Johns 10e Irm ch09

CHAPTER 9
LEADERSHIP
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 9, students should be able to:

LO9.1 Define leadership and discuss the role of strategic and formal leadership in
organizations.
LO9.2 Explain and critically evaluate the trait theory of leadership.
LO9.3 Compare and contrast the following leadership behaviours and their
consequences: consideration, initiating structure, leader reward, and leader
punishment.
LO9.4 Describe and evaluate the situational theories of leadership: contingency theory
and path-goal theory.
LO9.5 Discuss participative leadership and how and when to use participative leadership
using the Vroom and Jago model.
LO9.6 Describe and evaluate leader-member exchange (LMX) theory and transactional
and transformational leadership and their consequences.
LO9.7 Discuss the new and emerging theories of leadership include empowering
leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership.
LO9.8 Describe gender differences in leadership and explain why women are
underrepresented in leadership roles in organizations.
LO9.9 Discuss the GLOBE project and explain the role that culture plays in leadership
effectiveness.
LO9.10Discuss global leadership and describe the characteristics of global leaders.
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES
What Is Leadership?
Leadership occurs when particular individuals exert influence on the goal achievement of
others in an organizational context. Effective leadership exerts influence in a way that
achieves organizational goals by enhancing the productivity, innovation, satisfaction, and
commitment of the workforce. Leadership is about motivating people and gaining their
commitment.
Strategic leadership refers to a leader’s “ability to anticipate, envision, maintain

flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a
viable future for the organization.” Strategic leaders are open and honest in their
interactions with the organization’s stakeholders, and they focus on the future.
Some people occupy formal or assigned leadership roles in which they are expected to
influence others, and they are given specific authority to direct employees. Others may
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

9-2 Johns/Saks, Organizational Behaviour, Tenth Edition
emerge to occupy informal leadership roles. Since they do not have formal authority, they
must rely on being well liked or perceived as highly skilled in order to exert influence.
Are Leaders Born? The Trait Theory of Leadership
Throughout history, social observers have been fascinated by obvious examples of

successful interpersonal influence. The implicit assumption is that those who become
leaders and do a good job of it possess a special set of traits that distinguish them from
the masses of followers. This approach to leadership is known as the trait theory of
leadership which states that leadership depends on the personal qualities or traits of the
leader. Trait theories of leadership, however, did not receive serious scientific attention
until the 1900s.
Research on Leadership Traits

Traits are personal characteristics of individuals such as physical characteristics,
intellectual ability, and personality. Research on leadership has mostly focused on traits
associated with demographics, task competence, and interpersonal attributes. Research
indicates that many traits are not associated with leadership. In recent years, there has
been a renewed interest in the study of leadership traits, and a number of studies have
shown that certain traits are closely linked to leadership emergence and effectiveness.
For example, all five of the “Big Five” personality dimensions are related to leadership
emergence and success. Extraversion and conscientiousness are the most consistent
predictors of leadership effectiveness. Intelligence is also related to leadership
effectiveness although not as strongly as previously thought. The relationship between
traits and leadership effectiveness has been shown to be stronger for affective and
relational measures of effectiveness than for performance-related measures.
Limitations of the Trait Approach

Even though some traits appear to be related to leadership and leadership effectiveness,
there are several reasons why the trait approach is not the best means of understanding
and improving leadership.
First, it is difficult for us to determine whether traits make the leader or whether the
opportunity for leadership produces traits. Second, even if we know which traits are
associated with effective leadership, we have no information about what they do to
influence others successfully which means that we do not know how to train and develop
leaders and no way to diagnose failures of leadership. Third, because the trait approach
leads us to believe that people are more likely to become a leader or to be a more
effective leader because they possess certain traits, this can lead to bias and
discrimination when it comes to evaluating a leader’s effectiveness and decisions about
promoting people to leadership positions. According to leadership categorization theory,
people are more likely to view somebody as a leader and to evaluate them as a more
effective leader when they possess prototypical characteristics of leadership. The most
crucial problem of the trait approach to leadership is its failure to take into account the
situation in which leadership occurs.

Chapter 9 Leadership 9-3
In summary, although some traits are associated with leadership, traits alone are not
sufficient for successful leadership. Traits are only a precondition for certain actions that
a leader must take in order to be successful. Further, there is some evidence that leader
behaviours have a greater impact on leadership effectiveness than leader traits.
The Behaviour of Leaders
What are the crucial behaviours that leaders engage in, and how do these behaviours
influence employee performance and satisfaction? Is there a particular leadership style
that is more effective than other possible styles?
The most involved, systematic study of leadership took place at Ohio State University in
the 1940s. This research had employees describe their superiors along a number of
behavioural dimensions. Analyses of these descriptions revealed two basic types of
leadership behaviour — consideration and initiating structure.
Consideration and Initiating Structure

Consideration is the extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern
for employees. The considerate leader is seen as friendly and egalitarian, expresses
appreciation and support, and is protective of group welfare. Initiating structure is the
degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment. The structuring leader
clearly defines and organizes his or her role and the roles of followers, stresses standard
procedures, schedules the work to be done, and assigns employees to particular tasks.
Consideration and initiating structure are not incompatible; a leader can be high, low, or
average on one or both dimensions.
The Consequences of Consideration and Structure

Research shows that consideration and initiating structure both contribute positively to
employees’ motivation, job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness. However, consideration
is more strongly related to follower satisfaction (leader satisfaction and job satisfaction),
motivation, and leader effectiveness, while initiating structure is slightly more strongly
related to leader job performance and group performance.
There is some evidence that the relative importance of consideration and initiating
structure varies according to the nature of the leadership situation:
• When employees are under a high degree of pressure due to deadlines, unclear tasks,
or external threat, initiating structure increases satisfaction and performance.
• When the task itself is intrinsically satisfying, the need for high consideration and
high structure is generally reduced.
• When the goals and methods of performing the job are very clear and certain,
consideration should promote employee satisfaction, while structure might promote
dissatisfaction.

• When employees lack knowledge as to how to perform a job, or the job itself has
vague goals or methods, consideration becomes less important, while initiating structure
takes on additional importance.
In summary, the effects of consideration and initiating structure often depend on

characteristics of the task, the employee, and the setting in which work is performed.
Leader Reward and Punishment Behaviours

Two additional leader behaviours are leader reward behaviour and leader punishment
behaviour. Leader reward behaviour provides employees with compliments, tangible
benefits, and deserved special treatment. When rewards are made contingent on
performance, employees should perform at a high level and experience job satisfaction.
Leader punishment behaviour involves the use of reprimands or unfavourable task
assignments and the active withholding of raises, promotions, and other rewards.
Research has found that contingent leader reward and punishment behaviour is positively
related to employees’ perceptions (e.g., trust in supervisor), attitudes (e.g., job
satisfaction and organizational commitment), and behaviour (e.g., effort, performance,
organizational citizenship behaviour). Non-contingent punishment behaviour is
negatively related to these outcomes. The relationships are stronger when rewards and
punishment are made contingent on employee behaviour. The manner in which leaders
administer rewards and punishment is a critical determinant of their effectiveness. Leader
reward and punishment behaviour are related to employee attitudes and behaviours
because they lead to more positive perceptions of justice and lower role ambiguity.
Situational Theories of Leadership
The situation refers to the setting in which influence attempts occur. According to
situational theories of leadership, the effectiveness of a leadership style is contingent or
depends on the setting. The setting includes the characteristics of the employees, the
nature of the task they are performing, and characteristics of the organization. Two
situational theories of leadership that are among the best known and most studied are
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory and House’s Path Goal Theory.
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

Fiedler’s contingency theory suggests that the association between leadership orientation
and group effectiveness is contingent on (depends on) the extent to which the situation is
favourable for the exertion of influence. Fiedler has measured leadership orientation by
having leaders describe their least preferred co-worker (LPC), a current or past co-
worker with whom the leader had a difficult time accomplishing a task. The leader who
describes the LPC relatively favourably (a high LPC score) is considered relationship
oriented, while the leader who describes the LPC unfavourably (a low LPC score) is
considered task oriented. Fiedler has argued that the LPC score reveals a personality trait
that reflects the leader’s motivational structure. High LPC leaders are motivated to
maintain interpersonal relations, while low LPC leaders are motivated to accomplish the
task.

Situational favourableness is the “contingency” part of contingency theory as it specifies

when a particular LPC orientation should contribute most to group effectiveness. The
factors that affect situational favourableness, in order of importance, are leader-member
relations, task structure, and position power. The situation is most favourable for
leadership when leader-member relations are good, the task is highly structured, and the
leader has strong position power. The situation is least favourable when leader-member
relations are poor, the task is unstructured, and the leader has weak position power.
Fiedler’s model suggests that a task orientation (low LPC) is most effective when the
leadership situation is very favourable or when it is very unfavourable. A relationship
orientation (high LPC) is most effective in conditions of medium favourability.
Research Evidence. Although contingency theory has been the subject of much debate, it
now appears that a major source of the many inconsistent findings regarding contingency
theory is the small sample sizes that researchers used in many of the studies. Advances in
correcting for this problem statistically have led recent reviewers to conclude that there is
reasonable support for the theory although it does need some refinement.
House’s Path-Goal Theory

Path-goal theory is concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviours
are most effective.
The Theory. According to path-goal theory, the most important activities of leaders are
those that clarify the paths to various goals of interest to employees. The opportunity to
achieve such goals promotes job satisfaction, leader acceptance, and high effort. Thus,
the effective leader forms a connection between employee goals and organizational
goals.
To provide job satisfaction and leader acceptance, leader behaviour must be perceived as
either immediately satisfying or leading to future satisfaction. To promote employee
effort, leaders must make rewards dependent on performance and ensure that employees
have a clear understanding of how these rewards can be achieved. The leader might have
to provide support through direction, guidance, and coaching.
Leader Behaviour. There are four specific kinds of leader behaviour in path-goal theory:
• Directive behaviour. Directive behaviour is essentially the same as initiating

structure.
• Supportive behaviour. Supportive behaviour is essentially the same as consideration.
• Participative behaviour. Participative leaders consult with employees about work-
related matters and consider their opinions.
• Achievement-oriented behaviour. These leaders encourage employees to exert high
effort and strive for a high level of goal accomplishment.

Situational Factors. The impact of leader behaviour on employee satisfaction, effort, and
acceptance of the leader depends on the nature of employees and the work environment.
Different types of employees need or prefer different forms of leadership. For example,
employees who are high need achievers should work well under achievement-oriented
leadership. The effectiveness of leadership behaviour also depends on the particular work
environment. For example, when tasks are clear and routine, employees will perceive
directive leadership as redundant and unnecessary. When tasks are challenging but
ambiguous, employees should appreciate both directive and participative leadership.
Frustrating, dissatisfying jobs should increase employee appreciation of supportive
behaviour. Thus, effective leadership should take advantage of the motivating and
satisfying aspects of jobs while offsetting or compensating for those job aspects that
demotivate or dissatisfy.
Research Evidence. In general, there is some research support for the situational
propositions of the theory. Supportive or considerate leader behaviour is most beneficial
in supervising routine, frustrating, or dissatisfying jobs. Directive or structuring leader
behaviour is most effective on ambiguous, less structured jobs. As well, the theory is
more effective in predicting employee job satisfaction and acceptance of the leader than
in predicting employee performance.
Participative Leadership: Involving Employees in Decisions
An important leadership style that is included in path-goal theory is participative

leadership.
What Is Participative Leadership?

