables, tea, coffee etc
Disadvantages
 Not good for windy and hot regions

 Leaf burns can happen during Fertigation
SOIL AND CROPS
Soil moisture is the amount of moisture content present in the soil.
Classification of soil
1. Based on size

2. Based on clay fraction
 Light : 2-10% water scarce crops
 Normal : 10-20% almost all crops
 Heavy > 40% heavy water requirement
Quality of soil
There are mainly three kinds of problematic soils in view of irrigation and farming.
1. Saline Soil
2. Sodic soil
3. Acidic soil
Salinity
Salinity problems are caused from the accumulation of soluble salts in the root zone.
These excess salts reduce plant growth and vigor by altering water uptake and
causing ion-specific toxicities or imbalances. One reason is that salt causes a
reduction in the rate and amount of water that the plant roots can take up from the
soil (osmotic action).
Salinity in soil is expressed in terms of TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) or Electrical

conductivity.

Saline soils can produce Efflorescence.
Reclamation:
The term reclamation of saline soils refers to the methods used to remove soluble
salts from the root zone. Leaching is the most often used method and is
accomplished by ponding fresh water on the soil surface and allowing it to infiltrate.
Leaching is effective when the salty drainage water is discharged through subsurface
drains that carry the leached salts out of the area under reclamation. Later salt
resistant crops like fodder or barseem are planted.

Sodic soils
Where the concentration of sodium salts (Na2CO3) is high relative to other types of
salt, a sodic soil may develop. Sodium replaces Calcium and Magnesium ions in soil
and forms Sodium Silicate. Sodic soils are characterized by a poor soil structure: they
have a low infiltration rate, they are poorly aerated and difficult to cultivate. Thus,
sodic soils adversely affect the plants' growth.
Sodium concentration is denoted by SAR (Sodium Absorption Ratio).
Reclamation
Reclamation of sodic soils can be done by addition of Sulphur and Gypsum along
with leaching.
Acidic Soils
Reclamation – Add lime.

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROP
Saturation Capacity of soil
Water available in the soil can be divided into 3:
1. Gravitational water / Superfluous water

2. Capillary water
3. Hygroscopic water
Corresponding border moisture contents are termed as follows:
1. Saturation capacity
2. Field Capacity
3. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)
The relation between these are shownin the below figures:

Field capacity
This is the water retained by an initially saturated soil against the force of gravity.
Hence, as the gravitational water gets drained off from the soil, it is said to reach the
field capacity. At field capacity, the macro-pores of the soil are drained off, but water
is retained in the micro pores.
Capillary water is the only available water for water growth and is held due to force
of surface tension.
75% of available moisture is called Readily available moisture.
Permanent wilting point

Hygroscopic water is retained due to adhesion force.
Plant roots are able to extract water from a soil matrix, which is saturated up to field
capacity. However, as the water extraction proceeds, the moisture content diminishes
and the negative (gauge) pressure increases. At one point, the plant cannot extract
any further water and thus wilts.
Two stages of wilting points are recognized and they are:
Temporary wilting point: This denotes the soil water content at which the plant wilts
at day time, but recovers during right or when water is added to the soil.

Ultimate wilting point: At such a soil water content, the plant wilts and fails to regain
life even after addition of water to soil.
Storage Capacity of soil or Equivalent depth of water

The soil water constants were mentioned as being expressed as weight percentages
of the moisture content(that is the amount of water )held by the water at a certain
state with respect to the dried soil sample. The same may also be expressed as
volume of water stored in the root zone of a field per unit area .
Assume the following
Root zone depth = D (m)
d is equivalent depth of water that is actually distributed within the soil pores.
Specific weight of soil = γs (kg/m3)
Specific weight of water = γw (kg/m3)
Area of plot considered = 1m x 1m
Hence,
The weight of soil per unit area would be: γs x 1 x D (kg)
The weight of water held by the soil per unit area would be equal to: γ w x 1 x d
Hence the following constants may be expressed as:
Field capacity = weight of the water held by the soil per unit area/ weight of the soil
per unit area. (γw*1*D)/(γs*1*d). Thus, depth of water (DFC) held by soil at field
capacity(FC) (γs/γw )*D*FC
Similarly depth of water(dwp) held by soil at permanent wilting point(PWP)=

(γs/γw)*D*PWP
Hence depth of water (dAW) in root zone = (γs/γw)*D*[FC-PWP]

Consumptive use
It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area. It is the
amount of water required by a crop for its vegetated growth to evapotranspiration
and building of plant tissues plus evaporation from soils and intercepted
precipitation.
Frequency of Irrigation
Consider you have 10000 rs as salary and your daily requirement is 10 rs. If it is so,
what will be the frequency with which you should gain 10000 rs? It will be 10000/10.
Ryt?
Similarly frequency of irrigation is the interval at which irrigation water should be

supplied.
F = d/Cu
Where d is the equivalent depth of water and Cu is the consumptive use.
Soil Moisture dEficiency

Soil moisture deficiency or field moisture deficiency is the water required to bring the
soil moisture content of the soil to its field capacity.
Moisture equivalent
This is an artificial moisture property of the soil and is used as an index of the natural
properties. It is the percentage of moisture retained in a small sample of wet soil 1
cm deep when subjected to a centrifugal force 1000 times as great as gravity, usually
for a period of 30 minutes.
Arid region and Semi Arid region

The area where irrigation is a must for agriculture is called the arid region, while the
area in which inferior crops can be grown without irrigation is called a semi-arid
region.

Ideal soil for irrigation
Loamy soil (Sand, silt and clay in equal proportions).
Irrigation efficiencies
The ratio of the amount of water available (output) to the amount of water supplied
(input) is known as Irrigation Efficiency. It is expressed in percentage.
Types of Irrigation Efficiency
The following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies:
Water Conveyance Efficiency (ηc):

It is the ratio of the amount of water applied, to the land to the amount of water
supplied from the reservoir. It is obtained by the expression,
ηc = Wl / Wr × 100 Where, ηc = Water conveyance efficiency Wl = Amount of water

applied to land Wr = Amount of water supplied from reservoir
(b) Water
Application Efficiency (ηa):
It is the ratio of the water stored in root zone of plants to the water applied to the
land. It is obtained by the expression,
ηa = Wz / Wl × 100 Where, ηa = Water application efficiency W z = Amount of water

stored in root zone Wl = Amount of water applied to land

Water application efficiency below 100 % is due to seepage losses from field
distribution channel, runoff and deep percolation below crop root zone.
Water Use Efficiency (ηu):

It is the ratio of the amount of water used to the amount of water applied. It is
obtained by the expression,
ηu = Wu / Wl × 100 Where, ηu = Water use efficiency Wu = Amount of water used W l =

Amount of water applied to land
Water Storage Efficiency (ηs )

The main goal in most irrigation applications is to maximize water storage in the soil
root zone to satisfy crop ET while minimizing deep percolation and surface runoff.
It is defined as the ratio of volume of water stored in the root zone to the volume of
water required to fill the root zone to field capacity.
Water distribution efficiency (ηd)

Distribution Uniformity is the measure of how uniformly the water is applied.
Crop Irrigation Requirements
Consumptive Irrigation Requirement(CIR)

It is the amount of irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration
needs of the cropduring its full growth.
It is, therefore nothing but the consumptive use itself, but exclusive of effective
precipitation, stored soil moisture or groundwater
C.I.R = Cu-R
Net Irrigation Requirement(NIR)

It is the amount of irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration
need of the crop as well as other needs such as leaching.
N.I.R = Cu-R + Water lost in deep percolation for the purpose of leaching etc.

Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR)
It is the amount of water required to meet ‘net irrigation requirements’ plus the
water lost in percolation in the field water courses, field channels and in field
applications of water.
FIR = NIR/ ηa
Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)

GIR is the sum of water required to satisfy the field irrigation requirement and the
water lost as conveyance losses in distributaries up to the field.
GIR = GIR/ ηc
CROP PERIOD, DUTY AND DELTA
Crop Period or Base Period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its
harvesting is called the crop-period. The time between the first watering of a crop at
the time of its sowing to its last watering before harvesting is called the Base period.
Delta (Δ )
It is total depth of water provided to a crop during the entire period.
Crop Delta (cm)

Rice 120
Wheat 37.5-40
Sugarcane 90
Duty (D)
It is the total area irrigated by a unit discharge running continuously during the base
period and its unit is area/ cumec. Thus, duty gives the relationship between the
volume of water and area of the crop which it matures, i.e. D = A/Q

Variation of Duty
The duty varies with the place of its measurement, because of the continuous
conveyance losses as the water flows. The duty of water goes on increasing as the
water flows.
For example, in the following Figure, let C be the head of the field, B be the head of
the water course or the field channel, and A be the head of the distributary. Let the
area of the field be 1700 hectares, and let 1 cumec water be required to be delivered
at point C, for the growth of the crop.
Thus, the duty at the head of the field will be 1700 hectares/cumec. Assuming the
conveyance losses between B and C to be 0.1 cumec (say), the discharge required at
B will be 1.1 cumecs, and hence duty of water measured at B will be 1700/1.1 = 1545
hectare/cumec only. Again, if the losses between A to B are taken to be equal to 0.2
cumec, the discharge required at the head of the distributary will be 1.1 + 0.2 = 1.3
cumecs, i e. if 1.3 cumecs are discharged at A, then 1 cumec will 1 reach at the head
of the field. Hence the duty of water at A will be 1700/1.3 = 1308 hectares/cumec
only. Thus, duty at the head of the water course (at B) is lesser than the duty at the
head of the field, and is greater than the duty at the head of the distributary.
The duty at the head of the water course is called the outlet duty. Thus
measurements of duty are taken at four points noted below:
(i) At the head of main canal - known as Gross Quantity.

(ii) At the head of a branch canal - known as Lateral Quantity.
(iii) At the outlet of a canal - known as Outlet Factor.
(iv) At the head of land, to be irrigated - known as Net Quantity
High Duty and Low Duty

If a small amount of water matures relativey larger area under acrop, it is called high
duty. Eg. If the land is properly ploughed upto the required depth and made quite
loose before irrigating. This will reduce the number of waterings and hence result in
a higher duty of water.
If a certain amount of water matures relativey smaller area under acrop, it is called
low duty. In the initial stages the land to be cultivated may not be properly levelled
and hence more than the required quantity of water may be applied, which will result
in a lower duty of water.
Relation between Duty (D), Base (B) and Delta ( Δ)
1. Let, D= Duty of crop in ha / cumec
B= Base period of crop in days

Δ = Delta is depth of water in m.
D= (8.64 B) /Δ
2. Let, D= Duty of crop in acres/cusec
B= Base period of crop in days
Δ = Delta is depth of water in feet.
D = 1.985 B/ Δ
Other important terms
1. Gross Commanded Area (GCA): The total area lying between drainage boundaries
which can be commanded or irrigated by a canal system or water course is known
as gross commanded area.
2. Culturable Commanded Area (CCA): Gross commanded area contains some
unfertile barren land, local ponds, villages, graveyards etc which are actually
unculturable areas. The gross commanded area minus these unculturable area on
which crops can be grown satisfactorily is known as Culturable Commanded Area.
CCA = GCA – Unculturable Area
3. Culturable Cultivated Area: The area on which crop is grown at a particular time
or crop season.
4. Culturable Uncultivated Area: The area on which no crop is grown at a particular
time or crop season due to some reasons like waterlogging, lack of resource etc
5. Intensity of Irrigation (I.I): Percentage of CCA that is cultivated in a particular
season. It can be greater than 100% for a year.
6. Kor depth and kor period: The distribution of water during the base period is not
uniform, since crops require maximum water during first watering after the crops
have grown a few centimeters. During the subsequent watering the quantity of
water needed by crops gradually decreases and is least when crop gains maturity.
The first watering is known as kor watering, and the depth applied is known as

kor depth. The portion of the base period in which kor watering is needed is
known as kor period. While designing the capacity of a channel, kor water must
be taken into account since discharge in the canal has to be maximum during this
time.
Crop Kor Period (weeks) Kor depth (cm)

Rice 2 19
Wheat 4 13.5
Sugarcane 16.5
7. Crop ratio: The ratio of area irrigated in Rabi season to that irrigated in Kharif
season is known as crop ratio. The crop ratio is so selected that the discharge in
the canal during both the seasons may be uniform.
8. Paleo: It is defined as the first watering before sowing the Crop.
9. Cumec day: The volume of water discharged in a period of 24 hours at a rate of l
m3/s is called one cumec-day. That is, one cumec-day is equal to l x 24 x 60 x 60
= 86400 cubic metre
10. Flow duty and Quantity duty:
In direct irrigation, duty is always expressed in hectares/cumec. It is then called as

flowduty or duty.
In storage irrigation, duty may, sometimes be expressed in hectares/millions cubic

metre of water available in the reservoir. It eventually means that every million
cubic metre of water available in the reservoir will mature so many hectares of a
particular crop. Hence, the irrigation capacity of the reservoir is directly known.
When duty is reduced in this manner, it is called Quantity duty or Storage duty.
11. TIME FACTOR:- It is the ratio of number of days the canal has actually run to the
number of days of irrigation Period.
12. CAPACITY FACTOR:- It is the ratio of mean supply to the Full supply of a canal.

CROPS AND CROP SEASONS
Crops based on season

Kharif and Rabi crops are two main crop seasons in India
Season Time Crops

Kharif / Monsoon April to September Reice
crops Or June to October Maize
Rabi / Winter crops October to March Wheat
Barley
Grams
Hot weather crop (Feb – June) eg. Tomato, water melon
Summer crops: Kharif + hot weather
Food Crops and Cash crops

Food crops are grown to feed the farmers own family . examples of food crops are :
wheat , potatoes etc...
Cash crops: Crops that are grown to earn profit by selling them in marketplace or
with individuals/agro-based industries etc.. For example cotton etc.
Perennial crops and 8 month crops

Perennial crops are crops which are alive year-round and are harvested multiple
times before dying. Eg. Sugarcane
Eight month crop eg. Cotton
Dry crop and wet crop

Dry crops : Crops that can sustain without irrigation
Wet crops: Crops that cannot sustain without irrigation

Cropping patterns
Mixed cropping, also known as inter-cropping or co-cultivation, is a type of
agriculture that involves planting two or more of plants simultaneously in the same
field.
Double cropping is defined as planting two different crops in the same field during a
single year in different seasons.
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar or different types of

crops in the same area in sequenced seasons. It is done so that the soil of farms is
not used for only one set of nutrients. It helps in reducing soil erosion and increases
soil fertility and crop yield.
When a crop requires water for its crop season and also for some time in the
beginning of the next crop season, allowance has to be made for this overlap. This
allowance is known as overlap allowance, Sugarcane is an example of this kind of
crop.
FLOW IRRIGATION STRUCTURES -

STORAGE
RESERVOIRS
When a barrier is constructed across a river in the form of dam, water gets stored on
upstream side of the barrier, forming a pool of water called dam reservoir or
impounding reservoirs or a storage reservoirs or a river reservoirs.

