BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure.

Construction differs from manufacturing in that manufacturing typically
involves mass production of similar items without a designated purchaser, while
construction typically takes place on location for a known client. Construction as
an industry comprises six to nine percent of the gross domestic
product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and
financing; it continues until the project is built and ready for use.
Large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines.
A project manager normally manages the job, and a construction
manager, design engineer, construction engineer or architect supervises it.
Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning
requirements, environmental impact of the
job, scheduling, budgeting, construction-site safety, availability and transportation
of building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused
by construction delays and bidding. Large construction projects are sometimes
referred to as megaprojects.
 CONSTRUCTION METHOD/PROCESS
1. Choose a design professional. To create a plan and detailed scope of work,
most homeowners hire an architect or interior designer and sometimes
both. Every company does things a little differently, and design licensing varies in
each state. Many designers work on projects that don’t involve major structural
work or additions, and also offer assistance with material and color selections.
Architects may take on a wide range of work, or work only on floor plans and
permits, and leave the details of the electrical plan, baths and kitchen to another
designer.
2. Create a plan. After choosing a design firm, it's time to start making a
plan. There are usually at least two and sometimes three good ways to reach
your design goals. The plans are called schematic designs; they usually involve a
rough layout of the floor plan and some simple views of the exterior of the home
if there is an addition. 
3. Get your permits. Depending on the scope of your project and where it’s
located, permitting can take a day, months or even years. You should have some
idea ahead of filing for permits about the length of the process, which will allow
you to identify a likely start date for your project. Permit fees can range from a
few hundred dollars to thousands of dollars, depending on where you live and
how big your project is.
4. Prepare construction site and pour foundation. Often, site preparation and
foundation work are performed by the same crew, but this may not be the case
with a wooded lot. Using a backhoe and a bulldozer, the crew clears the site of
rocks, debris and trees for the house and, if applicable, the septic system. The
crew levels the site, puts up wooden forms to serve as a template for the
foundation and digs the holes and trenches. Footings (structures where the
house interfaces with the earth that supports it) are installed. If your home is
going to have a well, it will be dug at this point.
INSPECTION #1:
When the curing process is complete, a city inspector visits the site to make sure
foundation components are up to code and installed properly. This inspection
may be repeated depending on the type of foundation (slab, crawl space or
basement). Your builder will then remove the forms and begin coordinating step
No. 5, the framing phase.
6. Complete rough framing. The floor systems, walls and roof systems are
completed (collectively known as the shell or skeleton of the house). Plywood or
oriented strand board (OSB) sheathing is applied to the exterior walls and roof
and windows and exterior doors are installed. The sheathing is then covered with
a protective barrier known as a house wrap; it prevents liquid water from
infiltrating the structure, while allowing water vapor to escape. This reduces the
likelihood of mold and wood rot.
7. Complete rough plumbing, electrical and HVAC. Once the shell is finished,
siding and roofing can be installed. At the same time, the electrical and plumbing
contractors start running pipes and wires through the interior walls, ceilings and
floors. Sewer lines and vents, as well as water supply lines for each fixture, are
installed. Bathtubs and one-piece shower/tub units are put in place at this point
because there's more room to maneuver large, heavy objects.
INSPECTIONS #2, #3 and #4: Rough framing, plumbing and electrical and
mechanical systems are inspected for compliance with building codes. Most
likely these will be three different inspections. At the very least, the framing
inspection will be conducted separately from the electrical/mechanical
inspections.
8. Install insulation. Insulation plays a key role in creating a more comfortable,
consistent indoor climate while significantly improving a home’s energy
efficiency. One of the most important qualities of insulation is its thermal
performance or R-value, which indicates how well the material resists heat
transfer.
9. Complete drywall and interior textures; start exterior finishes. Drywall is
hung and taped so the seams between the boards aren't visible, and drywall
texturing (if applicable) is completed. The primer coat of paint is also applied after
taping is complete. Contractors begin installing exterior finishes such as brick,
stucco, stone and siding.
10. Finish interior trim; install exterior driveways and walkways. Interior
doors, baseboards, door casings, window sills, moldings, stair balusters and
other decorative trim are installed, along with cabinets, vanities and fireplace
mantels and surrounds. Walls get a finish coat of paint and are wallpapered
where applicable.
11. Install hard-surface flooring and countertops; complete exterior
grading. Ceramic tile, vinyl and wood flooring are installed as well as
countertops. Exterior finish grading is completed to ensure proper drainage away
from the home and prepare the yard for landscaping.
12. Finish mechanical trims; install bathroom fixtures. Light fixtures, outlets
and switches are installed and the electrical panel is completed. HVAC
equipment is installed and registers completed. Sinks, toilets and faucets are put
in place.
13. Install mirrors, shower doors and finish flooring; finish exterior
landscaping. Mirrors, shower doors and carpeting are installed and final cleanup
takes place. Trees, shrubs and grass are planted and other exterior landscaping
completed.
INSPECTION #5: A building-code official completes a final inspection and issues
a certificate of occupancy. If any defects are found during this inspection, a
follow-up inspection may be scheduled to ensure that they've been corrected.
14. Final walk-through. Your builder will walk you through your new home to
acquaint you with its features and the operation of various systems and
components and explain your responsibilities for maintenance and upkeep, as
well as warranty coverage and procedures. This is often referred to as a pre-
settlement walk-through. It's also an opportunity to spot items that need to be
corrected or adjusted, so be attentive and observant. Examine the surfaces of
countertops, fixtures, floors and walls for possible damage. Sometimes disputes
arise because the homeowner discovers a gouge in a countertop after move-in
and there's no way to prove whether it was caused by the builder's crew or the
homeowner's movers.