Participative leadership means involving employees in making work-related decisions.
Participation might range from obtaining employee opinions before making decisions to
allowing employees to make their own decisions within agreed-upon limits. Participation
can involve individual employees or a group of employees. The choice of a participation
strategy should be tailored to specific situations.
Potential Advantages of Participative Leadership

Participation can be a useful leadership technique with several potential advantages.
Motivation. Participation increases the motivation of employees. Participation allows

employees to contribute to the establishment of work goals and to decide how these goals
can be accomplished. Also, participation may increase intrinsic motivation by enriching
employees’ jobs.
Quality. Participation leads to higher quality decisions than the leader could make alone,
particularly when employees have special knowledge to contribute to the decision.
Participation can also enhance quality because it empowers employees to take direct
action to solve problems without checking every detail with the boss and gives
employees the authority, opportunity, and motivation to take initiative and solve
problems.

Acceptance. Participation increases employees’ acceptance of decisions, especially when

issues of fairness are involved.
Potential Problems of Participative Leadership

Participation has some potential difficulties.
Time and Energy. Participation requires specific behaviours from the leader and these
behaviours use time and energy. Participation is not an appropriate leadership strategy
when quick decisions have to be made.
Loss of Power. Some leaders feel that a participative style will reduce their power and
influence. As a result, they sometimes respond by asking employees to make trivial
decisions and this will not lead to positive consequences.
Lack of Receptivity or Knowledge. Participation may fail because employees are not
receptive to participation especially when the leader is not trusted or when a poor labour
climate exists. Employees might also lack the knowledge to contribute effectively to
decisions because they are unaware of external constraints on their decision.
Vroom and Jago’s Situational Model of Participation

The Vroom and Jago Model attempts to specify when participation should be used and to
what extent it should be used. The model takes into account various degrees of
participation that can be exhibited by the leader including autocratic, consultative, and
group consensus. The most effective strategy depends on the situation or problem at
hand. In general, the leader’s goal should be to make high-quality decisions to which
employees will be adequately committed without undue delay. To do this he or she must
consider a number of questions in a decision tree that take into account the quality
requirement, the need for employee commitment, problem structure, and so on (see
Exhibit 9.5, page 341). By taking a problem through the decision tree, the leader can
determine the correct degree of participation for the problem solving situation. The tree
shows the fastest approach possible that still maintains decision quality and commitment.
Research Evidence. Following the Vroom and Jago model prescriptions is more likely to
lead to successful managerial decisions than unsuccessful decisions. The model has been
used frequently in management development seminars. In general, employees who
participate in work-related decisions are more satisfied than those who do not and have
higher task performance and organizational citizenship behaviour toward the
organization. Thus, most workers seem to prefer a participative work environment.
Participation should work best when employees feel favourably toward it, when they are
intelligent and knowledgeable about the issue at hand, and when the task is complex
enough to make participation useful. Like any other leadership strategy, the usefulness of
participation depends on the constraints of the situation.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leader member exchange or LMX theory is a theory of leadership that focuses on the
quality of the relationship that develops between a leader and an employee. Unlike other
theories of leadership that focus on leader traits and behaviours, the focus of LMX theory
is the relationship between a leader and an employee. The basic idea is that over time and
through the course of their interactions, different types of relationships develop between
leaders and employees. The relationship between a leader and his or her employees will
differ in terms of the quality of the relationship. The basis for the effects of LMX is
social exchange theory, which posits that individuals who are treated favourably by
others will feel a sense of obligation to reciprocate by responding positively and returning
that favourable treatment in some manner. Employees in a high-quality relationship with
their supervisor will reciprocate with extra effort and higher commitment and
performance. High quality relationships or high LMX involve a high degree of mutual
influence and obligation as well as trust, loyalty, and respect between a leader and an
employee. Low-quality relationships or low LMX is characterized by low trust, respect,
obligation, and mutual support.
Research Evidence. Research has found that the quality of LMX is related to employee
self-efficacy, overall satisfaction, satisfaction with supervision, organizational
commitment, organizational citizenship behaviour, role clarity, job performance,
creativity, and lower role conflict and turnover intentions. Higher quality LMX
relationships have positive consequences for leaders, employees, work units, and
organizations.
Transactional and Transformational Leadership Theory
Transactional leadership is leadership that is based on a fairly straightforward exchange

between the leader and the followers—leaders set goals and provide direction and
support, employees perform well, and the leader rewards them; the leader uses a
participatory style, and the employees come up with good ideas. Transactional leadership
involves contingent reward behaviour and management by exception. Management by
exception is the degree to which the leader takes corrective action on the basis of results
of leader–follower transactions. They monitor follower behaviour, anticipate problems,
and take corrective actions before the behaviour creates serious problems.
Transformational leadership involves providing followers with a new vision that instills
true commitment. Transformational leaders change the beliefs and attitudes of followers
to correspond to a new vision and motivates them to achieve performance beyond
expectations.
Bernard Bass notes that transformational leaders are usually good at the transactional
aspects of clarifying paths to goals and rewarding good performance but more
importantly there are four qualities (dimensions/behaviours) that set them apart from
transactional leaders: Intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, inspirational
motivation, and charisma.

Intellectual Stimulation
This contributes in part to the “new vision” aspect of transformational leadership. People
are stimulated to think about problems, issues, and strategies in new ways.
Individualized Consideration
This involves treating employees as distinct individuals, indicating concern for their
needs and personal development, and serving as a mentor or coach when appropriate. The
emphasis is a one-on-one attempt to meet the concerns and needs of the individual in
question in the context of the overall goal or mission.
Inspirational Motivation
This involves the communication of visions that are appealing and inspiring to followers
and stimulates enthusiasm, challenges followers with high standards, communicates
optimism about future goal attainment, and provides meaning for the task at hand.
Charisma
Charisma is by far the most important, aspect of transformational leadership. Charisma is
a term stemming from a Greek word meaning favoured or gifted. Charismatic leaders
have personal qualities that give them the potential to have extraordinary influence over
others. They tend to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers, and this, in
turn, inspires enthusiastic dedication and effort dedicated toward the leader’s chosen
mission. Charisma provides the emotional aspect of transformational leadership. Other
charismatic characteristics include self-confidence, dominance, and a strong conviction in
their own beliefs. They hold high expectations for follower performance; their goals have
an ideological or moral flavour to them; and they often articulate followers’ feelings in
times of stress or discord.. These factors work together to give charismatic leaders their
extraordinary potential for influence.
Research Evidence. Transformational leadership has been found to be strongly related to

follower motivation and satisfaction (satisfaction with leader and job satisfaction), leader
performance, leader effectiveness, and individual, group, and organization performance.
Charismatic leadership has been found to be strongly related to follower satisfaction and
leadership effectiveness. Compared to other forms of leader behaviour, transformational
leadership has been found to be the most consistent predictor of effective leadership.
Several studies have also found that CEO transformational leadership is positively related
to organizational performance, especially under conditions of environmental uncertainty
and in small- to medium-sized organizations. Transformational leadership is especially
effective during times of change and for obtaining employees’ commitment to a change.
Overall, the best leaders are both transformational and transactional.
New and Emerging Theories of Leadership
Leadership research has begun to focus on more than just the leader but also the broader
context of the leadership process. Four new and emerging theories of leadership include
empowering leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership.

Empowering Leadership
Empowering leadership involves implementing conditions that enable power to be shared
with employees. Empowering leaders highlight the significance of employees’ work,
provide participation and autonomy in decision making, express confidence in
employees’ capabilities, and remove bureaucratic constraints or hindrances to
performance. Employees experience a state of psychological empowerment that consists
of a feeling that their work is personally important (meaning), a belief in their ability to
successfully perform work tasks (competence), freedom to choose how to initiate and
carry out one’s tasks (self-determination), and a belief that one’s behaviour is making a
difference (impact). Empowering leadership has been found to be related to higher self-
efficacy and adaptability of salespeople in a pharmaceutical company which was related
to higher job performance and customer-service satisfaction. Empowering leadership has
also been found to be related to more creativity-relevant behaviours. A study on teams
found that those with empowering leaders improved their performance over time to a
greater extent than teams with directive leaders.
Ethical Leadership
Ethical leadership involves the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct (e.g.,
openness, fairness, and honesty) through personal actions and interpersonal relationships,
and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication,
reinforcement, and decision making. Ethical leaders model what is deemed to be
normatively appropriate behaviour, make ethics salient in the workplace, and draw
attention to it by engaging in explicit ethics-related communications and by setting
ethical standards. They reward ethical conduct and discipline those who don’t follow
ethical standards and punish unethical behaviour. They consider the ethical consequences
of their decisions and make principled and fair decisions that can be observed and
emulated by others.
A review of research on ethical leadership found that ethical leadership is positively

related to more favourable evaluations of leaders (e.g., satisfaction and trust in the
leader), more positive job attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment),
and greater performance (e.g., job performance, organizational citizenship behaviour),
and negatively related to job strains, turnover intentions, and counterproductive work
behaviours. The relationship between ethical leadership and work outcomes was due to
trust in the leader. The relationships between ethical leadership and performance
remained significant even when the effects of other types of leadership (e.g.,
transformational) were taken into account.55
The extent to which ethics is an important part of an organization’s culture is influenced

by the ethics and moral development of the leader. Ethical leadership has been found to
be related to less unethical behaviour in work units and less relationship conflict among
employees. Ethical leadership on the part of the immediate supervisor has the greatest
effect on employees.

Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership is a positive form of leadership that involves being true to oneself.
Authentic leaders know and act upon their true values, beliefs, and strengths and help
others do the same. Their conduct and behaviour is guided by their internal values.
Authentic leadership consists of four related but distinct dimensions:
• Self-awareness. An understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses and an
awareness of one’s impact on others.
• Relational transparency. The presenting of one’s true or authentic self to others and
the open sharing of information and expressions of one’s true thoughts and feelings.
• Balanced processing. The objective analysis of relevant information before making a
decision and consideration of views that challenge one’s own position.
• Internalized moral perspective. They have internal moral standards and values that
guide their behaviour and decision making.
Followers of authentic leaders report higher organizational commitment, job satisfaction,
and satisfaction with their supervisor, and exhibit higher organizational citizenship
behaviour, work engagement, ethical, and pro-social behaviours. Authentic leadership
has also been found to have a positive effect on work groups in terms of psychological
capital and trust among group members which was associated with higher group
citizenship behaviours and performance. Team members who have authentic leaders have
been found to be more authentic themselves and team member authenticity is related to
higher-quality teamwork behaviour and team productivity.
Servant Leadership
Servant leadership is a form of leadership that involves going beyond one’s own self-
interests and having a genuine concern to serve others and a motivation to lead. Servant
leadership emphasizes the needs of followers and their growth and development. Servant
leaders have a need to serve combined with a motivation to lead. A review and synthesis
of the research on servant leadership identified the following six key characteristics of
servant leader behaviour:
● Empowering and developing people. Providing others with a sense of personal power
and encouraging their personal development.
● Humility. Actively seeking the contributions of others and placing their interests first.
● Authenticity. Similar to authentic leadership, this involves expressing one’s true self
and in ways that are consistent with one’s inner feelings and thoughts and accurately
representing internal states, intentions, and commitments.
● Interpersonal acceptance. The ability to understand and experience the feelings of
others and to create an atmosphere of trust where others will feel accepted.
● Providing direction. Ensuring that people know what is expected of them and
considering follower’s abilities, needs, and input when providing direction.
● Stewardship. A focus on service rather than control and self-interest, and encouraging
others to act in the common interest.