Types of Reservoirs
Storage or Conservation Reservoir

It can retain excess supplies during period of peak flows and can release them
gradually during low flows when required. It supplies water for useful purposes such
as irrigation, power generation, domestic, industrial and municipal supply.
Detention Reservoir
In this type the water is stored for relative short period of time, until the stream can
safely carry the ordinary flow plus the released water. Such reservoir usually have
outlets without control gates.
Impounding or Storage Reservoir

A reservoir with gate-controlled outlets wherein surface water retained for a
considerable time and released for use at the time when normal flow of the stream is
insufficient to satisfy the requirements. It is also called as the ‘Retarding Reservoir’
Multipurpose Reservoir
It is constructed and equipped to provide storage and release of water for two or
more purposes such as irrigation, flood control, power generation, etc. This reservoir
would be gradually emptied just before the arrival of monsoon rains hoping that it
would be filled to the brim at the end of the flood.
Distribution Reservoir
It is connected with distribution system (water supply project), used primarily to care
for the fluctuations in demand which occur over short period and as local storage in
case of emergency such as break in a main supply line.
Zones of Reservoir

Full Reservoir Level (FRL): It is the highest reservoir level that can be maintained
without spillway discharge or without passing water downstream through sluice
ways.
Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL): It is the level below which the reservoir will
not be drawn down so as to maintain a minimum head required in power projects.
Dead Storage Level (DSL): Below the level, there are no outlets to drain the water in
the reservoir by gravity.
Maximum Water Level (MWL): This id the water level that is ever likely to be
attained during the passage of the design flood. It depends upon the specified initial
reservoir level and the spillway gate operation rule. This level is also called
sometimes as the Highest Reservoir Level or the Highest Flood Level.
Live storage: This is the storage available for the intended purpose between Full
Supply Level and the Invert Level of the lowest discharge outlet.
Dead storage: It is the total storage below the invert level of the lowest discharge
outlet from the reservoir. It may be available to contain sedimentation, provided the
sediment does not adversely affect the lowest discharge.

Outlet Surcharge or Flood storage: This is required as a reserve between Full

Reservoir Level and the Maximum Water level to contain the peaks of floods that
might occur when there is insufficient storage capacity for them below Full Reservoir
Level.
Freeboard: It is the margin kept for safety between the level at which the dam would
be overtopped and the maximum still water level.
Bank storage: is developed in the voids of soil cover in the reservoir area and
becomes available as seepage of water when water levels drops down.
Active Storage
Water spread area

This is the spread of reservoir on the upstream side of the dam at HFL. All the land
within HFL contour is acquired & people are not allowed to stay within it. It is also
called as Submergence area.
Galleries

Longitudinal openings for inspection and maintenance or space for guniting and
collecting leakage water.
Problems associated with reservoirs
Silting
Reservoir sedimentation is filling of the reservoir behind a dam with sediment carried
into the reservoir by streams. Problems created can be reduction in capacity of dams,
stability issues etc.
Sediments can be removed by dredging.
Preacutions to avoid silting:
 Construction of check dams

 Construction of ditches
 Afforestation
Reservoir losses
1. Evaporation loss
Solutions:
a. Tress or wind breakers
b. Chemicals or water evapo retardants like Steryl alchohol, cetyl alchohol.
Decanol (cannot be used in high humidic or windy regions)
2. Absorption loss
3. Percolation loss

DAMS
Different parts & terminologies of Dams:
 Crest: The top of the Dam. These may in some cases be used for providing a
roadway or walkway over the dam.
 Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway
on the crest.
 Heel: Portion of Dam in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
 Toe: Portion of dam in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
 Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of dam for
the passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
 Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left
& right end of dam are fixed to.
 Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at
transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage
water. These are generally provided for having space for drilling grout holes

and drainage holes. These may also be used to accommodate the
instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
 Sluice way: Opening in the dam near the base, provided to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir.
 Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and
the top of the dam.
 Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of
water to bypass the dam construction site. The dam is built while the river
flows through the diversion tunnel.
Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification of
dams are mentioned below:
Based on the functions of dam, it can be classified as

follows:
Storage dams:
They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a large
flow in the river.
Diversion dams:
A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the river into an
off-taking canal (or a conduit)..
Detention dams:
Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards the flow
in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water.
Debris dams:

A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift wood
flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively
clear.
Coffer dams:
It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water so that

the construction can be done in dry. A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam
constructed for facilitating construction.

Based on structure and design, dams can be classified
as follows:
Gravity Dams:
A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone masonry.
They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the
weight of the dam is actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing

against it. This is why it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam
down to the ground, stopping water from toppling it over.
Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide valleys or narrow gorge ways.
Since gravity dams must rely on their own weight to hold back water, it is necessary
that they are built on a solid foundation of bedrock.
A cross-section (or slice) through a gravity dam will usually look roughly triangular.
Examples of Gravity dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), ( Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (India)
and Itaipu Dam ( Between Brazil and Paraguay).
Causes of failure of a Gravity Dam:
A gravity dam may fail in following modes:
 Overturning of dam about the toe

 Sliding – shear failure of gravity dam
 Compression – by crushing of the gravity dam
 Tension – by development of tensile forces which results in the crack in gravity
dam.
Overturning Failure of Gravity Dam:
The horizontal forces such as water pressure, wave pressure, silt pressure which act
against the gravity dam causes overturning moments. To resist this, resisting
moments are generated by the self-weight of the dam.
If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam at any of its sections, passes through
toe, the dam will rotate and overturn about the toe. This is called overturning failure
of gravity dam. But, practically, such a condition does not arise and dam will fail
much earlier by compression.

The ratio of the resisting moments about toe to the overturning moments about toe
is called the factor of safety against overturning. Its value generally varies between 2
and 3.
Factor of safety against overturning is given by
FOS = sum of overturning moments/ sum of resisting moments
Fig: sum of external horizontal forces greater than vertical self-weight of dam (overacting, sliding occurs)
Sliding Failure of Gravity Dam:
When the net horizontal forces acting on gravity dam at the base exceeds the
frictional resistance (produced between body of the dam and foundation), The failure
occurs is known as sliding failure of gravity dam.
Gravity Dam Failure due to Tension Cracks
Masonry and concrete are weak in tension. Thus masonry and concrete gravity dams
are usually designed in such a way that no tension is developed anywhere. If these
dams are subjected to tensile stresses, materials may develop tension cracks.
Hence , maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of the
centre is equal to B/6, which leads to the famous statement: the resultant must lie
within the middle third portion of the dam.
Gravity Dam Failure due to Compression

A gravity dam may fail by the failure of its material, i.e. the compressive stresses
produced may exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get crushed.
Earth Dams or Embankment dams:

An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive layers of
earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more
permeable substances on the upstream and downstream sides. Earth dam resists the
forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the weight
of the earth dam also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth
dam is entirely different from that of a gravity dam.
The foundation requirements are less stringent than those of gravity dams, and
hence they can be built at the sites where the foundations are less strong.
Examples of earthfill dam: Rongunsky dam (Russia) and New Cornelia Dam (USA).
Theoretical profile will be trapezoidal shape.

Components of Earthern Dams
The various components of an earthen dam are shown in Fig..
1. Upstream Blanket: It is a layer of impervious material laid on the upstream side

of an earthen dam where the substratum is pervious, to reduce seepage and
increase the path of flow.
2. Drainage Filter: It is a blanket of pervious material constructed at the foundation
to the downstream side of an earthen dam, to permit the discharge of seepage
and minimize the possibility of piping failure.
3. Cutoff Wall or Cutoff: It is a wall, collar or other structure intended to reduce
percolation of water through porous strata.
4. Riprap or stone pitching: Broken stones or rock pieces are placed on the slopes
of embankment particularly the upstream side for protecting the slope against
the action of water, mainly wave action and erosion.
5. Shell or Core: The core acts as an impermeable barrier and prevents the free
seepage of water through the body of the dam. It may be of compacted puddled
clay (mix of sand, clay and sodium carbonate), masonry, or concrete built inside
the dam.