TYPES OF BUILDING
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS: A residential building is
defined as the building which provides more than half
of its floor area for dwelling purposes. In other
words, residential building provides sleeping accommodation with or without cooking or
dining or both facilities.

EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS: Educational Building.

A building designed for various activities in a primary,
secondary, or higher educational system and often
including living areas for students, such as dormitories.

INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS: Institutional

Buildings are often grand in design and subject to a lot
of public scrutiny and input during their design process.
These buildings often have public accessible spaces
and private staff spaces. Often an equal amount of
space is devoted to each of these users, though the
design and materials used may differ quite
dramatically.

ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS: A building used for the

gathering of persons for the purposes of amusement,
deliberation, dining, drinking, education, entertainment,
instruction, or awaiting transportation.

COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS:
Commercial buildings are buildings that are
used for commercial purposes, and
include office buildings, warehouses, and
retail buildings. In urban locations, a
commercial building may combine functions,
such as offices on levels 2- 10, with retail on floor
1.

INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS: It
defines industrial purposes as: Factories and other
premises used for manufacturing, altering, repairing,
cleaning, washing, breaking-up, adapting or processing any article; generating power or
slaughtering livestock.

STORAGE BUILDINGS: These buildings are

generally used for the storage or sheltering of goods,
wares, or merchandise like warehouses, cold
storages, garages, stables, transit sheds etc.

TRANSPORT BUILDINGS: This is a structural

building which consists of the means of equipment
necessary for the movement of passengers or goods
on land, water, and airways.

PROBLEMS IN CONSTRUCTION
Incorrect custom orders. You’ve ordered a custom material. Whether it’s cut incorrectly
or there’s an unexpected flaw, you can’t install as-is.
Solution: Prior to starting the project, your or your builder created construction
specifications. The purpose of construction specifications is to define and clearly detail the
materials you will order for your job. Compare the project specifications and a copy of the
custom order the contractor placed with the supplier should determine responsibility.
If the custom order was incorrect, you have a choice:

1. You can accept the delivered product with its mistake, averting delays. This may require
modification on-site or an aesthetic compromise.
2. You may reorder to receive exactly what you want. However, this pushes your
completion date.