Research indicates that servant leadership is positively related to trust in management,

perceptions of organizational justice, need satisfaction, job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, creative behaviours, and organizational citizenship behaviours. A study of
departments in a chain of grocery stores found that employees in departments that had
servant leaders had higher perceptions of being treated fairly and were more likely to
exhibit helping behaviours. A study of hairstylists in a Chinese chain of hair salons found
that salon managers’ servant leadership was positively related to stylists’ service
performance behaviours as rated by customers above and beyond the effects of
transformational leadership.
Gender and Leadership
Research by Alice Eagley and Blair Johnson concludes that there are differences in
leadership style between men and women. Women are more apt to adopt a participative
and democratic style than men. Further, in a review of the leadership styles of men and
women, women leaders were found to be more transformational than men leaders, and
they also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviours of transactional
leadership. Men leaders engaged in more of the other components of transactional
leadership, such as management by exception and laissez-faire style leadership which is a
passive style of leadership that involves the avoidance or absence of leadership and is
negatively related to leader effectiveness. These findings attest to the ability of women to
be highly effective leaders.
A review of 95 studies on gender differences in perceptions of leadership effectiveness
over the last 49 years found that there are some differences in leadership effectiveness but
only in certain situations. Men are perceived as more effective in organizations that are
masculine and male dominated (i.e., government) while women are perceived as more
effective in feminine and female dominated organizations (e.g., social service
organizations and education organizations). Women are perceived as more effective
leaders in middle management positions and when the ratings of effectiveness were made
by the leaders themselves, men rated themselves as more effective than did women.
When the ratings of effectiveness were made by others (e.g., peers, subordinates, bosses),
women were perceived as more effective leaders than men. Once all these factors are
taken into account men and women do not differ in perceived leadership effectiveness.
However, women hold very few top leadership positions in Canadian organizations and a
minority of senior leadership positions in the United States and Europe. For decades the
explanation has been the glass ceiling metaphor—the invisible barrier that prevents
women from advancing to senior leadership positions in organizations. However, Alice
Eagly and Linda Carli have suggested that a more accurate metaphor is a labyrinth,
because of the many twists, turns, detours, and dead ends that women encounter along
their way up the organizational hierarchy. The lack of women leaders is the sum of all of
the barriers women face rather than one particular barrier.
According to role congruity theory (RCT), prejudice against female leaders is the result
of an incongruity between the perceived characteristics of women and the perceived
requirements of leadership roles. Leaders are perceived as similar to men and not very
similar to women, as more “agentic” than communal, and as more masculine than

feminine. Men are perceived as having agentic traits, which convey assertion and control
and are generally associated with effective leadership while women are perceived as
having communal traits, which convey a concern for the compassionate treatment of
others. Males but not females are perceived as having traits that are associated with
leadership
To increase the number of women in senior leadership positions in organizations, a
combination of programs and interventions is required such as reducing the subjectivity
of performance evaluation, changing the norm of long work hours, and establishing
family-friendly human resources practices.
Culture and Leadership
The Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) research

project involved 170 researchers who worked together for 10 years collecting and
analyzing data on cultural values and practices and leadership attributes from over 17,000
managers in 62 societal cultures. The project team identified the following nine cultural
dimensions that distinguish one society from another and have important managerial
implications:
• Performance Orientation
• Assertiveness
• Future Orientation
• Humane Orientation
• Institutional Collectivism
• In-Group Collectivism
• Gender Egalitarianism
• Power Distance
• Uncertainty Avoidance
Using these nine dimensions, GLOBE identified 10 culture clusters from the 62 culture
samples. The culture clusters differ with respect to how they score on the nine culture
dimensions. Second, GLOBE found that citizens in each nation have implicit
assumptions regarding requisite leadership qualities, something known as implicit
leadership theory. According to implicit leadership theory, individuals hold a set of
beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and behaviours that
contribute to or impede outstanding leadership. GLOBE found that these belief systems
are shared among individuals in common cultures, something they call culturally
endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT). They identified 21 primary and 6 global
leadership dimensions that are contributors to or inhibitors of outstanding leadership. The
six global leadership dimensions are:
• Charismatic/Value-Based
• Team-Oriented
• Participative
• Humane-Oriented
• Autonomous
• Self-Protective

GLOBE found that cultures and clusters differ significantly on all six of the global
leadership dimensions. To determine what is considered important for leadership
effectiveness across cultures, GLOBE examined a large number of leader attributes. They
found that although the cultures do differ on many aspects of leadership effectiveness,
they also have many similarities. Many attributes such as being honest, decisive,
motivational, and dynamic are universally desirable and are believed to facilitate
outstanding leadership in all GLOBE countries. Leadership attributes such as loners,
irritable, egocentric, and ruthless are deemed ineffective in all GLOBE countries. Some
attributes are culturally contingent meaning that they are effective in some cultures but
are either ineffective or even dysfunctional in others.
The results of the GLOBE project indicate that managers need to understand the
similarities and differences in what makes someone an effective leader across cultures if
they are to be effective global leaders.
Global Leadership
Global leadership involves leadership capabilities to function effectively in different

cultures and being able to cross language, social, economic, and political borders. The
essence of global leadership is the ability to influence people who are not like the leader
and come from different cultural backgrounds. Global leaders need to have a global
mindset, tolerate high levels of ambiguity, and exhibit cultural adaptability and
flexibility.
Global leaders have the following four characteristics:
Unbridled Inquisitiveness. Global leaders relish the opportunity to see and experience
new things.
Personal Character. Global leaders form an emotional connection to people from different
cultures and exhibit uncompromising integrity by maintaining high ethical standards and
loyalty to their organization’s values.
Duality. Global leaders must be able to manage uncertainty and balance global and local
tensions.
Savvy. Global leaders have business and organizational savvy. They understand the
conditions they face in different countries and they are well informed of their
organization’s capabilities and international ventures.
Individuals with the potential to become global leaders have experience working or living
in different cultures, they speak more than one language, and have an aptitude for global
business. However, to become an effective global leader requires extensive training that
consists of travel to foreign countries; working in teams with members of diverse
backgrounds; formal training on topics such as international and global strategy, business
and ethics as well as cross-cultural communication and multicultural team leadership.

The most powerful strategy for developing global leaders is work experience, transfers,
and international assignments. Long-term international assignments are considered to be
especially effective.
Although most organizations report that they do not have enough global leaders now or
for the future, certain countries like Canada are way ahead of most organizations in larger
countries like the United States. This is because Canada is a middle economy and
Canadian leaders understand and empathize with persons in other cultures. As well,
Canadians learn from the cradle to take into account other perspectives. Living in a
multicultural environment like Canada is excellent preparation for being a global leader.
What Style of Leadership is Best?
The best style of leadership depends on the situation. A good leader must be able to use
many different styles of leadership. So the issue is not what style of leadership is best, but
what style of leadership is required in each situation that a leader encounters. The
situation consists of the nature of the task, employee characteristics, characteristics of the
organization, and national culture. When the style of leadership is matched to the
situation, a leader will be effective in terms of employee attitudes, behaviours, and
performance, and organizational performance.
SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Are leaders born or made? Consider each perspective (leaders are born versus
made) and the implications of each for organizations. What does each perspective
suggest that organizations should do to ensure that they have effective leaders?
Based on the information in this chapter, do you think that leaders can be developed?
This issue is addressed in the chapter when discussing the trait theory of leadership and in
the section on global leaders. In each case, the answer is the same: Leaders are born and
then made. In other words, certain traits predispose individuals to become leaders.
However, they still need to learn how to be effective leaders, a transformational leader, a
global leader, and so on. This question can be related back to Chapter 2 and the
discussion of the dispositional, situational, and interactionist perspectives. The trait
approach is essentially the dispositional approach. The implication for organizations
would be to hire people into leadership positions on the basis of their traits or dispositions
for leadership. The notion that leaders can be made is in essence the situational approach.
The implication is that individuals can be trained and developed to become effective
leaders, transformational leaders, or global leaders. Finally, an interactionist approach
would mean that training and development would make one an effective leader, a
transformational leader, or global leader only if they first had certain traits or
characteristics. This is basically the notion that leaders are born and then made. However,
it should be clear from the chapter that traits are not the strongest predictors of effective
leadership and that leader behaviours have a greater impact on leadership effectiveness
than leader traits and unlike traits, behaviours can be learned and developed. Thus,
leaders can be trained to become transformational leaders, empowering leaders, global
leaders, and so on. With respect to global leaders, the most powerful strategy for

developing them is work experience, transfers, and international assignments. Thus,

leaders can be made and developed but of course it helps if one already posses the traits
that are associated with leadership.
2. Describe a situation that would be ideal for having employees participate in a work-
related decision. Discuss the employees, the problem, and the setting. Describe a
situation in which participative decision making would be an especially unwise
leadership strategy. Why is this so?
Sandra supervises a typing pool in an insurance company. Each typist does the same job,
and each is highly experienced and dedicated. They work well together, and the pool has
a friendly climate. Sandra is responsible for organizing the vacation schedule for her
department. From the company’s point of view, her goal is to ensure that no two typists
take their vacation at the same time. This situation favours participation. Each employee
has his or her own needs and motives for requesting a particular vacation time (for
example, a spouse’s vacation schedule), and such information is revealed by
participation. In addition, the employees are friendly with each other, and they should be
willing to compromise when necessary to develop an acceptable schedule. Time pressure
and a lack of knowledge among employees are factors that militate against participation.
For instance, suppose the owner of a small business is updating its office equipment and
trying to decide whether to lease or buy the new devices. The office personnel consist of
typists and clerks who have no understanding of the financial implications of the
lease/buy decision. This would be an unwise venue for participation.
3. What are transformational leaders skilled at doing that gives them extraordinary
influence over others? Why do you think women are more likely to be
transformational leaders than men? Describe a leadership situation in which a
transformational leader would probably not be the right person for the job.
Transformational leaders are good at assessing the needs of others and using this
knowledge to gain influence. They are also good at assessing the situation at hand in
terms of constraints and opportunities, and especially at seeing flaws in the status quo.
They are skilled at obtaining the trust of others by exhibiting self-confidence and
expertise. They are also good at communicating their faith in their followers. When
appropriate, they exhibit self-sacrifice and defend their followers from attacks by others.
Many of these attributes might explain why women have been found to be more likely to
be transformational leaders. That is, they may be more likely to address the needs and
concerns of others and good at obtaining trust and communicating. Women might also be
better at individualized consideration, an important dimension of transformational
leadership. One-on-one attention to meet the needs of individuals might be something
that women are better at than men.
A situation in which a highly transformational leader might not be the right person for the
job could occur when the goal or mission of a group has already been decided by the
organizational hierarchy, and the leader’s influence is needed to achieve this specific goal
or mission. Here, more routine transactional leadership skills are entirely appropriate. The
transformational leader would rather exploit difficulties with the status quo and set a new
agenda than follow one that has already been established. As indicated in the chapter,

transformational leadership is especially effective during times of change and for

obtaining employees’ commitment to a change.
4. What are the main findings from the GLOBE project, and what are the implications
for leadership across cultures? If a leader from Canada takes on an assignment in
another culture, will he or she be successful? What is most likely to improve the
chances of success?
The main findings of the GLOBE project can be broken down into four areas. First, the
project team identified the following nine cultural dimensions that distinguish one society
from another and have important managerial implications:
• Performance Orientation
• Assertiveness
• Future Orientation
• Humane Orientation
• Institutional Collectivism
• In-Group Collectivism
• Gender Egalitarianism
• Power Distance
• Uncertainty Avoidance
Second, using these nine dimensions, GLOBE identified 10 culture clusters from the 62
culture samples. The culture clusters differ with respect to how they score on the nine
culture dimensions.
Third, GLOBE found that citizens in each nation have implicit assumptions regarding
requisite leadership qualities and these belief systems are shared among individuals in
common cultures, something they call culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory
(CLT). They identified 21 primary and 6 global leadership dimensions that are
contributors to or inhibitors of outstanding leadership. The six global leadership
dimensions are:
• Charismatic/Value-Based
• Team-Oriented
• Participative
• Humane-Oriented
• Autonomous
• Self-Protective
Fourth, GLOBE found that cultures and clusters differ significantly on all six of the
global leadership dimensions and that while the cultures do differ on many aspects of
leadership effectiveness, they also have many similarities. Some attributes such as being
honest, decisive, motivational, and dynamic are universally desirable and are believed to
facilitate outstanding leadership in all GLOBE countries while other attributes such as
loners, irritable, egocentric, and ruthless are ineffective in all GLOBE countries. And
perhaps most importantly, some attributes are culturally contingent and effective in some
cultures but are either ineffective or even dysfunctional in others.