6. Turfing or Soding: It is planting of special type of grass called harali on the
downstream face of the dam
7. Pusta or cover for saturation gradient: It is an additional soil fill on downstream
side for safety.
Types of Earthern dam

Depending on the method of construction, earthen dams are also classified as
• Rolled fill Type
• Hydraulic fill Type
Rolled fill type
In this type, the earth moving machinery is used for excavating the soils, placing in
layers of 20 cm thickness and compacting at optimum moisture content. This is very
common method of constructing earth dams
Hydraulic fill type
In this type of dam construction, excavation, transporting and placing of soils is done
by hydraulic method. No compaction by roller or sheep foot rollers is required as the
soil gets consolidated during the hydraulic operations
Based on the mechanical characteristics of earth materials used in making the section
of dam:
Homogeneous Earthen Dams: It is composed of one kind of material (excluding

slope protection). The material used must be sufficiently impervious to provide an
adequate water barrier, and the slopes must be moderately flat for stability and ease
of maintenance .

Zoned Earthen Dams: It contains a central impervious core, surrounded by zones of
more pervious material, called shells. These pervious zones or shells support and
protect the impervious core (Fig. 11.3).
Diaphragm Earthen Dam: This type of dam (Fig. 11.4) is a modified form of

homogenous dam which is constructed with pervious materials, with a thin
impervious diaphragm in the central part to prevent seepage of water. The thin
impervious diaphragm may be made of impervious clayey soil, cement concrete or
masonry or any impervious material. The diaphragm can be constructed in the
central portion or on the upstream face of the dam. The main difference in zoned
and diaphragm type of dams depends on the thickness of the impervious core or
diaphragm. The thickness of the diaphragm is not more than 10 m.

Causes of Failure of Earthfill Dams
Different causes of failure of earthfill dams are as follows:
 Hydraulic Failures (40%)

 Seepage Failures (35%)
 Structural Failures (25%)
1. Hydraulic Failures of Earthfill Dams
4 out every 10 earthen dams have failed due to hydraulic failures. The
Hydraulic failure of an earthen dam arise due to any of the following causes.
 Erosion of Upstream face

 Erosion of Downstream toe
 Due to Over-topping
 Due to formation of Gullies
Erosion of Upstream face
The upstream face of dam may subjected water waves which are formed due to
winds and these waves notch-out the soil from upstream face which causes erosion.
Sometimes this may also cause slip of upstream slope. To overcome this, stone
pitching or rip rap should be provided on upstream face of dam.

Erosion of Downstream toe
The tail water present on the downstream side or cross-currents may come from
spillway buckets may affects the downstream toe portion and erosion occurs.
To prevent this problem, stone pitching or rip rap should be provided on the
downstream face of dam up to a depth of normal tail water level.
Due to Over-topping
Hydraulic failure also occurs when the water over-tops the dam crest. This may be
due to insufficient capacity of spillway or design without proper estimation of flood
level or problem in lifting of spillway gates during flood times. To prevent over-
topping of dam, adequate freeboard should be provided.

Erosion of Downstream face Due to Gullies
When the downstream face of dam is subjected to heavy rains, the rainwater or
runoff will flow with high downward velocities which causes erosion of soil on the
downstream face and this may also lea to formation of gullies.
2. Seepage Failure of Earthfill Dams
1 out of every 3 failed dam cases have seepage failures.
 Piping through Foundation

 Piping through Dam body
 Sloughing of Downstream toe

Piping through Foundation
When the foundation of earthen dam consists gravel or coarse sand layers or fissures
etc., the water from upstream will seep through it. The seepage at higher gradient
erode the soil and creates hollow spaces inside the foundation which is called as
piping through foundation.
This problem will cause the dam to sink downwards resulting failure of dam. Hard
and impermeable strata should be selected as foundation for dam to avoid piping
through foundation.
Piping through Dam body
Piping through dam body will occur due to seepage of water through dam body.
Sloughing of Downstream toe

IF the downstream toe of dam gets saturated by piping or any seepage action, it will
get eroded and forms small slide or small slump. The slump will create steeper face
which again gets eroded due to seepage and form slump again. This progressive
removal of saturated soil is called sloughing. This will finally lead to removal of soil
from whole downstream face and makes the dam body thin resulting failure of dam.
3. Structural Failure of Earthfill Dams
Another cause for failure of earthen dams is structural failures. About 1/4 th of earthen
dams have failed due to structural failures.
 Sliding of Foundation
 Sliding of Embankment
Sliding of Foundation
Sliding of foundation is nothing of sliding of whole dam body. This occurs when the
foundation contain soft clay, fine silt etc. This type of foundation material will cause
sliding of entire dam which will cause cracks on the top of embankment and forms
mud waves near the upstream heel.

Sliding of Embankment
Sliding of embankment occurs when the slope of embankment is too steep. When
the reservoir water level is suddenly draw down, then there is a chance of sliding of
upstream slope. Similarly when the reservoir is at full level, then there is a chance of
downstream slope failure.
The above failures are mainly due to excessive pore water pressure which reduces
the soil shear strength. Among the both cases, downstream slope slide is very
dangerous. Most of embankments are failed during consolidation process.
Rockfill Dams
A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An impervious
membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage
through the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic

concrete. In early rockfill dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now
they are obsolete.
All characteristics are similar to earth dams.
Timber dams
1. A frame dam
2. Rockfill rib
3. Beaver dams
Steel dams
A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin plate on its upstream face.
Steel dams are generally of two types:

(i) Direct-strutted steel dams, and (ii) Cantilever type steel dams. In a direct strutted
steel dam, the water pressure is transmitted directly to the foundation through
inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent supporting the upper
part of the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss.
Arch Dams:
An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side. The
working nature of arch dam is like partly cantilever retaining wall and partly arch
action. The whole curved wall stands with its large base and transfers the loads to the
two ends of the dam using horizontal thrust. An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow
canyons with strong flanks which are capable of resisting the thrust produced by the
arch action.

The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam but the
section is comparatively thinner.
The outer side curve of an arch is called as extrodos while the inner curve is called as
introdos. Extrados always faces the upstream side and intrados faces the downstream
side.
The arch dam may have a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane.
There are mainly three types of single curvature arch dams :
• Constant radius arch dams :
Radius of curvature throughout the structure is constant and upstream face is

vertical. These are the most common types of arch dams and they are generally
preferred for U-Shaped valleys.
In this type of arch dam, all the centers of circular curves of intrados lie on same line
and on the same line the centers of extrados also lie. So, this dam can also be called
as constant center arch dam.
The central angles of constant radius arch dam are not constant. The angle made by
every arch ring at its center vary at different elevations. The central angle is maximum
at the top of the dam and minimum at the bottom of the dam. So it also known as
Variable angle arch dam.

• Variable radius dams
Variable radius arch dam, as in the name itself the radii of both extrados (outer side)
and intrados inner side) curves are varied with respect to elevation. The radius is
maximum at the top of the dam and minimum at its base. In this case also central
angles of arch rings are varied at different heights hence it is also called as variable
center arch dam.

The center line or crown line on downstream face is looks like vertical line and both
sides of this line look like battered from the top view. At abutments also, it looks like
vertical line similarly upstream side also looks vertical.
In general, variable radius arch dam is economical than constant radius arch dam.
This type of arch dam is more suitable for V-shaped valleys.

Curvatures are different on upstream and downstream sides. These types of dames
are best suited for v shaped valleys.
Constant Angle Arch Dam
Constant angle arch dam, is a dam in which central angle of every arch ring is
constant throughout the height of an arch dam. It is obtained by the modification of
variable radius arch dam. Safe and best central angle 133 0 34’ is used as central angle
in this case.