Blueprint Confusion. Subcontractors are working off an old set of blueprints. This is a
problem for your contractor, and, unfortunately, it will delay your schedule.
Solution: Make sure subcontractors are working with the most recent plans. Date your
plans. This eliminates any confusion about which set of plans is current. Note the date of the
final set of blue prints in your Construction Agreement and posted with the Ground Rules so
everyone and every subcontractor on the site can check their plans to confirm that date is on
their set of plans.

Delays.  You can only rent another place or stay with family for a set number of months while
construction is underway. How can you guarantee this work will proceed as quickly as possible?

Solution: Ask for a production schedule with your contract so that you can monitor
your contractor’s progress. Job site managers often draw up a project schedule with blocks of
time for each task. You need to communicate regularly with your contractor about construction
delays. What are the delays? What will the outcome be? Opening this dialogue can lead to a
solution.

Unexpected construction costs. Unforeseen conditions, like bad soil, termite damage
or dry rot, often appear during construction. 
Solution: If you encounter one of these problems, the only alternative to emergency
spending is to stop the project. Before beginning your project, budget and set aside funds to
cover unexpected costs that aren’t the fault of a manufacturer or contractor. Your construction
agreement already addresses unforeseen circumstances, and if extra work is necessary, your
builder is entitled to additional money. If, however, there is some doubt as to whether the
circumstances were unforeseen, you deserve a full explanation.

Lack of Skilled Workers. There is a big problem facing the construction industry: not
enough skilled workers to fill a growing demand. The younger generation is being pushed
toward college, and not vocational trades. The benefits of a career in construction are not being
sold to millennials, and much of today’s existing workforce is closing in on retirement.
Solution: Construction staffing agencies can have skilled workers ready to work for you
when you need them. The agencies take care of pre-screening applicants, which saves you
time and gets you qualified workers quickly. Usually a staffing agency will also cover any HR
costs with employment, including any workers compensation coverage for those employees.

Lack of Communication. When things go wrong on a project, it is almost always due to a

communication breakdown along the way. Technology is the answer to your communication
problems.
Solution: Using email, text messages, and construction technology apps on a project
can get information instantaneously to all people on the project in real time and reduce the
slowdowns and speed bumps of a communication breakdown.

Slow Invoicing and Payments. Small construction businesses often have a problem
regulating cash flow because they don’t employ suitable invoicing systems.
Solution: A progress payment schedule can help outline what is expected at
different phases of the project and determine when each phase of the project is
considered complete. Without regular progress payments you can have too many
resources tied up in one job, which can significantly affect cash flow.

Safety issues. Of course, safety is paramount. You want everyone to make it home at the
end of the day in the same condition they arrived in.

Solution: In a rushed mindset, it can be easy for workers to overlook safety measures,
which often leads to injury. Work injuries can set a project schedule back considerably, so it’s
important to establish a strong safety management program that includes required safety
equipment (personal protective equipment like hard hats, safety glasses and reflective vests),
procedures, communication and site training.

Changing Minds of Homeowners. Homeowners who want changes in the middle of a

project may “forget” about the requests they’ve made when it comes time to pay the bill.

Solution: In order to protect yourself, your reputation, and your bottom line; be sure
that you get a signed change order every single time.

Document Management. Contracts, change orders, materials orders, receipts, invoices,

employment applications, certificates of insurance… you probably have enough paper to fill an
entire trailer of filing cabinets. It’s time to go paperless. 

Solution: A digital solution can help you stay on track of documents, organized on your
projects, and on-time with your payments. At the very least, scan all documents into your
computer and digitally file/ organize them. Be sure to backup your computer to a cloud service
or hard drive regularly in case you have a hardware issue.
 EQUIPMENTS USED TO BUILD BUILDINGS

Excavators
Excavators are large construction
equipment that can be driven by tracks or
wheels, but tracks are more standard. A
conventional excavator has a long bucket
arm attached to a pivoting cab that can
rotate a full 360 degrees. The operator sits
in the cab and from there has good visibility
of the site. Excavators are highly versatile
and can be fitted with special attachments
for specialty jobs. The most common uses
for an excavator include:

