 It is important to know how ‘correct’ the values you have measured are.

 Precise results are closely clustered round a value.

 Accurate results are centred on the true value.

 Accurate but not precise measurements benefit from repetition of measurement

- the average will be better than the individual points.
 Precise but not accurate results can only be rectified by calibration of your
measurement against a known value.
 We can estimate experimental error and state the results as ranges rather than as
single figures.
 We consider only uncertainties due to the way things are measured.
 Experimental error analysis allows for unavoidable limitations of precision and
accuracy.

Types of experimental error

 Random errors occur when measurements are taken and are due to the precision
of the measurement.
These can be reduced, but not eliminated!
 Systematic errors occur when measurements are not precise – when there is an
offset in the measurement;
Calibration can eliminate these.
 These are not constant in size and can be negative or positive
 Occur due to scale reading errors
 Changes in the environment – temperature, vibration, air circulation etc.

Estimating the uncertainty in readings

 Conventionally, the scale reading error is half the minimum scale division.
 For thermometer: 0.5° C.
 Temperature is 20.0 °C ± 0.5 °C

 For digital measuring devices: read the instructions!

 The smallest unit: Temperature is 26.3 °C ± 0.1 °C

 Make a reasonable estimate of the error!

 It will not be half a scale division if the reading is fluctuating, the scale divisions are so large
that you can estimate the reading more accurately, etc.
 For a stop watch: the smallest division is less than your reaction time!
 Don’t be a slave to the scale division rule – use common sense.
 There are two types of error that we can state for a quantity x:
 Absolute error – the value of the error – has the same units as the measurement (dx, Δx)
 Relative error – the error divided by the measured value (dx/x, Δx/x)

 Measured value is 10.0 mm

x = 10.0 mm
 Absolute error is 0.5 mm
dx = Δx = 0.5 mm
 The line is x = 10.0 mm ± 0.5 mm long.
 We usually quote absolute errors to only one significant figure because they are estimates.

 Relative error is dx/x = Δx/x = 0.5 mm/10.0 mm = 0.05

 or (0.5/10.0)*100% = 0.05*100% = 5%
 Line 1 is 10.0 ± 0.5 mm long.

 Line 2 is 12.0 ± 0.25 cm long.

 Line 2 is 120 ± 2.5 mm long.

What is the total length of 2 lines?

 L = L1 + L2 = 10.0 + 120 = 130.0 mm

What is the total absolute error?

For addition and subtraction we add the absolute errors.

 ΔL = ΔL1 + ΔL2 = 0.5 mm + 2.5 mm = 3.0 mm

 This gives the maximum error bounds all plausible values lie within these bounds.

 L = 130.0 ± 3.0 mm = 130 ± 3 mm (significant figures)!

 Width is 10.0 ± 0.5 mm.

 Length is 12.0 ± 0.25 cm.

 Length is 120 ± 2.5 mm long.

What is the area of the rectangle?

 A = L * W = 10.0 * 120 = 1200.0 mm2

What is the total absolute error?

For multiplication and division we add the relative errors. A L W
 
A L W
A 2.5mm 0.5mm
   0.02083  0.05  0.07083
A 120mm 10.0mm
 ΔA = 0.07083 * 1200.0 mm2 = 84.996 mm2
 The area is 1200.0 mm2 ± 84.996 mm2
 = 1200 ± 85 mm2
 Side of a cube is a = 10.0 mm ± 0.5 mm.

What is the volume of the cube?

 V = a3 = (10.0) 3 = 1000.0 mm 3

What is the total absolute error?

V a
V  an  n
V a
V 0.5mm
 3  3  0.05  0.15
V 10.0mm

 ΔV = 0.15 * 1000.0 mm 3 = 150 mm 3

 The volume is 1000.0 mm2 ± 150 mm 3
Density of an unknown organic liquid compound is estimated by transferring 10 mL of the liquid
in a pipette into a pre-weighed sample bottle. The mass of the empty sample bottle was 30.10 g
while the mass of bottle with the liquid was 39.20 g. The tolerance of the pipette is stated as
0.02 mL, and the sensitivity of the balance is 0.005 g. What is the density of the liquid?
m0 = 30.10 g  mliquid  V   3.099  10 3 
 
m = 39.20 g  mliquid  V g
  3.099  10 3  0.910  0.00282 3
mliquid   m  m0
V = 10.0 ml = 10.0 cm 3
cm
Δm = 0.005 g
mliquid   39 .20  30 .10  9.10 g g
ΔV = 0.02 mL = 0.02 cm3 0.910  0.00282  0.910  0.003
mliquid   m  m0 cm3
mliquid  m  m0
 
V V mliquid   0.005  0.005  0.010 g
39.20 g  30.10 g g
  0.910 3  0.010 0.02
10.0cm 3
cm    0.001099  0.00200  3.099  10 3
 9.10 10 .0