Double Curvature Arch Dam
Double curvature arch dam, in which curvature is provided not only in horizontal
direction but also in vertical direction. It means the cross section of double curvature
also looks like curve.
The whole dam is looks like shell type so, it is also called as shell arch dam.
Because of double curvature, the thickness of arch wall is reduced. But this non-
vertical type dams are difficult to construct compared to other three types. They also
require stronger foundations. Shell arch dams are more suitable for very narrow
valleys.

Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are more economical and are used in
practice.
Examples of Arch dam: Hoover Dam (USA) and Idukki Dam (India)
Buttress Dams:
Buttress dams are of three types : (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple-arch type, and (iii)
Massive-head type. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported
by buttresses. Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water
pressure from the deck slab to the foundation. Buttresses are compression members.

In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches
supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made of concrete.

In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the
upstream edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the
distance between the buttresses.
The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams. But they are not
necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form work,
reinforcement and more skilled labor. The foundation requirements of a buttress
dam are usually less stringent than those in a gravity dam.
Examples of Buttress Dam: Bartlett dam (USA) and The Daniel-Johnson Dam (Canada)
SPILLWAYS
Spillways are structures constructed to provide safe release of flood waters from a
dam to a downstream area.

Types of Spillways - Classification of Spillways
There are different types of spillways that can be provided depending on the
suitability of site and other parameters. Generally a spillway consists of a control
structure, a conveyance channel and a terminal structure, but the former two may be
combined in the same for certain types. The more common types are briefly
described below:
1. Drop Spillway
2. Ogee Spillway
3. Siphon Spillway
4. Chute or Trough Spillway
5. Shaft Spillway
6. Side Channel Spillway
Drop Spillway/Free fall

In a drop spillway, the over flowing water falls freely and almost vertically on the
downstream side of the hydraulic structure. The crest of the spillway is provided with
nose/lip so that the water jet may not strike the downstream base of the structure.
To protect the structure from the effect of scouring horizontal impervious apron
should be provided on the downstream side. Sometimes a basin is constructed on
the downstream side to form a small artificial pool which is known as water cushion.
This cushion serves the purpose of energy dissipater.

Ogee Spillway
The crest of the spillway is shaped to conform to the lower nappe of a water sheet
flowing over an aerated sharp crested weir.
Shaft (Morning Glory or Glory hole) Spillway

This type of spillway utilizes a crest circular in plan, the flow over which is carried by a
vertical or sloping tunnel on to a horizontal tunnel nearly at the stream bed level and
eventually to the downstream side. The diversion tunnels constructed during the
dam construction can be used as the horizontal conduit in many cases.

Siphon Spillway
As the name indicates, this spillway works on the principle of a siphon. With the rise
in reservoir level water starts flowing over the crest as in an "ogee" spillway. The
flowing water however, entrains air and once all the air in the crest area is removed,
siphon action starts.

Chute (Trough) Spillway
In this type of spillway, the water, after flowing over a short crest or other kind of
control structure, is carried by an open channel (called the "chute" or "trough") to the
downstream side of the river. The dam is generally normal to the conveyance
channel or spiilway axis. River axis will be parallel to spillway axis and discharge will
be normal to river axis. The channel is constructed in excavation with stable side
slopes and invariably lined. The flow through the channel is super-critical. The
spillway can be provided close to the dam or at a suitable saddle away from the dam
where site conditions permit.
Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillways are located just upstream and to the side of the dam. The
water after flowing over a crest enters a side channel which is nearly parallel to the
crest. So discharge will be parallel to river axis.This is then carried by a chute to the
downstream side. Sometimes a tunnel may be used instead of a chute.

Saddle Spillway
This type is mainly used when other types are not favourable. In some basins formed
by a dam, there may be one or more natural depressions or saddles in the rim of the
basin, which can be used as spillway.

Energy dissipation
Energy Dissipation below Overflow Spillways The water flowing over the spillway
acquires a lot of kinetic energy by the time it reaches near the toe of the spillway
(because of conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy). If arrangements are
not made to dissipate this huge kinetic energy of water, and if the velocity of water is
not reduced, large_scale scour can take place on the downstream side near the toe
of the dam and away from it. These arrangements are known as energy dissipation
arrangements or energy dissipators.
In general, the kinetic energy of this super-critical flow can be dissipated in following
ways :

(i) By converting the super -critical flow into· sub-critical flow by hydraulic
jump .
(ii) By directing the-flow of water into air and then making it fall away from
the toe of the structure. The energy is 'dissipated by the aeration of jet and
impa.r:.t of water on the river bed. Though some scour will take place, but
it is too small or too far away from the dam to endanger it. Bucket type
energy dissipaters work on this principle.
(iii) The baffled chute spillway relies upon multiple rows of baffles to aid in
dissemination of energy flowing down a spillway chute

FLOW IRRIGATION STRUCTURES –
CANALS
CLASSIFICATION OF CANALS BASED ON DIFFERENT
FACTORS
Based on the Nature of Supply Source

1. Permanent Canal
A Permanent canal is a type of canal in which water is available throughout the

year. This type of canal is generally directed from a permanent source of
supply water bodies. A Permanent canal can also be called as a perennial

canal.
2. Inundation Canal
Inundation canal is a type of canal in which water is available only during the
flood periods. These type of canals are taken off from rivers to control the
water level in rivers during floods. A canal head regulator is provided to
regulate the flow into the canal.

Based on Functions of Canal
1. Irrigation canal
2. Power canal
3. Feeder canal
4. Carrier canal
5. Navigation canal
1. Irrigation canal
A canal aligned along the boundaries of cultivatable areas in order to supply
water for the purpose of agriculture is said to be an irrigation canal.
Fig 2: Irrigation Canal
2. Power canal
A canal constructed especially for the generation of hydraulic power is termed
as power canal.

Fig 3: Power Canal of Lake Tekapo, Newzeland
3. Feeder canal
As the name says, a feeder canal is constructed to feed two or more other
canals or branch canals.
Fig 4: Sirhind Feeder Canal, India
4. Carrier canal
A carrier canal is multi-function canal which serves the purposes of both
irrigation canal and feeder canal. It means the carrier canal feeds the other
canals as well as provides water for direct irrigation.

Fig 5: Carrier Canal
5. Navigation canal
A canal which is constructed especially for navigational purposes is known as

navigation canal. The water level required in a navigation canal is generally a
lot higher to accommodate large ships, vessels, etc.
Fig 6: Panama Navigation Canal, Panama
Based on Financial Output
1. Protective canal
2. Productive canal
1. Protective Canal

Protective canals are relief work projects which are constructed to protect a
particular area from the shortage of water. The main objective of a protective
canal is to fulfill the requirements of cultivators during the period of famine.
Fig 10: Protective Canal
2. Productive Canal
Productive canals are those which will produce enough revenue for its
maintenance and running costs and also to recover the initial investment
made on the construction of the canal. It is said to be good if it recovers 6% of
its initial investment per annum.

Fig 11: Productive Canal, South-North Water Transfer Project, China
Based on Discharge
1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary canal
4. Minor distributary canal
5. Field canal
Fig 12: Canal Classification based on Discharge

1. Main canal

The main canal takes off directly from a river or reservoir. It carries water in
large amounts to feed the branch and distributary canals. Due to conveying of
very high discharge through the main canal it is not recommended to do

direct irrigation from it.
2. Branch Canal
The branch canal takes off from main canals at regular intervals. These canals
supply water to major and minor distributary canals. The discharge of the
branch canal is generally over 5 m3/sec. In the case of branch canals also,
direct irrigation is not recommended unless their water carrying capacity is
very low.
3. Major Distributary Canal
Major distributary canal takes off from the branch canal or in some cases from
the main canal. They supply water to minor distributaries and field channels. A
canal is said to be major distributary when its discharge lies between 0.25 to 5
m3/sec.
4. Minor Distributary Canal
Minor distributary canal takes off from major distributaries and sometimes
directly from branch canals depending upon the discharge of canals. Their
discharge is generally below 0.25 m3/sec. These canals supply water to the
field channels.
5. Field Channels
Field channels also known as watercourses are small channels excavated by
cultivators in the irrigation field. These channels are fed by the distributary
canals and branch canals through canal outlets. Govt regulation ends here.