 Material handling
 Excavating trenches, holes, and foundations
 Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
 Demolition
 Rough grading
 Heavy lifting and pipe installation
 Mining
 River dredging

Backhoe Loaders
Backhoe loaders, often
called backhoes, have a body that's
similar to a farm tractor and include an
adjustable shovel in front and a small
bucket in the back for digging.
Backhoe loaders are considered
medium-sized construction equipment
for smaller jobs and are capable of
working in limited space to perform
various operations. They can move
dirt, backfill excavations, dig holes and trenches, and place pipes and other
materials. One of the best attributes of backhoe loaders is that they are wheel-
driven and can be used in urban areas. They can even be driven to a job site.
The bucket in the back can be changed to dig trenches of different widths.
Grader
A grader, also commonly referred to as
a road grader or a motor grader, is
a construction machine with a long
blade used to create a flat surface
during the grading process. Although
the earliest models were towed behind
horses or other powered equipment,
most modern graders contain
an engine so are known, technically
erroneously, as "motor graders". Typical
models have three axles, with
the engine and cab situated above the
rear axles at one end of the vehicle and
a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade in between.

Crawler Loader/Track Loader

A tracked loader is an engineering
vehicle consisting of a tracked
chassis with a loader for digging and
loading material. The history of tracked
loaders can be defined by three
evolutions of their design. Each of these
evolutions made the tracked loader a
more viable and versatile tool in the
excavation industry. These machines are
capable in nearly every task, but master
of none. A dozer, excavator, or wheel
loader will outperform a tracked loader
under a set of conditions, but the ability of
a tracked loader to perform almost every task on a job site is why it remains a
part of many companies' fleets.
Bulldozer
A bulldozer or dozer is
a crawler (continuous tracked tractor)
equipped with a substantial metal plate
(known as a blade) used to push large
quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other
such material during construction or
conversion work and typically equipped at
the rear with a claw-like device (known as
a ripper) to loosen densely compacted
materials.

Wheeled loading shovels

Loading shovels are loaded where it counts,
pushing the front end bucket loader efficiency
higher. From mini loaders to large production
machines, find the right fit for the work in load
and carry operations, civil & building
c onstruction, earth moving, waste handling,
recycling, landscaping, quarrying, aggregates,
block handling, lumber yards, agriculture and
more.

Dump Truck
A dump truck, known also as a dumper
truck or tipper truck is used for taking
dumps (such as sand, gravel, or demolition
waste) for construction. A typical
dump truck is equipped with an open-box
bed, which is hinged at the rear and
equipped with hydraulic rams to lift the
front, allowing the material in the bed to be deposited ("dumped") on the ground
behind the truck at the site of delivery.

Trailers

Construction trailers are mobile

structures (trailers) used to
accommodate temporary offices, dining
facilities and storage of building
materials during construction projects.

Crane
A crane is a type of machine, generally
equipped with a hoist rope, wire
ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be
used both to lift and lower materials and to
move them horizontally. It is mainly used for
lifting heavy things and transporting them to
other places. The device uses one or
more simple machines to
create mechanical advantage and thus
move loads beyond the normal capability of
a human.

Hoists
A hoist is a device used for lifting or
lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-
wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It
may be manually operated, electrically or
pneumatically driven and may use chain,
fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium.
Forklifts
A forklift is a powered industrial truck used to
lift and move materials over short distances.
The forklift was developed in the early
20th century by various companies,
including Clark, which made
transmissions, and Yale & Towne
Manufacturing, which made hoists.

Concrete Mixture
A concrete mixer (often colloquially called
a cement mixer) is a device that
homogeneously
combines cement, aggregate such as sand
or gravel, and water to form concrete. A
typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum
to mix the components.

Truck Mixer
Truck mixers are the most common mode of PCC transport. They consist of a
truck-mounted drum that rotates on an inclined axis. A typical mixing truck uses a
6.9 – 9.2 m3 (9 – 12 yd3) mixing drum, the size being limited due to gross vehicle
weight of the loaded truck.