What are the implications of these findings for leadership across cultures? Clearly, what
is considered appropriate and effective leadership differs from culture to culture. Thus, a
leader from Canada might not be successful in a culture that has different notions of what
an effective leader is and where the attributes for effective leadership are different. To be
successful, a Canadian leader has to learn about cultural differences especially the
differences between Canada and the country and culture where he/she will be working,
and also needs to know what leadership attributes will be required for him/her to be most
effective in a particular culture.
5. Discuss the four new and emerging theories of leadership (empowering, ethical,
authentic, and servant). How is each type of leadership different from traditional
theories of leadership? Do you think these theories extend our knowledge and
understanding of effective leadership? Explain your answer.
The chapter discusses four new and emerging theories of leadership: empowering, ethical,
authentic, and servant leadership. Empowering leadership involves implementing
conditions that enable power to be shared with employees. Empowering leaders highlight
the significance of employees’ work, provide participation and autonomy in decision
making, express confidence in employees’ capabilities, and remove bureaucratic
constraints or hindrances to performance. Thus, the key distinction here is that the leader is
sharing his/her power with followers, something that the traditional theories of leadership
do not do although some forms of participative leadership do involve giving employees
input and say in decision making. Ethical leadership involves the demonstration of
normatively appropriate conduct (e.g., openness, fairness, and honesty) through personal
actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers
through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision making. Ethical leaders
model what is deemed to be normatively appropriate behaviour, make ethics salient in the
workplace, and draw attention to it by engaging in explicit ethics-related communications
and by setting ethical standards. The key distinction here is the emphasis on a set of
behaviours that demonstrate ethical conduct and behaviour. Authentic leadership is a
positive form of leadership that involves being true to oneself. Authentic leaders know and
act upon their true values, beliefs, and strengths and help others do the same. Their conduct
and behaviour is guided by their internal values. Thus, authentic leaders do not just act to
maximize profits. They have internal moral standards and values that guide their behaviour
and decision making. Servant leadership is a form of leadership that involves going beyond
one’s own self-interests and having a genuine concern to serve others and a motivation to
lead. Servant leadership emphasizes the needs of followers and their growth and
development. Servant leaders have a need to serve combined with a motivation to lead. The
key distinction here is the focus on serving others and a concern for the needs and well-
being of followers. In summary, students should understand how these four new theories of
leadership add something new to our understanding of what leadership means and how
leaders should behave. They clearly extend our knowledge and understanding of leadership
and show us that leadership is much more than a simple exchange relationship between the
leader and the follower.

ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Contrast the relative merits of consideration and initiating structure as well as leader
reward and punishment behaviour in the following leadership situations: running the
daily operations of a branch bank; commanding an army unit under enemy fire;
supervising a group of college students who are performing a hot, dirty, boring
summer job. Use House’s Path-Goal Theory to support your arguments.
According to Path-Goal Theory, situational factors (employee characteristics and the task
or organizational environment) determine the relative merits of consideration and
initiating structure as leadership styles. In this case, we have little information about
particular employees, but we do have descriptions of the tasks. In general, the theory and
related research suggest that routine, boring, or dissatisfying tasks call for considerate
leadership, while those that are complex, ambiguous, or stressful call for initiating
structure. Thus, consideration would be appropriate for supervising the summer job (to
help offset its negative qualities) while structure would be advisable in the army unit (to
overcome confusion and stress). The branch bank setting is less clear-cut, and it would
probably require a degree of each strategy according to the particular job and employees
in question. Path-Goal Theory also states that leaders must clarify the paths to various
goals of interest to employees and the opportunity to achieve such goals should promote
job satisfaction, leader acceptance, and high effort. Further, to promote effort, leaders
must make rewards dependent on performance and ensure that employees have a clear
picture of how they can achieve these rewards. Thus, contingent leader reward behaviour
would be especially important in each of the leadership situations. That is, followers
should be rewarded contingent on their achievement of organizational goals. In this way
the leader forms a connection between employee goals and organizational goals.
Contingent punishment behaviour might also be necessary in some of these situations but
from a Path Goal Theory perspective, contingent reward behaviour is especially
important.
2. Identify a leader who you think is a global leader and describe the characteristics
and behaviours that make that person a global leader. What advice would you give an
organization that needs more global leaders?
George Cohon, the former senior chairman of McDonald’s Restaurants of Canada is a
very good example of a global business leader who successfully took McDonald’s to
Russia. Cohon has all the characteristics of a global leader. He is able to form an
emotional connection to people from different cultures as he did in Russia. He is able to
manage uncertainty and balance global and local tensions that were frequent in setting up
McDonald’s in Russia. He understands the conditions faced in different countries like
Russia and is well informed of his organization’s capabilities and international ventures.
Thus, George Cohon has unbridled inquisitiveness, personal character, duality, and
business and organizational savvy. Another good example of a global leader is Bonnie
Brooks who is mentioned in the chapter.
Organizations that need global leaders should first consider individuals with the potential
to become global leaders. Such individuals have experience working or living in different
cultures, they speak more than one language, and have an aptitude for global business.

Next, these individuals will require extensive training and development that includes:
travel; working in teams with members of diverse backgrounds; instruction on topics
such as international and global strategy, business, and ethics as well as cross-cultural
communication and multicultural team leadership; and action learning projects. Thus, for
organizations that need global leaders, they should first carefully select individuals for
their potential to become a global leader, and then provide them with the training and
experience required to become a global leader. The most powerful strategy for
developing global leaders is work experience, transfers, and international assignments.
3. Leadership traits are considered to be important for leadership because they can lead to
certain actions that are required for effective leadership. Review each of the traits in
Exhibit 9.1 and discuss how they might be related to different leadership styles and
behaviours (e.g., consideration, initiating structure, directive, supportive, participative,
achievement-oriented, transformational, LMX, global, empowering, ethical, authentic,
and servant). What traits do you think are most important for being an effective leader?
This is a good question for showing how the traits are important in part because they are
associated with certain leadership behaviours. It is probably fair to say that most of the
traits listed in Exhibit 9.1 are important to all of the leadership styles and behaviours.
However, if one is to make direct links between the leadership traits and the behaviours,
then the following links seem likely:
Intelligence – Important for all leadership styles and behaviours but probably really
important for global leadership.
Energy and drive – Especially important for achievement-oriented, transformational

leadership, and global leadership.
Self-confidence – Again, probably important for any leader but especially relevant for
transformational leadership. Would also be necessary for global leadership as well as
participative and empowering leadership (would need to be confident in order to share
power with followers).
Dominance – This is most clearly associated with directive leadership and initiating
structure.
Motivation to lead – Most important for the more directive forms of leadership and
initiating structure as well as for transformational leadership, global leadership, and
servant leadership.
Emotional stability – Would be most relevant for interpersonal aspects of leadership such
as consideration, supportive leadership, participative leadership, ethical leadership,
authentic leadership, servant leadership, and LMX.
Honesty and integrity – Especially important for ethical, authentic, servant, and global
leadership.

Need for achievement – Especially important for achievement-oriented leadership,

participative leadership, and transformational leadership.
Sociability – Important for consideration, supportive leadership, participative leadership,

LMX, and servant leadership.
4. What does it mean to be an ethical leader, and how can ethical or unethical
leadership impact an organization? What about an authentic leader? A servant
leader?
openness and honesty) through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the
promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement,
and decision making. Ethical leaders model what is deemed to be normatively
appropriate behaviour, make ethics salient in the workplace, and draw attention to it by
engaging in explicit ethics-related communications and by setting ethical standards. They
reward ethical conduct and discipline those who don’t follow ethical standards and
consider the ethical consequences of their decisions. They make principled and fair
decisions that can be observed and emulated by others.
There have been numerous examples over the last decade of unethical leaders who have
created unethical cultures that have had dire consequences for their organization and all
the stakeholders (Enron, WorldCom). Clearly, leaders set the tone for what is acceptable
and unacceptable behaviour in an organization. As a result, the ethical norms and
behaviour of an organization are in large part influenced by the ethics of its leaders. To
develop an ethical culture, leaders must have a strong commitment to ethics and raise
awareness and reinforce the importance of ethics. Ethical leadership has been found to be
positively associated with employee perceptions of honesty, fairness, and effectiveness
and less counterproductive behaviour. Employees of ethical leaders are more satisfied
with their supervisor, more willing to devote extra effort to one’s job, and more willing to
report problems to management. Ethical leaders play an important role in creating an
ethical workplace.
Authentic leadership is a positive form of leadership that involves being true to oneself.
Authentic leaders know and act upon their true values, beliefs, and strengths and they
help others do the same. Authentic leadership consists of self-awareness, relational
transparency, balanced processing, and internalized moral perspective. Authentic leaders
have employees who report higher organizational citizenship behaviour, organizational
commitment, job satisfaction, and satisfaction with their supervisor, and have higher job
performance. Authentic leadership promotes trust and respect towards organizational
leaders. Authentic leadership has also been associated with the psychological capital and
trust of work groups which was associated with higher group citizenship behaviours and
performance. Team members who have authentic leaders are more authentic themselves
and team member authenticity is related to higher-quality teamwork behaviour and team
productivity. Thus, authentic leaders can result in employees who are also authentic.
Servant leadership is a form of leadership that involves going beyond one’s own self-
interests and having a genuine concern to serve others and a motivation to lead. Servant

leadership emphasizes the needs of followers and their growth and development. Servant
leaders have a need to serve combined with a motivation to lead. Research has found that
servant leadership is positively related to trust in management, perceptions of
organizational justice, need satisfaction, job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
creative behaviours, and organizational citizenship behaviours. Thus, a servant leader can
create a more trusting and fairer workplace that leads to more positive employee attitudes
and behaviours.
5. Describe leadership categorization theory and how it explains racial and
gender bias in leadership. What can organizations do to remove the barriers that restrict
the movement of non-whites and women into leadership positions?
According to leadership categorization theory, people are more likely to view somebody
as a leader and to evaluate them as a more effective leader when they possess
prototypical characteristics of leadership. A leadership prototype is a standard example of
a typical leader category that individuals develop over time based on a set of beliefs
about the behaviours and characteristics of leaders. Persons who possess the
characteristics that are consistent with an observer’s leadership prototype are more likely
to be viewed as leaders and to be evaluated more favourably. This helps to explain racial
and gender bias in leadership positions because being white and male is a central
characteristic of the business leader prototype. In other words, leaders are more often
assumed to be white and male and to be evaluated as more effective and as having more
leadership potential. Thus, being white and male is a characteristic of the business leader
prototype which means that race and gender can result in biased evaluations of leadership
through the process of leader categorization. This has implications for the likelihood that
an individual will be promoted to leadership positions and a leader’s likelihood of career
advancement. Thus, organizations need to focus on an individual’s ability, experience,
and performance when making decisions about leadership potential and promotion to
leadership positions and avoid categorizing individuals and their potential for leadership
based on their race and gender. Exhibit 9.7 (page 353) lists some specific practices that
organizations can employ to remove the barriers that prevent women from advancing to
leadership roles.
6. If your task was to design a leadership development program, what would you
include and what would you emphasize? What would be the focus of your
leadership development program? Explain and justify your answer.
Students should first be reminded (as indicated at the beginning of the chapter) that
organizations in North America spend billions of dollars each year on leadership
development to make their leaders more effective. This of course reflects the belief that
you can develop people into effective leaders. Given the findings that leadership
behaviours are stronger predictors of leadership effectiveness than leader traits, and
leader behavoiurs can be learned and developed, it follows that leadership development
programs should focus on leadership behaviours. Thus, leaders should learn the
behaviours described in the chapter (e.g., leaders reward and punishment behaviour,
initiating structure and consideration, particpative leadership behaviours, etc.). Further,
leaders can also be trained to be effective transformational leaders by focusing on the key
dimensions of transformational leadership. You might have students consider the
implications of each of the leadership theories for leadership development. While it might
be possible and even necessary to develop leaders to be transactional and/or