METHODS OF ALIGNMENT OF CANAL
Depending upon the nature of the country various types of alignments are possible
which are mentioned below:
i. Alignment of contour channels
In the first method the canal is aligned along a falling contour.
Hence, it is named contour channel. The flow of water is generally perpendicular

to the slope of the ground. In this type of alignment cross drainages are not
avoided. To reduce the length and subsequently the cost, the channel is not taken
strictly along any contour. It follows the contour but at the same time it is taken
in such a way that maximum distance is placed between the river and the canal.

Thus, the command of the canal is increased because on the other side of the canal
land is high and flow irrigation is not possible. In this type when the land is very high
on one side it is not necessary to construct the banks on both sides. Generally higher
side is left without a bank. This type of canal is called a single bank canal. Protection
works are not required.
ii. Alignment of ridge or watershed channels
The advantage of second method of aligning the canal is that cross drainage works
are avoided and this is the best method of canal alignment.. In this type there are
banks on both sides of the canal and hence it may be termed as a double bank canal.
Protection works are not required.

iii. Alignment of side slope channels
In the third method canal is aligned at right angles to the contours. Naturally canal
runs parallel to the drains or river and hence cross drainage works are avoided to the
maximum extent. Protection works required due to steep slope.
COMPONENTS AND CROSS SECTION OF

CANAL:-
Channel Cross Section:
The channel sections for an irrigation canal may be of following four types:
1. Canal in cutting.

2. Canal in filling.
3. Canal partly in cutting and filling.
1. Canal in Cutting:
This canal does not require any bank as F.S.L. lies below the G.L. If F.S.L. is just at the
G.L., small banks may have to be provided. In this section F.S.L. of canal lies just at
G.L. or slightly below it.
2. Canal in Filling:
In such a section the bed level of the canal lies at the G.L. Section whose bed level is
slightly above the G.L. also comes under this category.
3. Canal Partly in Cutting and Filling:

In such a section the ground level lies in between the F.S.L and bed level of the canal.
Cross section elements
• Berms:- – This is horizontal distance, which is left at G.L. between the top edge of
cutting & toe of bank. When water flows in the canal at FSL (Full Supply Level), silt
particles are deposited on the berms and make the final side slope to 1.5:1

• Free Board:- – It is the vertical distance between FSL and the top of bank. It is
provided to ensure that water does not overtop the bank. I.S. 7112- 1973
recommends a minimum freeboard = 0.5m
• Dowel or Dowla:- – A Dowel or Dowla is provided on the side of a service road

between the service road and channel at a height of about 0.3 m above service
roads. The top of the dowel is kept above the FSL in the channel the Dowel are
provided as a measure of safety for automobile driven on the service road.
• Spoil Banks:- –When the quantity of earth obtained from excavation or cutting is
deposited near the cutting in the form of bank known as spoil bank.
• Borrow Pit:- –When the earth work in filling exceeds excavated quantity at
particular section borrow pit are required to make good requirement of filling.
Borrow pit can be inside the canal or outside the canal. Inside borrow pits are better,
but should not exceed a depth of 1 m and width of B/2 m.
 Balancing Depth of Canal:- The canal section is considered to be most

economical when cutting at a particular section equals the filling.
 Service Road:- Service road is usually provided on the left bank of the canal.
 Counter Berm: It is also known as back berm. It is provided on the outer slope of
the banks. It is required only in case of high banks and very permeable soils. Its
main purpose is not to allow the seepage line expose on the outer slope of the
bank.
 Dead man/Tatti/ Sahti / Mattom: Earthwork inside canal for reference of depth.
Removed after construction of canal.
Canal lining
It is the treatment given to the canal bed and banks to make the canal section
impervious. Canal lining is the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by
adding an impermeable layer to the edges of the trench.

Materials used:
Temporary materials :
 Shotcrete (1:4 Cement : sand)

 Asphalt (Sand, gravel , asphalt cement)
 Sodium carbonate (10% clay + 7% Sodium carbonate)
Permanent materials:
 CC
 Brick
 Mortar
 Stone
CANAL MODULES / CANAL OUTLETS
Canal outlet is a device through which water is released from a distributing channel
into a water course.
Classification of Outlets:
Non-Modular outlets:
These outlets operate in such a way that the flow passing through them is a function
of the difference in water levels of the distributing channel and the watercourse.
(i) Open sluice (ii) Drowned pipe outlet
Semi-modular outlets :
The discharge through these outlets depend on the water level of the distributing
channel but is independent of the water level in the watercourse so long as the
minimum working head required for their working is available.
Eg. Kennedy’s Gauge outlet

Module outlets:
The discharge through modular outlets is independent of the water levels in the
distributing channel and the watercourse, within reasonable working limits. This type
of outlets may or may not be equipped with moving parts.
Eg. Gibbs outlet
Flexibility and Sensitivity of Canal outlets
Flexibility:
It provides a criteria for judging the behaviour of modules and semi- modules. It is
the ratio of the rate of change of outlet discharge to the rate of change of discharge
of the parent channel.
F = 1 => Proportional outlet
F<1 => Sub proportional outlet
F>1 => Hyper proportional outlet
For Gibb’s outlet, F= 0
Sensitivity
Sensitivity (S) of ,an outlet is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge of
an ouUet to the rate of change in the water surface level of the distributary channel
with respect to the depth of flow in the channel.
DIVERSION HEADWORKS
Any hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off taking canal. Diversion head-
work provides an obstruction across a river, so that the water level is raised and
water is diverted to the channel at required level. The increase water level helps the
flow of water by gravity and results in increasing the commanded area and reducing
the water fluctuations in the river.

Diversion head-work may serve as silt regulator into the channel. Due to the
obstruction, the velocity of the river decreases and silt settles at the bed. Clear water
with permissible percentage of silt is allowed to flow through the regulator into the
channel.
Types of Canal Headworks
1. Storage headwork
2. Diversion headwork
Storage Headworks
When dam is constructed across a river to form a storage reservoir, it is known as
storage head work. It stores water during the period of excess supplies in the river
and releases it when demand overtakes the available supplies.
Diversion Headworks
When a weir or barrage is constructed across a river to raise the water level and to
divert the water to the canal, then it is known as diversion head work. The flow in the
canal is controlled by canal head regulator.
Component parts of Diversion Headwork
1. Weir or Barrage
2. Divide Wall
3. Fish Ladder
4. Approach Canal
5. Silt prevention device
6. Canal head regulator
7. River training works