transformational leaders, it might be more difficult to develop authentic or servant

leadership. It might be informative to refer to a study that examined the impact of
leadership interventions (Avolio et al., 2009: A meta-analytic review of leadership
impact research: Experimental and quasi-experimental studies, The Leadership
Quarterly, 20, 764-784). The authors found that leadership interventions produced a 66
percent probability of achieving a positive outcome. The authors concluded that
leadership interventions have an impact on a variety of outcomes. Students should also
understand that the nature and focus of leadership development will also depend on the
organization and its strategy and culture. In some organizations, the emphasis might be
ethical or servant leadership while in other organizations it might be empowering
leadership.
EXTRA DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the trait theory of leadership? What are the main weaknesses of the
approach?
2. What is strategic leadership and why is it important for organizations to have strategic
leaders?
3. Define consideration and initiating structure. Which leader behaviour is the most
effective?
4. What is Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership? What is the main contribution to
leadership theory?
5. What is the relevance of House’s path-goal theory to managers?
6. Assess the pros and cons of participation as a leadership technique.
7. Explain how the Vroom and Jago model can help managers use participation more
effectively.
8. Compare and contrast transactional and transformational leadership.
9. Describe ethical leadership and explain how it differs from other theories of
leadership.
10. Describe authentic leadership and explain how it differs from other theories of
leadership.
11. Describe empowering leadership and explain how it differs from other theories of
leadership.
12. Describe servant leadership and explain how it differs from other theories of
leadership.
13. What is global leadership and how does it compare to other theories of leadership.
Are global leaders born or made?
14. Why is Canada ahead of some big countries like the United States when it comes to
global leaders? What can other countries learn about developing global leaders from
Canada?
15. Do men and women have different leadership styles? What are the implications of
these differences for organizations?
16. Why are there so few women in senior leadership positions in organizations? What
can organizations do to increase the number of women who occupy senior leadership
positions?
SAMPLE ANSWERS TO INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Consider the relationship between leadership and organizational culture. Using the
approaches to leadership discussed in this chapter (e.g., leadership traits,
behaviours, situational theories, participative leadership, LMX theory,
transformational leadership, and empowering, ethical, authentic, and servant
leadership), describe how a leader can influence the culture of an organization.
Based on your analysis, do you think that leaders have a strong influence on an
organization’s culture?
Leaders often have a strong effect on an organization’s culture, especially when they are
the founder of an organization. Very often their values and beliefs form the core of an
organization’s culture. It is possible to understand how a leader can influence culture by
considering the various theories of leadership. For example, leaders with particular traits
or personalities can influence an organization’s culture. Leaders with particular styles or
behaviours can also create a certain culture whether it is one that is say, friendly,
supportive, and considerate, or one that is more directive, controlling, and autocratic.
Leaders who are participative and encourage employee input and involvement can create
a culture that is egalitarian, fair, honest, and open. LMX theory suggests that leaders
might create cultures based on interactions and close relationships. The very nature of
transformational leadership suggests that it is especially likely to influence organizational
culture given that they change the beliefs and attitudes of followers to correspond to a
new vision. In fact, many transformational leaders are responsible for the culture of an
organization (e.g., Herb Kelleher of Southwest Airlines). Empowering leaders create a
culture where power is shared between leaders and followers. The result will be an
empowered workforce where employees have control over many aspects of their work.
Ethical leaders are especially important for creating an ethical culture and authentic
leaders are important for creating a culture of trust and respect. Servant leaders can create
a culture where employees feel that their well-being is important and they can grow and
develop and become the best they can be. Thus, the style and behaviour of a leader can
very well set a particular tone in an organization that becomes an important part of the
organization’s culture. To the extent that it is supported and reinforced through things
such as symbols, stories, and rituals, it can very likely influence the culture of an
organization. Examples can be found in chapter 8 such as John Stanton of the Running
Room.
2. Refer to the material in Chapter 3 on perceptions and gender stereotypes and

compare and contrast it with the material presented in this chapter on women and
leadership. What does the material in Chapter 3 tell us about women and leadership?
Why do you think women are more likely to be transformational leaders than men?
Can women be more effective leaders than men? What have you learned about
perceptions, stereotypes, and reality when it comes to women and leadership?
This question sheds light on the disconnect between perceptions and reality as it
pertains to women and leadership. In Chapter 3, it was noted that a gender stereotype
exits in which successful managers are perceived as having traits and attitudes that are
similar to those generally ascribed to men. In other words, a successful manager is seen
as being more similar to men in qualities that are supposedly important for leadership

such as leadership ability, competitiveness, self-confidence, ambitiousness, and

objectivity. This stereotype has had a detrimental effect on the hiring and promotion of
women into management positions. However, the research shows that women are more
likely to be transformational leaders and to engage in more of the contingent reward
behaviours of transactional leadership. Furthermore, those aspects of leadership in which
women exceed men are all positively related to leadership effectiveness, while those
leadership aspects that men exceed women have negative or null relations to leadership
effectiveness. Thus, contrary to the stereotype and perceptions that women do not have
the characteristics required to be successful managers, the reality is that they are effective
leaders in part because they exhibit the very behaviours that are associated with
leadership effectiveness to a greater extent than do men. The material in Chapter 3 and
Chapter 9 both show how the stereotypes of managers and leaders can have a detrimental
effect on women. The material in Chapter 9 extends the material in Chapter 3 by showing
that women can be very effective leaders and by describing some of the specific barriers
that women encounter in organizations and what organizations can do to increase the
advancement of women in senior leadership positions. Clearly, it should be evident to
students that the perceptions and the stereotypes of women and leadership are
inconsistent with the reality that women are very effective leaders. Furthermore, as
indicated in the chapter, a review of 95 studies on gender differences in perceptions of
leadership effectiveness over the last 49 years found that there are some differences but
only in certain situations and once all these factors are taken into account, men and
women do not differ in perceived leadership effectiveness.
.
SAMPLE ANSWERS TO ADDITIONAL INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION
QUESTIONS
1. What effect does leadership have on employee motivation? Using each of the theories
of motivation described in Chapter 5, discuss the implications for leadership. In other
words, according to each theory, what should a leader do to motivate employees?
Leadership has an important effect on employee motivation. Although the theories of
work motivation in Chapter 5 do not explicitly deal with leadership, the importance and
implications are clear. Need theories require that leaders be aware of employee needs and
provide incentives for them to be fulfilled. In this regard, leaders need to appreciate the
diversity of employee needs and be able to provide both extrinsic and intrinsic
motivators. McClelland’s need theory requires that leaders create environments that will
be motivational for employees in terms of their most prominent need (i.e., need for
achievement, affiliation, or power). Self-determination theory suggests that leaders
ensure the satisfaction of employees’ basic psychological needs (competence, autonomy,
and relatedness) so that employee motivation is autonomous. Expectancy theory requires
that leaders ensure that employees have the means to achieve high levels of performance
and that by doing so there is a high probability that they will obtain outcomes that are
highly valent to them. Equity theory requires that leaders maintain strong perceptions of
distributive and procedural fairness in the allocation of rewards. Goal setting theory
requires that leaders set specific and challenging goals with employees and provide them

with regular feedback. Thus, all theories of work motivation implicitly require that
leaders be actively involved in the motivational process.
2. Refer to the material in Chapter 2 on learning and discuss the implications of

learning theories for ethical leadership. In other words, what should ethical leaders do
to create an ethical workplace? Similarly, refer to the material in Chapter 8 on culture
and explain what a leader might do to create an ethical organizational culture.
and decision making. Ethical leaders model what is deemed to be normatively appropriate
behaviour, make ethics salient in the workplace, and draw attention to it by engaging in
explicit ethics-related communications, and by setting ethical standards. They reward
ethical conduct and discipline those who don’t follow ethical standards and consider the
ethical consequences of their decisions. They make principled and fair decisions that can
be observed and emulated by others. As this description makes evident, aspects of
operant learning theory and social cognitive theory have important implications for
ethical leadership. Ethical leaders reward and reinforce ethical behaviour. Thus, in terms
of operant learning theory, positive reinforcement to increase and maintain the
probability of ethical behaviour is important. Ethical leaders need to ensure that rewards
are made contingent on ethical conduct, actions, and behaviour and that unethical conduct
and behaviour is punished. In terms of social cognitive theory, one of the most important
things for an ethical leader to do is to model ethical behaviour to members of the
organization. Thus, an ethical leader should provide vivid and visible examples of ethical
behaviour for others in the organization to observe and imitate. An ethical leader should
also try to strengthen members’ self-efficacy for ethical behaviour. Organizational
members can also be encouraged to use self-regulation to manage their ethical behaviour
by monitoring their own behaviour and observing the behaviour of others, setting goals
for ethical conduct, rehearsing ethical practices, and reinforcing oneself for goal
achievement and ethical actions.
Given the important role that founders and leaders play in organizational culture and the
link between ethical leadership and culture, it is important for students to consider what
leaders can do to create an ethical culture. Using the material in Chapter 8, some of the
things a leader might do include the following: ensure that ethics are part of the
orientation and socialization process; continuous reinforcement of the company’s ethical
values; create symbols that convey the importance of ethics; conduct rites, rituals, and
ceremonies that convey and celebrate ethical conduct and actions; tell stories about past
organizational events that demonstrate the importance and effects of ethical and unethical
behaviour.

SAMPLE ANSWER TO ON-THE-JOB CHALLENGE QUESTION: THE RCMP’S

NEW BOSS
Refer to the theories and styles of leadership discussed in the chapter and describe the
kind of leader that Bob Paulson should be and the type of leadership that is required to
change the RCMP. What do the theories of leadership suggest he needs to do to be an
effective leader? What advice would you give him? What leadership style and behaviours
do you recommend and why?
This is a very real and on-going example of the importance of leadership and leadership
style that fits the situation. Clearly, Bob Paulson needs to be a certain kind of leader.
Given the two major issues facing the RCMP – the need for change and the need to
address the allegations and issues associated with sexual harassment in the RCMP – it
would seem that the most important leadership theories and behaviours are
transformational leadership and ethical leadership. First, given that the RCMP needs a
major overhaul and change, what is most called for is a transformational leader. This is
because transformational leadership is especially effective during times of change and for
obtaining employees’ commitment to a change. Employees with transformational leaders
have been found to be more committed to and less likely to resist a large-scale
organizational change. Second, given the allegations and continuing concerns about
sexual harassment in the RCMP, Bob Paulson needs to be an ethical leader. Ethical
leadership involves the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct (e.g., openness
and honesty) through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion
of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and
decision making. Ethical leaders model what is deemed to be normatively appropriate
behaviour, make ethics salient in the workplace, and draw attention to it by engaging in
explicit ethics-related communications and by setting ethical standards. They reward
ethical conduct and discipline those who don’t follow ethical standards and consider the
ethical consequences of their decisions. They make principled and fair decisions that can
be observed and emulated by others. It will be up to Bob Paulson to rid the RCMP of
sexual harassment and to create an ethical culture where ethical conduct is the norm and
not the exception.
TEACHING NOTES FOR ETHICAL LEADERSHIP SCALE (ELS)

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
Students should answer the 10 questions of the Ethical Leadership Scale (ELS) (page
341) as frankly and honestly as possible about a current supervisor if they are employed
or the most recent supervisor they had in their last job. The Ethical Leadership Scale
(ELS) was developed by Michael E. Brown, Linda K. Trevino, and David A. Harrison.
To obtain their score, students should add up their responses to the 10 questions and
divide by 10. The total score should be somewhere between 1 and 5. Higher scores
indicate a more ethical leader. The average score of 87 MBA students in a large public
university in the United States was 3.37. In a sample of 123 undergraduate seniors in
business, the average ELS score was 3.46.

To facilitate class discussion and understanding of ethical leadership, have students form
small groups with several members of the class and discuss the following questions:
1. Students should compare their ELS scores and determine the range of scores
(highest and lowest) and the average score in their group. Based on these scores they
should describe how ethical the group members’ supervisors have been. It might be
interesting to collect the average scores from each group and see how they compare. Is
there a trend in terms of the range and average scores? Overall, how ethical are the
supervisors? How does the average compare to those reported by the authors of the scale?
2. Group members should provide examples of what makes their supervisor an

ethical or unethical leader. In other words, based on their ELS scores, they should
provide specific examples to describe their supervisor’s behaviours that are ethical or
unethical. Based on group members’ answers, what are some of the main differences
between ethical and unethical leaders? It might help to make a list of these behaviours
based on the answers provided by each group. Identify the main behaviours associated
with ethical and unethical leadership.
3. Students should now think about how their supervisor has affected them. Group
members should describe the impact that their supervisor has had on them, their co-
workers, and the organization. They should be specific in describing the effects that their
ethical or unethical behaviour has had on people’s attitudes and behaviours as well as on
the organization (e.g., sales or productivity). Make sure students understand how the
behaviours of their supervisor as described in the previous question have influenced them
and their co-workers. Thus, for this question students should understand the connection
between ethical leadership and employee attitudes and behaviours.
4. Students should now consider how their supervisor needs to change based on the
ELS score and behaviours described in question 3. They should be specific in terms of
what their supervisor needs to do differently to be a more ethical leader. You might want
to make a list of the suggestions on the board.
5. This last question is optional if you have students who have been in leadership
positions you can ask them to complete the ELS about themselves. If students are now or
have been in a leadership position in the past, ask them to think about how ethical they
have been in their role. Then have them complete the ELS again but this time thinking
about themselves in a current or previous leadership role. Have students describe how
ethical they have been and what they can do to become a more ethical leader.

TEACHING NOTES FOR THE LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT BEHAVIOUR

Students should answer the 12 questions of the Leadership Empowerment Behaviour

(LEB) scale (page 363) as frankly and honestly as possible about a current supervisor if
they are employed or the most recent supervisor they had in their last job. The Leadership
Empowerment Behaviour (LEB) scale was developed by Michael Ahearne, John
Mathieu, and Adam Rapp. The scale measures four dimensions of empowering
leadership: 1. Enhancing the meaningfulness of work (questions 1, 2, and 3); 2. Fostering
participation in decision making (questions 4, 5, and 6); 3. Expressing confidence in high
performance (questions 7, 8, and 9); and 4. Providing autonomy from bureaucratic
constraints (questions 10, 11, and 12).
To obtain their overall score, students should add up their responses to the 12 questions
and divide by 12. Their total should be somewhere between 1 and 5. Higher scores
indicate a more empowering leader. The average score of 367 professional-level
employees in a major information technology (IT) company in China was 3.67. Students
can also determine their score on each dimension by adding the three items for each
dimension and then dividing by 3.
To facilitate class discussion and student understanding of empowering leadership, have

students form a small group with several members of the class and discuss the following
questions:
1. Students should present their LEB score and identify the range of scores (highest and
lowest) and the average score in their group. They should indicate how empowering
group members’ supervisors are.
2. Students in each group should provide examples of what makes their supervisor an
empowering leader. They should be specific in describing how their supervisor scored
on each of the four dimensions. Based on group members’ answers, students should
describe the main reasons why a supervisor is or is not empowering.
3. Students in each group should consider the impact that their supervisor has had on
them, their co-workers, and the organization. They should be specific in describing
the effects that an empowering leader has had on their attitudes, behaviours, and
creativity.
4. Students should describe what their supervisor needs to do differently to be a more

empowering leader. Their answers should be based on their scale scores and the
material provided in the text on the behaviour of empowering leaders.
5. It should be interesting to see what students say about whether or not they think that
all leaders should be empowering leaders. You might want to form sides on this and
get each side to explain why they think that all leaders should or should not be

empowering leaders. Try to determine the source of divergent views on this. Is it a

matter of individual differences or perhaps it has something to do with the nature of
the job, task, or organization. Try to flesh this out with some probing and debate. You
might conclude the discussion by taking a vote on whether or not students would like
to have an empowering leader.
TEACHING NOTES FOR THE SERVANT LEADERSHIP SCALE

Students should answer the 28 questions of the Servant Leadership Scale (page 364) as
frankly and honestly as possible about a current supervisor if they are employed or the
most recent supervisor they had in their last job.
The Servant Leadership Scale was developed by Robert Liden, Sandy Wayne, Hao Zhao,
and David Henderson. The scale measures the following seven dimensions of servant
leadership:
1. Emotional healing (the act of showing sensitivity to others’ personal concerns):

Questions 1, 2, 3 and 4.
2. Creating value for the community (a conscious, genuine concern for helping the
community): Questions 5, 6, 7, and 8.
3. Conceptual skills (possessing the knowledge of the organization and tasks at hand so
as to be in a position to effectively support and assist others, especially immediate
followers): Questions 9, 10, 11, and 12.
4. Empowering (encouraging and facilitating others, especially immediate followers, in

identifying and solving problems, as well as determining when and how to complete
work tasks): Questions 13, 14, 15, and 16.
5. Helping subordinates grow and succeed (demonstrating genuine concern for others’
career growth and development by providing support and mentoring): Questions 17, 18,
19, and 20.
6. Putting subordinates first (using actions and words to make it clear to others
(especially immediate followers) that satisfying their work needs is a priority: Questions
21, 22, 23, and 24.
7. Behaving ethically (interacting openly, fairly, and honestly with others): Questions 25,
26, 27, and 28.
To obtain their overall score, students should add up their responses to the 28 questions
and divide by 28. The total should be somewhere between 1 and 7. Higher scores indicate
a more servant leader. Students should also calculate their score for the seven dimensions

of servant leadership by adding their responses to the four items for each dimension and
then divide by 4.
In a study of 183 employees of a production and distribution company, the average score
for each dimension was as follows:
Emotional healing: 4.85
Creating value for the community: 3.83
Conceptual skills: 5.29
Empowering: 5.13
Helping subordinates grow and succeed: 4.68
Putting subordinates first: 3.97
Behaving ethically: 4.93.
Servant leadership has been found to be positively related to community citizenship

behaviours, organizational commitment, and performance and to make a unique
contribution to the prediction of these outcomes beyond transformational leadership and
LMX.
Source: Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Zhao, H., & Henderson, D. (2008). Servant
leadership: Development of a multidimensional measure and multi-level assessment. The
Leadership Quarterly, 19, 161-177.
To facilitate class discussion and student understanding of servant leadership, have

students form a small group with several members of the class and consider the following
questions:
1. Students should present their servant leadership score to the rest of the group. Each
group should determine the range of scores (highest and lowest) and the average
score of the group and indicate the extent to which group members have supervisors
who would be considered servant leaders.
2. Students should provide examples of what makes their supervisor a servant leader or
not. They should be specific in describing servant behaviours that reflect their scores
on the seven dimensions of the scale. Each group should come up with a list of
behaviours that distinguish servant leaders from non-servant leaders.
3. Students should discuss the impact that their supervisor has had on them, their co-
workers, and the organization. They should be specific when describing the effects
that their servant (or non-servant) leader has had on people’s attitudes and behaviours
as well as on the organization (e.g., reputation, sales, or productivity).

4. Students should indicate what their supervisor must do differently to become a

servant leader. They should be specific in terms of the scores on the seven dimensions
of the scale and what exactly their supervisor needs to change and improve.
5. Students who have been in a leadership role should now consider the extent that they
have been a servant leader. Have students take the Servant Leadership Scale again,
but this time thinking about themselves in a current or previous leadership role.
Students should then discuss the extent to which they are or have been a servant
leader. Students should then consider and describe what they need to do (what
specific behaviours) to be a servant leader.
TEACHING NOTES FOR FRAN-TECH CASE INCIDENT
1. What do you think the manager is likely to do in this situation? What should she do
and why?
The situation facing the manager is clearly an ethical one. Given that she is considered to
be a star performer by her boss and peers, one might conclude that she would not use the
data “as you see fit.” Of course, this also depends on the norms and culture of the
organization. In some cases, one might be rewarded for having such information and
bringing it to the attention of others. In other organizations, it would clearly be viewed as
unethical and subject to punishment if not termination. Clearly, the manager should
report it to her boss and hand over the CD-ROM and note to her boss. Her boss might
then decide to either discard it or return it to the competitor with a clear indication of
their ethical intentions not to use the data.
2. Explain the relevance of ethical leadership in this situation. What will an ethical
leader do and why? What will an unethical leader do?
and decision making. Ethical leaders model what is deemed to be normatively
appropriate behaviour, make ethics salient in the workplace, and draw attention to it by
engaging in explicit ethics-related communications and by setting ethical standards. They
reward ethical conduct and discipline those who don’t follow ethical standards and
consider the ethical consequences of their decisions. They make principled and fair
decisions that can be observed and emulated by others. In this situation, an ethical leader
would recognize the dishonesty and inappropriateness of using the data. By not using the
data it would not only be the ethical thing to do, but it would send a message to her
employees about the importance of ethics. An ethical leader will not use the data and in
the process would be drawing attention to ethical standards and conduct. An unethical
leader might use the data and in the process be sending a message to employees that such
behaviour is acceptable thereby condoning unethical conduct. Thus, ethical leadership is
highly relevant in this situation.