RIVER TRAINING WORKS
RIVERS
Classification
Depending upon the regions through which the river flows following classification of
rivers in a broad sense may be given for Indian Territory:
Himalayan Rivers:
The rivers which originate from the mountain Himalaya are termed Himalayan rivers.
They derive their supply from melting of snow during the spring and summer season
and also from rains during monsoon season. Thus the water contribution is
continuous throughout the year. Hence, they are also termed as perennial rivers. The
yield from such rivers is more or less of dependable nature.
Non-Himalayan Rivers:
They originate from some other mountains in India. Obviously rivers of South and
Central India come under this category. As they are not snow fed they are non-

parennial mostly. The supply of water is mainly m rainy season. The rivers practically
dry up in the summer season.
Flashy Rivers:
In this type of rivers the flood occurs and recedes very suddenly. The flood may rise
and recede in a short period of one or two days. The characteristic of this type is that
the flood hydrograph is very steep.
Virgin Rivers:
This type of river dries up before joining any river or sea unlike other rivers The river
dries up because of excessive evaporation and percolation losses Such rivers are of
common occurrence in desert areas. In India there are several virgin rivers in
Rajasthan and Kutch area.
Stages of River:
From the above discussion it is clear that a river may be subdivided mainly in two
main divisions namely:
i. River in upper reach (in hilly region)
ii. River in lower reach (in alluvial plain or in flood plain).
Upper reaches of rivers can be further subdivided in various stages as follows:
1. Mountain Stage:

It is a first stage of the river course. In this stage the river flows through steep valleys
in the hills. The river bed in generally composed of rocks. The slope of the bed is also
very steep. As the region is hilly there exist many abrupt falls. The river water is very
clear in this stage and velocity is greater than critical velocity.
Canals cannot be taken from mountainous stage, as lot of cuttings and fillings are
involved and thus canal construction becomes very costly.

2. Sub-Mountainous Stage/ Boulder stage: :
Here river leaves the mountain and enters sub-mountainous tract.
In this stage the bed is made up of a mixture of sand, shingle, gravel and boulders.
Rivers in this stage have straighter courses with wide bed and non-submersible
banks.
During flood period the coarse material comes in the river channel together with the
high velocity flow and when the flood subsides these heavy and material piles up in
heaps.
3. Through Stage:
This stage of river is also known alluvial stage river because river is in flood plain. It
forms new land by depositing its excess load during the flood season. During floods
the river inundates very large areas causing considerable damage. The sediment load
which the river carries is similar is character to that of the river bed and the banks.
Ican have either silting or scouring or nothing.The rivers in this stage generally
meander.
The rivers in this stage are generally subdivided as follows:
a. Aggrading type:
When the river builds its bed it is called an aggrading type of river the reasons for
this building up of the bed may be following:
i. Heavy load is carried by the river water.
ii. Obstruction like a barrage or a dam across the river.
iii. Extension of delta at the river mouth.
iv. Sudden intrusion of sediment load from a tributary in the main river.
b. Degrading type:

If the river bed is getting scoured from year to year it is called degrading type of
river. The river becomes degrading river generally below a dam. The reason being
that the sediment load in the flow gets deposited in the reservoir and clear water
discharges over or through the dam. This water picks up sediment from river bed.
c. Stable type:
When there is no scouring or silting in a river bed that is when the river carries down
only that load which it receives, it is called a stable type of river thus there is no
appreciable change in the alignment and slope of the channel from year to year. But
it is always true that even this type of river migrates within its khadir.
4. Delta and Tidal Stage:

When the river is about to end its course by joining the sea it may split up into
number of channels or branches. This interwoven structure of the river branches is
called a delta. Because of flat slope and consequent low velocities the channel gets
silted up and when the water level rises the water may spill over the banks to form
new channels.
The delta and tidal stage of the river comes almost simultaneously. When river joins
sea it may receive water from the tidal waves of the ocean. The ocean water enters
the river during flood tide and recedes during ebb tide irrespective of the main flow
in the river channel. A river reach in which this periodic change in water level occurs
due to the tides is called a tidal stage of river.
Because of high rate of silting, the rivers frequently change their course. No
diversion work is constructed in this region.
Meandering of Rivers:
The main characteristic of the trough stage of a river is to form meanders. When a
river departs from its straight course and follows a sinuous winding path the river is
said to form meanders.

ADVERTISEMENTS:
From the figure it is clear that each meaner has two consecutive loops. In one loop
the river water flows in clockwise direction, whereas in another loop it flows in
anticlockwise direction. Meandering river approximately forms s type curve. With age
the meanders become more and more pronounced and loops come closer to
assume a shape of a spring coil if seen through bird’s eye view.
Various meander parameters are defined below:

Ma is the axial length of one meander. It is the tangential distance between the
corresponding points of meander. It is called a meander length.
Tortuosity or sinuosity of a river is nothing but a measure of winding course adopted

by the river. It is a ratio of actual length to meander length.
Mb is called the meander belt. It is the distance measured at right angles to the axis
of the river. It is the distance between the outer edges of clockwise and anticlockwise
loops.
The ratio Mb/Ma is called the meander ratio.
A crossover is a portion of meandering river joining two meanders.
At this stage it is clear that the river meanders when the river flow departs from its
uniform axial path due to some reason.
When the river flow turns away from its axis and flows along one bank, silting of
other bank takes place. Consequently a shoal is created along the other bank as
shown in Fig. 14.2.

The Fig. clearly explains how the sinuous path is followed by the river. In years of
time the river develops well defined meanders as progressive scouring of one bank
and silting of the other bank takes place.
Cut Offs:
When the development of a meander reaches the extreme condition the two loops
of a meander come closer to form a bottle neck as shown in Fig. 14.3. During heavy
flow period the loop may he straightened out. It is shown by dotted lines in Fig. 14.3.
Thus, the curved length of the river course is cutoff and then the river flows straight.
The cutoff is a natural process here.
Sometimes the cutoff may be made artificially to make the river flow straight. It helps
in reducing the river length and also the land encircled by the loop is reclaimed. It is
a simple river training work.
The small portion of water left behind is called oxbow lake.

RIVER TRAINING WORKS
1. Embankments:
The floods may be prevented from submerging the country by constructing earth
embankments. They are generally constructed up to a height of 12 m. They are
designed and constructed in the same way as an earth dam. The embankments are
generally constructed parallel to the river channel.
Depending upon the position of the embankments subdivisions made are:
i. Marginal embankments or dykes or levees,
ii. Retired embankments.
The marginal embankments are constructed as close to the banks as possible to

restrict the flood water from submerging the area behind them
Retired embankments are constructed at a distance from the river banks. Thus retired
embankments are the intermediate type between the case of marginal embankments
and river with no embankments. Retired embankments are generally constructed on
a lower ground away from the banks.

2. Guide Banks or Bell’s Bunds:
Rivers in flood plains submerge very large areas during flood periods. Naturally when
some structure is to be constructed across such a river (for example, bridge, weir,
etc.), it is very expensive to construct the work spanning whole width of the river. To
economies some training work may be constructed to confine the flow of water
within a reasonable waterway.
Guide banks are meant for guiding and confining the flow in a reasonable waterway
at the site of the structure. The design of the guide banks is based on the theory
developed by Mr. Bells. Hence, guide banks are also known as Bell’s bunds. This river
training work has been devised from a study of the natural river channel in alluvial
reach.
The guide banks guide the river flow past a bridge or any other hydraulic structure
without causing damage to the work and its approaches. The guide banks are
constructed parallel or approximately parallel to the direction of flow. They extend
both upstream and downstream of the abutments of the hydraulic structure. The
guide banks may be provided on either side of the hydraulic structure or on one side
as required.
The guide banks consist of four parts mainly:
i. Upstream curved head or impregnable head,
ii. Downstream curved head,
iii. Shank or a straight portion which joins the two curved heads, and
iv. Slope and bed protection, it includes apron.

The radius of curvature of the upstream curved head should be such as not to cause
intense eddies. The radius of downstream curved head may be kept half that of
upstream curved head. The heads should be curved well round to the back of the
guide bank. Upstream curved head generally subtends an angle from 120° to 145° to
the centre and downstream head from 45° to 90°. The upstream curved head is also
called “impregnable head”.
To protect the face of the guide bank at the river bed level a thick stone cover is laid
on the bed. It is called an apron. When the scour undermines the river bed the apron
comes down or launches to cover the face of the scour. Hence it is called Launching
apron also..
3. Spurs or Groynes:
They are the structures constructed transverse to the river flow. They extend from the
bank into the river.
Classification of Groynes:
Various classifications of spurs or groynes may be given as mentioned below:
1. Classification according to the functions served.

(a) Attracting type,
(b) Deflecting type,
(c) Repelling type, and

(d) Sedimenting type.
When a groyne points upstream then it is called a repelling groyne. The reason
being, this type has a property of repelling the river flow away from the bank .This is
accomplished by creation of a still pond on the upstream. Obviously the river starts
following beyond the still pond and in the process the river flow goes away from the
bank.
On the contrary, when a groyne points downstream it is called an attracting groyne

as. It attracts the river flow towards the bank from which it takes off.
In this case the groyne actually provides a body against which the river current keeps
hugging. The river flow thus remains along the bank permanently. When a groyne of
short length is taken perpendicular to the bank, it only deflects the flow locally.
Hence, it is called deflecting groyne

.
2. Special type:
For example, Denehy’s “T” headed groynes. Hockey spurs, etc.
A groyne with head normal to the groyne direction of called ‘T’ headed.
CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
When a natural drain crosses or intercepts an irrigation canal it becomes necessary to
construct some suitable structure to carry forward the canal safely. As these works
are constructed for crossing the drainage, they are termed as cross drainage work.
They are also called CD works. It is needles to mention that such additional works on
the canal increase the cost of the project. Hence, so far as possible such works should
be avoided.
Main Types of Cross Drainage Works:
There are three types of cross drainage works structures:

Type – 1: Cross drainage work carrying canal over the
drain
The structures falling under this type are
Aqueduct
It carries an irrigation canal over a drain.
Syphon Aqueduct
In a syphon aqueduct, canal water is carrier above the drainage but the high flood
level (HFL) of drainage is above the canal trough. The drainage water flows under
syphonic action and there is no presence of atmospheric pressure in the natural
drain.

Type – 2: Cross Drainage work carrying Drainage over
the canal
Super passage
Super passage structure carries drainage above canal as the canal bed level is below
drainage bed level.
Canal Syphon
In a canal syphon, drainage is carried over canal similar to a super passage but the
full supply level of canal is above than the drainage trough.so the canal water flows
under syphonic action and there is no presence of atmospheric pressure in canal.

Type –3: Cross drainage works admitting canal water
into the canal
Level Crossing
This structure makes it possible to dispose off drain water safely at the same level as
that of a canal.
1. Irrigation canals are generally aligned along
[A]. ridge line
[B]. contour line
[C]. valley line
[D]. straight line.

Answer: Option A
Explanation:
Watershed canal or ridge canal:
* The dividing ridge line between the catchment areas of two streams (drains) is called
the watershed or ridge canal.
* Thus between two major streams, there is the main watershed (ridge line), which
divides the drainage area of the two streams, as shown in figure below. Similarly,
between a main stream and any of its tributary, there are subsidiary watersheds (ridge
lines), dividing the drainage between the two streams on either side.
* The canal which is aligned along any natural watershed (ridge line) is called a
watershed canal, or a ridge canal. Aligning a canal (main canal or branch canal or
distributary) on the ridge ensures gravity irrigation on both sides of the canal.
* Since the drainage flows away from the ridge, no drainage can cross a canal aligned
on the ridge. Thus, a canal aligned on the watershed saves the cost of construction of
cross-drainage works.
* The canal system and the drainage system are complementary
* The canal system runs on ridges, gets divided into smaller channels and spreads its
water on the land
* The drainage system runs along the lowest line, collects drainage water from the
slopes and joins the main stream
2. Kor watering
Watering done when the crop has grown a few centimetres
Rice – 19 cm
Wheat – 13.5 cm

3. If the optimum depth of kor watering for a crop is 15.12 cm, the outlet factor for
the crop for four week period in hectares per cumec, is
[A]. 1000
[B]. 1200
[C]. 1400
[D]. 1600
[E]. 2000
Answer: Option D
Explanation:
Delta = 15.12 cm = 0.1512 m.
B = 4 week = 28 days.
Delta(met) = 8.64*28(days)/D(hect/cumec).
D = 1600 hect/met.

CANALS
FSL (Full supply level) of a canal is kept at few centimetres above the ground level.
The side slopes are kept 1:1 in cutting and 1.5:1 in filling for loam soil. The same is
1.5:1 and 2:1 in filling for sandy soil.
If d1 is the depth of cutting, d2 is the height of the bank from bed level r2 : 1 and r1 : 1 are the
slopes in filling and cutting respectively, the horizontal distance n between the bed and bank, is
[A]
x = r1 d1
.
[B]
x = r2 d2
.
[C]
x = d1 / r1
.
[D]
x = d2 / r2
.
Answer: Option B

Dowla – min 30 cm to 60 cm width. Height min – 30 cm.

WATER LOGGED AREA
An area is said to be water logged if the root zones of the crop are saturated. In the
water-logged area, the salt content is very much. To make suitable for cultivation it
requires leaching process (irrigation without cultivation). It reduces the salt content
to such an extent so that inferior crops can be cultivated. If the pH value is 11, it is
infertile soil.

DESIGN OF UNLINED ALLUVIAL
CANALS
1. According to Kennedy, the critical velocity (V0) in metres in a channel is the
mean velocity which keeps the channel free from silting or scouring. Its value
is given by (where m is critical velocity ratio and D is the depth of the channel).
Answer: Option B

IRRIGATION

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IRRIGATION

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IRRIGATION

Irrigation is the controlled application of water to croplands.

pH of irrigation water should be between 6-8.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Irrigation

Advantages and disadvantages of irrigation are listed below.

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

In India 75% is Surface irrigation.

Flow Irrigation canbe again classified as below:

Direct irrigation or River canal system:

Eg. Ganga Canal (Constructed in 1856)

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Eg. Ramganga dam in UP

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Classification of irrigation work or projects •

The irrigation projects can be classified as three based on Culturable Commandable

• Medium – 2.5 million to 50 million Rupees : It covers cultural command area of

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Eg. Rice and wheat

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Eg. Rice and wheat

4. Check Basin method

Eg. Rice and wheat

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Eg. Maze, Groundnut

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Fertigation: Fertigation is a method of fertilizer application in which fertilizer is

 Water scarce area

 Not good for windy and hot regions

SOIL AND CROPS

Soil moisture is the amount of moisture content present in the soil.

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Salinity in soil is expressed in terms of TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) or Electrical

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Sodium concentration is denoted by SAR (Sodium Absorption Ratio).

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Saturation Capacity of soil

Water available in the soil can be divided into 3:

1. Gravitational water / Superfluous water

Corresponding border moisture contents are termed as follows:

The relation between these are shownin the below figures:

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

75% of available moisture is called Readily available moisture.

Permanent wilting point

Two stages of wilting points are recognized and they are:

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Storage Capacity of soil or Equivalent depth of water

Assume the following

Root zone depth = D (m)

Specific weight of soil = γs (kg/m3)

Specific weight of water = γw (kg/m3)

Area of plot considered = 1m x 1m

The weight of soil per unit area would be: γs x 1 x D (kg)

Hence the following constants may be expressed as:

Similarly depth of water(dwp) held by soil at permanent wilting point(PWP)=

Hence depth of water (dAW) in root zone = (γs/γw)*D*[FC-PWP]

Sensitivity: LNT Construction Internal Use

Similarly frequency of irrigation is the interval at which irrigation water should be

Where d is the equivalent depth of water and Cu is the consumptive use.

Soil Moisture dEficiency

Hence depth of water (dAW) in root zone = (γs/γw)D[FC-PWP]