3. Consider how the manager’s response to this situation can impact the ethical
behaviour of her employees in the organization. What are some of the potential
implications of her actions for employees and the organization?
As indicated in the answer to the previous question, the manager’s response to the
situation will convey an important message to employees. If she refuses to use the data
and in fact lets her employees and others in the organization know about the CD-ROM
and her intentions to discard it or return it to the competitor, she will be sending a very
clear message about the importance of ethics for the organization. If she uses the data and
employees learn about this, it will be an indication that unethical conduct is acceptable
and might even be expected and encouraged. Such actions can set the stage for more
unethical actions and lax ethical standards. Thus, the manager’s response can impact the
future actions of others in the organization and set a standard for what is considered to be
normatively appropriate behaviour and ethical conduct.
TEACHING NOTES FOR THE RADIO STATION WEAA: LEADING IN A

CHALLENGING SITUATION CASE STUDY
Some students might feel that the problems in this case are entirely due to the largely
volunteer staff and that there is nothing Fiske could do about that other than replace them
with paid workers. However, this is not true as even volunteer employees require
leadership to perform their work effectively. If this issue comes up it might be worth
reviewing the section of the case where Fiske discusses what it was like when she was a
volunteer and worked with volunteers at the United Way for over a year when she was an
executive on loan. She was personally in charge of raising $8 million dollars and she
exceeded the goal. She also notes that she and all the volunteers were very committed and
she knew that they valued her and appreciated her skills; it was one of the best
experiences of her life and they really worked hard to show their appreciation. They had a
volunteer appreciation dinner and every month they had one or two events to honour
volunteers. Thus, Fiske knows what it is like to be a volunteer and to be committed and
she wants to bring that emphasis and recognition to WEAA. Students should not write off
the problems as strictly due to volunteer workers. Leadership matters and can make a big
difference. The issue in the case is why are the volunteer workers at WEAA not as
committed and motivated as was Fiske and the other volunteers at the United Way? Part
of the answer is of course is leadership, Fiske’s leadership. As Owens notes, Fiske needs
to deal with the challenges of motivating a volunteer staff and creating a culture of
commitment. This is necessary and possible for paid as well as volunteer workers.
1. Discuss the issues, problems, and challenges facing Corin Fiske and WEAA. To what
extent are these issues, problems, and challenges the result of the station’s past and
present leadership?
The station has been experiencing considerable turmoil and turnover in recent years
and much of it can be attributed to a laissez-faire approach to leadership. As indicated
in the case, there are some unconventional aspects of the organization in terms of
titles, reporting relationships, and business processes such as directors reporting to
directors, people reporting to whomever they wanted to, tasks allocated in inefficient

ways. In addition, volunteers had very little interaction with station management.
Many of the issues and problems facing the station have to do with leadership. For
example, there are references to the laissez-faire management approach. It also seems
that station policies and expectations are unclear. Fiske saw the lack of commitment
and agreement on operating policies and standards as a serious issue and thought that
some of her staff were resistant to change, disengaged, and lacking motivation. It
seems that the station has had problems for years with volunteers who serve as hosts
but don’t show up on time or don’t’ show up at all to do their shows. Some volunteers
who are hosts are not putting in a lot of effort and undermine the quality of the
programming. Some don’t have the skills, experience, or motivation to deliver high
quality, timely programming. Shows often do not start on time and as a result
substitutes or encore presentations are often required at the last minute instead of the
live show scheduled. According to Owens, general manager of WEAA, the lack of
direction, structure, and understanding can be dangerous. There seems to be a history
of laissez-faire leadership when it comes to volunteers and their commitment and
motivation. For example, Narius Coleman says, “You can only expect so much from
volunteers. Sometimes they don’t put their all into it. If talk show hosts can’t make it,
they just don’t come in. Then we have to run an encore presentation. If they were
paid, they’d be here, because time is money. One of our biggest challenges is to get
folks to take ownership as if it was a paid job.”
In summary, many of the problems and challenges described in the case have been
on-going for years and can be traced to a relatively laid back laissez-faire approach to
leadership in which volunteers have very little interaction and guidance from the
station’s leadership. As a result, they do what they want to do rather than what is in
the best interests of the station and what they should be doing.
2. Evaluate Corin Fiske’s success as a leader in terms of the meaning of leadership and
what it means to be an effective leader. Do you think she has been an effective
leader? Provide some specific examples to support your answer.
Leadership occurs when particular individuals exert influence on the goal
achievement of others in an organizational context. Effective leadership exerts
influence in a way that achieves organizational goals by enhancing the productivity,
innovation, satisfaction, and commitment of the workforce. Leadership is about
motivating people and gaining their commitment. Effective leaders can change the
way people think, feel, and behave, and they can have a positive effect on individuals,
groups, units, and even entire organizations. In general, it would seem that Corin
Fiske has not been an effective leader given that the volunteers seem to lack
commitment, are not engaged or motivated, and are unresponsive to Corin’s requests.
Thus, one has to conclude that she is not influencing others in a way that will help to
achieve the organization’s goals.
In terms of some specific examples from the case to support the assertion that she has
not been an effective leader, we can begin with Fiske’s observations that some

members of her staff didn’t fully support her or the organization’s goals. It seems that
some of her staff do not support her and are resistant to change, disengaged, and
lacking motivation. Some of the hosts do not follow her instructions and guidelines
when she instructs them how their show must maintain credibility and have high
journalistic integrity. Fiske experiences resistance from her staff in terms of
communicating and reporting. When she was introduced to her staff she asked them
to meet with her individually, on a regular basis, so they could get to know each other
and work together on programming. However, some of her staff never followed up on
the request and some did not return her phone calls or emails. She also struggled to
get complete information from her staff on a timely basis that she needed to compile
programming information for mandatory reporting to the FCC.
Her staff have also noted some problems with her leadership. For example, there is
some indication that Fiske is not communicating enough with her staff. Narius
Coleman says she should pick up her phone and that she is so busy she’s hard to get
on the phone. Sharyn Johnson says Fiske should try to communicate more frequently
with her staff. “People need to hear her voice, we need to hear praise when we’re on
track, and we need her to let us know when we’re off track.” Ettifaq Mohammad says,
“She needs to work through the culture, helping to regain the trust and support of
students and the administration that has been lost due to prior poor management.”
There are also some positive examples of her leadership which suggests there is the
potential for her to improve her effectiveness as a leader. For example, Narius
Coleman says that she has a vision and she is making a difference; that she is “on
point” on so many things. Sharyn Johnson noted that Fiske was introducing NPR
standards and a higher level of expectations for the staff. Ettifaq Mohammad believed
that the staff supported Fiske and she has good interpersonal skills. He says, “It is
comforting to know the news director and to know that she knows my name, she
listens to my show and will give me feedback.”
In summary, while there are some positive things about Fiske’s leadership, overall
she seems to have not been an effective leader as she has not been able to influence or
motivate her staff towards goal achievement and many of her staff have not
responded to her influence attempts and are lacking commitment and motivation.
3. Consider Corin Fiske’s leadership in terms of the different types of leadership

behaviour (i.e., consideration, initiating structure, leader reward behaviour, and
leader punishment behaviour). To what extent does she exhibit each of these
behaviours, and how effective is she when she does? What leadership behaviours do
you think are required to improve her effectiveness as a leader? Explain your
answer.

When you consider Fiske’s leadership behaviour, it becomes clear why she has not
been a very effective leader. For starters, she does not seem to be using leader reward
or punishment behaviour. Leader reward behaviour provides employees with
compliments, tangible benefits, and deserved special treatment. When such rewards
are made contingent on performance, employees should perform at a high level and
experience job satisfaction. Under such leadership, employees have a clear picture of
what is expected of them, and they understand that positive outcomes will occur if
they achieve these expectations. Fiske does not seem to be providing her staff with
compliments, what is expected of them, or that positive outcomes will occur if they
achieve expectations. In fact, several of the staff have noted the absence of praise and
feedback. For example, Sharyn Johnson states, “People need to hear her voice, we
need to hear praise when we’re on track, and we need her to let us know when we’re
off track.” She also fails to provide punishment when hosts fail to show up on time
for their shows or don’t show up at all and she does not use punishment when her
staff do not respond to her requests. Leader punishment behaviour involves the use of
reprimands or unfavourable task assignments and the active withholding of raises,
promotions, and other rewards. Her failure to use leader reward and punishment
behaviour helps to explain her ineffectiveness as a leader as research on leader reward
and punishment behaviour has found them to be very effective. Thus, to be a more
effective leader she needs to increase her use of leader reward and punishment
behaviour.
Fiske also needs to improve her use of initiating structure behaviour. Initiating
structure is the degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment. The
structuring leader clearly defines and organizes his or her role and the roles of
followers, stresses standard procedures, schedules the work to be done, and assigns
employees to particular tasks. Although this behaviour is very much needed at the
station, Fiske seldom engages in initiating structure behaviour. However, when she
does she is a more effective leader. A good example of initiating structure behaviour
is when Fiske tries a new approach to get better cooperation from her staff. She
explains to her staff the importance of the information she needs to compile for
mandatory reporting to the FCC and then sends them via email a schedule of the due
dates. She also sent them a reminder a few weeks before the deadline, and gave them
a template document to fill in. According to Fiske, this helped as it resulted in a great
improvement in the response rate, receiving reports from half her staff. This is not
only a good example of initiating structure, but it also shows that this was just what
was needed from her in terms of leadership behaviour. The problem is that she does
not do this often enough.
Finally, consideration is the extent to which a leader is approachable and shows

personal concern and respect for employees. The considerate leader is seen as
friendly and egalitarian, expresses appreciation and support, and is protective of
group welfare. Although Fiske seems quite capable of this behaviour, she does not
seem to be engaging in it very often. She needs to show greater appreciation and
support of her staff. Her lack of consideration might be one of the reasons why they
do not fully support her or the organizations goals. Given that consideration and

initiating structure both contribute positively to employees’ motivation, job

satisfaction, and leader effectiveness, she needs to engage in both of these behaviours
more frequently.
4. Use the situational theories of leadership (contingency theory and path–goal theory)
to explain the leadership style and behaviour that is most likely to be effective given
Corin Fiske’s situation. What is the difference between her current leadership style
and behaviour and the style and behaviour suggested by each theory? What does she
need to do according to each theory?
The situational theories of leadership suggest that the potential impact of the leader
on followers and leader effectiveness depends on the situation. The situation refers to
the setting in which influence attempts occur. The basic premise of situational
theories of leadership is that the effectiveness of a leadership style is contingent on
the setting. The setting includes the characteristics of the employees, the nature of the
task they are performing, and characteristics of the organization.
According to Fiedler’s contingency theory, situational favourableness specifies when

a particular LPC orientation should contribute most to group effectiveness. A
situation is considered to be most favourable when the relationship between the leader
and the group members is good (leader–member relations), the task at hand is highly
structured (task structure), and when the leader has been granted formal authority by
the organization to tell others what to do (position power). The situation is least
favourable when leader–member relations are poor, the task is unstructured, and the
leader has weak position power. In Fiske’s case, her relationship with group members
is not very favourable as many seem not to support her or respond to her influence
attempts; the task is not highly structured given the relative lack of structure,
expectations, and nature of hosting a radio show; however, she does have strong
position power given that she has been granted formal authority by the organization
to tell others what to do. This situation (poor leader-member relations, unstructured
task structure, and strong position power) is medium favourability but close to low
favourableness. Situations of medium favourability call for a relationship orientation
or high LPC leader. High–LPC leaders are motivated to maintain interpersonal
relations, while low–LPC leaders are motivated to accomplish the task. Thus,
according to Fiedler’s contingency theory, the most effective style of leadership is a
relationship orientation or a style that focuses on interpersonal relations. Given that
she has not really been engaging in consideration type of behavoiurs, it makes sense
that to be more effective she should be more relationship oriented. However, note that
the situation is at the extreme end of medium favourability and close to unfavourable
which means that a low LPC style of leadership with a focus on task accomplishment
is also probably needed.
According to path-goal theory, the most important activities of leaders are those that
clarify the paths to various goals of interest to employees. The opportunity to achieve
such goals should promote job satisfaction, leader acceptance, and high effort. Thus,
the effective leader forms a connection between employee goals and organizational

goals. It is interesting to note that although Fiske has specific goals she does not seem
to have formed a connection between employee goals and organizational goals.
House argues that to provide job satisfaction and leader acceptance, leader behaviour
must be perceived as immediately satisfying or as leading to future satisfaction.
Leader behaviour that employees see as unnecessary or unhelpful will be resented.
House contends that to promote employee effort, leaders must make rewards
dependent on performance and ensure that employees have a clear picture of how
they can achieve these rewards. Fiske has failed to provide her staff with rewards and
so rewards are not dependent on performance and her staff do not have a clear picture
of how they can achieve rewards.
According to path–goal theory, the effectiveness of different leadership behaviours

depends on the situation that the leader encounters. Path–goal theory concerns itself
with two primary classes of situational factors—employee characteristics and
environmental factors. The impact of leader behaviour on employee satisfaction,
effort, and acceptance of the leader depends on the nature of the employees and the
work environment. For example, when tasks are challenging but ambiguous,
employees should appreciate both directive and participative leadership. Such styles
should clarify the path to good performance and demonstrate that the leader is
concerned with helping employees do a good job. There is much to suggest that there
is considerable ambiguity and uncertainty with respect to what some of the staff at the
station are supposed to do and how they should be doing it. Hosts don’t always show
up on time for their shows and some do not even show up at all. As described in the
case, many of the hosts have never been trained, they do not understand public radio
standards, and some put in low effort. There is a lack of consistency in programming
standards across the board. This suggests the need for directive leadership behaviour.
Directive leaders schedule work, maintain performance standards, and let employees
know what is expected of them. This behaviour is essentially identical to initiating
structure and as indicated in question #3, when Fiske engaged in this behaviour she
was a more effective leader. The need for directive leadership is also evident given
the lack of training and understanding of radio broadcasting of many of the
volunteers. When employees feel that they have low task abilities, they should
appreciate directive leadership and coaching behaviour. When they feel quite capable
of performing the task, they will view such behaviours as unnecessary and irritating.
Given that there is substantial evidence that supportive or considerate leader
behaviour is most beneficial in supervising routine, frustrating, or dissatisfying jobs
and some evidence that directive or structuring leader behaviour is most effective on
ambiguous, less structured jobs, it follows that Fiske needs to engage in more
directive leadership behaviours to be a more effective leader.
5. Discuss the merits of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, transactional, and

transformational leadership for the leadership situation facing Corin Fiske at WEAA.
What type of leadership is necessary and why? What does each theory suggest that
Corin Fiske should do to be a more effective leader?

All three theories provide suggestions for how Colin Fiske can improve as a leader
and be a more effective leader. First, the basic idea behind LMX theory is that over
time and through the course of their interactions, different types of relationships
develop between leaders and employees. Effective leadership processes result when
leaders and employees develop and maintain high-quality social exchange
relationships. From the case, it does not seem that Fiske has been successful in
developing high quality relationships with her staff. This might be due to the fact that
she has only been in her leadership role for two months. She needs to work on
developing high-quality exchange relationships with her staff which involve a high
degree of mutual influence and obligation as well as trust, loyalty, open
communication, and respect between a leader and an employee. High LMX leaders
provide employees with challenging tasks and opportunities, greater latitude and
discretion, task-related resources, and recognition. In high-quality relationships,
employees perform tasks beyond their job descriptions, as suggested by social
exchange theory. Low LMX is characterized by low levels of trust, respect,
obligation, and mutual support. In low-quality relationships, the leader provides less
attention and latitude to employees, and so employees do only what their job
descriptions and formal role requirements demand. Thus, LMX theory suggests that
to be a more effective leader, Colin Fiske should focus on developing high-quality
relationships with her staff. When she develops high-quality relationships, her staff
will be more likely to reciprocate with extra effort and higher commitment and
performance.
Transactional leadership is leadership that is based on a straightforward exchange

relationship between the leader and the followers. Leaders set goals and provide
direction and support, employees perform well, and the leader rewards them.
Transactional leadership behaviour involves contingent reward behaviour and
management by exception. The leader clarifies expectations and establishes the
rewards for meeting them. Management by exception is the degree to which leaders
take corrective action on the basis of results of leader–follower transactions. They
monitor follower behaviour, anticipate problems, and take corrective actions before
the behaviour creates serious problems. As already noted in questions #3 and #4,
Fiske has not engaged in contingent reward behaviour as she has failed to clarify
expectations along with the rewards for meeting them. As for management by
exception, there are some examples of this in the case such as when she talked to Ed
Zeigler about presenting both sides of a story and providing listeners with a balanced
view. Another example is when she tells a host that the next time he is late they
should air an encore presentation. Thus, she seems to be engaging in management by
exception but does not follow through with contingent reward behaviour when her
staff meet her expectations. And of course even with these examples the corrective
action was taken after the problem had occurred rather than anticipate them and then
taken correction actions before the behaviour occurs and creates problems.
Transformational leaders change the beliefs and attitudes of followers to correspond

to a new vision and motivate employees to achieve performance beyond expectations.
Transformational leaders engage in four key leader behaviours: intellectual

stimulation, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, and charisma.

Intellectual stimulation contributes, in part, to the “new vision” aspect of
transformational leadership. People are stimulated to think about problems, issues,
and strategies in new ways. Individualized consideration involves treating employees
as distinct individuals, indicating concern for their needs and personal development,
and serving as a mentor or coach when appropriate. Inspirational motivation involves
the communication of visions that are appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders
with inspirational motivation have a strong vision for the future based on values and
ideals. They stimulate enthusiasm, challenge followers with high standards,
communicate optimism about future goal attainment, and provide meaning for the
task at hand. Charisma (also known as idealized influence) is the most important
aspect of transformational leadership as it commands strong loyalty and devotion, and
this, in turn, inspires enthusiastic dedication and effort directed toward the leader’s
chosen mission. Followers come to trust and identify with charismatic leaders and to
internalize the values and goals they hold. Charisma provides the emotional aspect of
It is probably fair to say that Fiske is not a transformational leader as she has not
changed the beliefs and attitudes of followers to correspond with her vision of the
future of WEAA. Further, she does not seem to be engaging in any of the behaviours
associated with transformational leadership. Given that Fiske was recruited to be a
change agent and to help the organization achieve its full potential, and that she saw
an opportunity to be part of building a radio station and transforming it from a small
station to a larger and profitable one, transformational leadership is especially
relevant to this case. What’s more, she describes herself as a change agent and says
she found the opportunity at WEAA very attractive and believed that they were
looking for a leader to make things happen and to lead change. “That’s me” she says.
Since transformational leadership is especially effective during times of change and
for obtaining employees’ commitment to a change, Fiske needs to be more of a
transformational leader and engage in the four behaviours of transformational
leadership. Employees with transformational leaders have been found to be more
committed to and less likely to resist a large-scale organizational change. Thus, Fiske
needs to communicate her vision of the future of WEAA and stimulate enthusiasm,
challenge her staff with high standards, communicate optimism about future goal
attainment, and treat her staff as distinct individuals, indicating concern for their
needs and personal development, and serving as a mentor or coach when appropriate.
In summary, all three theories have important implications for the leadership situation
at WEAA. Corin Fiske can become a more effective leader if she incorporates some
of the principles and behaviours of LMX theory and transactional and
6. Given the many challenges facing WEAA and Corin Fiske, what type of leadership is
most important to improve the situation and the success of WEAA? Can Corin Fiske
improve the situation by being a more effective leader, and if so, what type of

leadership is required and why? Be sure to consider the merits of the different types
and theories of leadership discussed in this chapter.
Fiske is facing a number of challenges not the least of which is the resignation of
Micah Razan and the loss of the show concept and resistance from her staff. As Fiske
reflected on her situation, she realizes that she must figure out what to do and quickly.
According to Ettifaq Mohammad, one of her biggest challenges is to obtain the
support of the university administration. He says that, “She needs to work through the
culture, helping to regain the trust and support of students and the administration that
has been lost due to prior poor management.” She realized that there were significant
issues she needed to address to be successful in her position and she felt an urgent
need to address the issues she faced as they could jeopardize her success and the
success of the WEAA. She has concerns about the level of support for her and the
motivation among her staff for the station’s goals. She is also concerned about hosts
not showing up on time, missing meetings, not communicating, and not completing
reports in a timely manner. While she was excited about the opportunities at WEAA,
she wondered what she needed to do to ensure her success and the success of the
organization. How could she resolve these issues and challenges? Given the
importance of leadership for the organization and for motivating the staff and gaining
their commitment, it would seem that she can improve the situation by being a more
effective leader. But what exactly will this involve?
First, it would seem that what is absolutely necessary is strategic leadership as Fiske
was hired to lead change and growth of the station so it becomes profitable. Strategic
leadership refers to a leader’s ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think
strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a viable future
for the organization. Strategic leaders provide an organization with a sustainable
competitive advantage by helping their organizations compete in turbulent and
unpredictable environments and by exploiting growth opportunities. Strategic leaders
are open and honest in their interactions with the organization’s stakeholders, and
they focus on the future. Clearly, the intention is to turn WEAA around and build a
profitable, competitive public radio station from the ground up. Jabari Owens’
mission was to “run the station as a business…and to make the station financially
self-sufficient in five years so that it does not rely on the roughly $350,000 the
university provides in yearly financial support.” Ettifaq Mohammad notes how
everyone wants to see WEAA thrive, to see WEAA get to the top of its game.
Therefore, in order to chart this new course and create a viable and profitable radio
station, strategic leadership is especially important.
Second, given the issues raised in the last question and the fact that the case is very
much about change and that Fiske was hired to be a change agent, transformational
leadership is necessary so that followers come to understand and believe in Fiske’s
new vision for the future of WEAA and become involved and committed to it.
Third, given the general lack of consistency and standards along with the previous
laissez-faire approach to leadership at the station, much more structure and direction

is needed. Owens states, “as a management team, we must set expectations, provide
the tools and resources, and establish regular evaluations.” This requires more
directive leadership so the staff know what the standards are and what is expected of
them.
Fourth, given that Fiske is still relatively new and has not yet gained the support of all
of her staff, it is important that she focus on developing quality relationships with
them. She needs to treat her staff favourably if she hopes for them to return that
favourable treatment and reciprocate with higher commitment, motivation, and
performance. She has to be a high LMX leader.
Finally, Fiske needs to implement a system of contingent rewards and punishment so

that inappropriate behaviour is punished and good behavour is recognized and
rewarded. This also ensures a strong connection between employee goals and
organization goals (path goal theory) and ensures contingent reward behaviour so that
employees know what the expectations are and they are rewarded for meeting them.
Thus, contingent leader reward and punishment behaviour are needed.
In summary, as this answer suggests, there is no one particular leadership style that
Fiske must engage in to be an effective leader. She has to use various styles and
engage in different leader behaviours if she is to be successful in her new role and an
effective leader.

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CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading Chapter 9, students should be able to:

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

Strategic leadership refers to a leader’s “ability to anticipate, envision, maintain

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Are Leaders Born? The Trait Theory of Leadership

Throughout history, social observers have been fascinated by obvious examples of

Research on Leadership Traits

Limitations of the Trait Approach

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The Behaviour of Leaders

Consideration and Initiating Structure

The Consequences of Consideration and Structure

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In summary, the effects of consideration and initiating structure often depend on

Leader Reward and Punishment Behaviours

Situational Theories of Leadership

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

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Situational favourableness is the “contingency” part of contingency theory as it specifies

House’s Path-Goal Theory

• Directive behaviour. Directive behaviour is essentially the same as initiating

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Participative Leadership: Involving Employees in Decisions

An important leadership style that is included in path-goal theory is participative

What Is Participative Leadership?

Potential Advantages of Participative Leadership

Motivation. Participation increases the motivation of employees. Participation allows

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Acceptance. Participation increases employees’ acceptance of decisions, especially when

Potential Problems of Participative Leadership

Vroom and Jago’s Situational Model of Participation

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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Transactional and Transformational Leadership Theory

Transactional leadership is leadership that is based on a fairly straightforward exchange

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Research Evidence. Transformational leadership has been found to be strongly related to

New and Emerging Theories of Leadership

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A review of research on ethical leadership found that ethical leadership is positively

The extent to which ethics is an important part of an organization’s culture is influenced

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Research indicates that servant leadership is positively related to trust in management,

Gender and Leadership

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Culture and Leadership

The Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) research

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Global leadership involves leadership capabilities to function effectively in different

Global leaders have the following four characteristics:

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What Style of Leadership is Best?

SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

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developing them is work experience, transfers, and international assignments. Thus,

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transformational leadership is especially effective during times of change and for

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ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS