Eb2 PDF

CHAPTER–XII
UNDERFREQUENCY RELAYING AND LOAD

SHEDDING
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
- Load shedding is essential in emergencies to keep the system in tact.

- Effect of under frequency operation of system
- Boiler outputs reduce due to reduction of draft fan speed.
- 10% reduction in speed of feed pumps reduces output by 30% and hence
reduction of turbine generator output.
- Cooling effects of generators get reduced and hence affects the thermal limits.
- Stator voltage is proportional to speed of generator and hence MVAR output

decreases, desinged output is not feasible.
- 10% reduction in frequency reduces turbine capacity by 0.9%. Low frequency
operation may result in vibration and probable resonance of low pressure blades
leading to blade fatique.
- Pull out torque of induction motors is inversely propertional to squre of
frequency.
- 10% reduction in frequency will increase the operating time of protection relays
by 10%
- Instrument errors increase
- Accuracy of energy meters adversely affected
- Transformer core losses increase
- 10% reduction of frequency 10% reduction of KVAR output of capacitors.
- reactive power consumption increases in ballest lamps
- 10% of frequency reduction increases 16% of consumption of reactive power in
air conditioners and 63% in T.V.Sets.
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION DURING DECLINING FREQUENCY:

When there is a sudden loss of generation due to any tripping of large generator, the
system frequency immediately drops. If the tripped unit is compartively small, the system is not
affected.
If the tripped generator or loss of generation power is large, effect is serious. If there is
sufficient reserve spinning governors take up the problem.
If there is not sufficient spinning power, the frequency will go down depending on how
much generation was lost and how much was system demand.
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If the frequency declines much, some other generators provided with under frequency
protection to protect their machine also trip and the effect is cummulative and the system may go
black out.
If some load shedding is done when the frequency declines sufficient to keep the
frequency in limits, the system will survive. This kind of load shedding is automatically done by
the use of under frequency relays.
Soft ware package are available now-a-days to exactly arrive at the settings of these
relays in stages and if properly set and put into effect without manipulations, the system stability
will be well within the safety.
If the automatic load shedding is not effected properly, the stability of the system will
certainly be under question.
Normally the under frequency tripping scheme control wrests with the local operating
people. If trip links are provided in this system, there are possibilities of keeping the trip link
open due to the known reasons but the implications of such an action will now be understood
clearly, it is hoped.
Ref: “Philosophy of under frequency relaying”
Article by Er. R. Venkataraman,
Assistant Engineer,
Office of the S.E/T/E.
Published in TNEB Engineers Association bulletin
U/F SYSTEM PROTECTION IN TNEB AS ON APRIL 2001
To get separated from Southern grid during disturbance the following inter-state feeders
are tripped with RPF and Under Frequency relay combination.
1) 400KV Sriperumbudur – cuddapah will trip at 100MW (Export to cuddapah) when

frequency is at 48 Hz with time delay of 0.5 sec.
2) 400KV Salem – Bangalore will trip at 300MW (Export to Bangalore) When

frequency is at 48Hz with time delay of 1.0 sec.
When these 400KV feeders get tripped the TNEB with Kerala system
gets separated from Andera Pradesh and Karnataka.
II If frequency is not improving due to Generation – Load mismatch, Load release

through under frequency relays set at 47.8 Hz/Inst is obtained. Selected 110 KV feeders would
trip on Under Frequency relay to effect a load relief of about 650 MW.
III On further decline of frequency persisting sub – islanding schemes to get following
block – islanding will be effected.
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a) ETPS (combined with BBGTPS) Block:
Under this block two conditions viz.. with or without Generation in BBGTPS are
envisaged. The feeder in this block would be tripped at47.6 Hz/ 0.75 sec. When there is
no Generation at BBGTPS additional relief of Padi SS & Sembium SS is added. Operator
on duty at ETPS act depending on availability of Generation at ETPS to match the load in
the block.
b) GMR Vasavi Diesel Generation Plant Block:
This block would get separated at 47.6 Hz/0.75 sec. In this block – islanding also,
two conditions ie.. for 180 MW and 100 MW generation level at M/S GMR plant are
envisaged. When Generation drops to 100 MW, additionally at chindaripet would be
tripped.
c) NCPTS (Combined with TCPL Generation) Block:
At 7.6 Hz/2 sec, the NCTPS (Plus TCPL) will go with base loads according to
Generation in two stages viz.. i) When generation at NCTPS is less than 450 MW with
TCPL Generation. This block will have Korattur, Koyambedu, Kadaperi., Tharamani,
Mosur loads according to the two conditions of Generation level.
House load operation of two units at 47.5 Hz/3 sec. Is restored. Also one unit will
go on H/L at 52 Hz/1 sec.
d) Neyveli Thermal Power Station Block:
(Generation 1700 MW load 664 MW). This islanding scheme operates at 47.6
Hz/2 sec with Generation @ TS1 & TS2 and selective 110 KV & 230 KV feeders of
Cuddalore, Perambalur, Deviakurichi, Villupuram 230 KV, Villupuram 110 KV and
Eachengadu Substations for base load. All the 400 KV feeders at TS2 will be connected
to under Frequency trip at 47.6 Hz/2 sec. The excessive Generation in this block will be
reduced by running selected units on H/L. The scheme will be supervised by Neyveli
Authorities.
e) Mettur Thermal Power Station Block:
(Generation 800 MW Load 612 MW) this block too gets islanded at 47.6Hz/ 2
Sec. This block will have Salem, Mettur, Singarapet, Hosur, Thiruvannamalai and Erode
loads as base loads.
House load operation is not possible for these units due to design problems.
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f) TTPS – Hydro Block :
This block gets islanded at 47.6 Hz/2 Sec. Under three conditions viz., i) 5
machines availability @ TTPS plus Hydro area Generation ii) 4 machines availability @
TTPS plus Hydro area Generation iii) 3 machines availability @ TTPS plus Hydro area
Generation. Depending on load Generation study the feeders that are tripped at 47.6 Hz/2
Sec. Separately for the above three conditions are communicated.
Apart from this certain other feeders at 47.6 Hz/3 sec. Are tripped to offset
additional load within the islanded zone.
Under Frequency relay on Aliyar Power House to automatically change the

machines from condenser mode to Generator mode at 47.6 Hz/0.5 sec. Is installed.
House load operation of machines 4 & 5 in TTPS is set at 47 Hz/5 secs.
iv) Since MAPS will go on H/L at 47.78 Hz at 4 sec. Itself separate islanding is
not provided for these machines.
Kalpakkam units are connected for H/L. In stage I unit auxiliary loads of 24 MVA
will be transferred to Generator at 47.78 Hz/1 Sec. At 47.78 Hz/4 sec the unit will go on
H/L.
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CHAPTER-XIII
POWER-LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION
Er. M. Arunachalam
EE / GRT
INTRODUCTION:
The Power Line Carrier Communication terminals are created and commissioned at
various substations. The values for the required characteristic input and output quantities for the
system are to be followed as per 1) IEC Recommendation 495-1974 and as per Indian Standard
IS 9482-1980. The tests on the terminals are to be done as per the method indicated in Indian
Standard IS 10706-1983 of latest versions.
Units and levels & Measurement methods:
The units are in Decifal, and terms used in the system are Attunation, composit loss and
Return loss. The PLCC systems is functioning in the range of 30 KHE-500 with maximum
power lost in line. The receiving equipments has little effect on transmitting end the losses are
expressed db-attenuation
Power Line: Xdb = 10 log P1/P2
Absolute power level Xdbm = 10 log P/1mw
Relative power level Xdbr = 10 log P/P ref.
Voltage level Xdb = 20 log V1/V2
Current level Xdb = 20 long I1/I2
(When the scalar ratios of currents or voltages are the square roots of the corresponding power
ratios.).
1 Mw in 600 ohm
= 0.775V
= 1.291ma.
COMPOSIT LOSS:
The input of stem having impedence Z is fed by a source with internal impedence Z1, the
composit loss in Decibel is given by 10 times log 10 Ratio of power PO – meet the source would
give upto an impedence Z1, to the power P it sends through the system to its terminating
impedence Z2.
Composit loss = 10 log10 P0/P dB.
Insertion loss:
10 log10 P1/P2 dB.
Where P1 is the power available to the system without the insertion of a network.
P2 is the power at the output with insertion of network.
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CHAPTER–XIII
MISMATCH LOSS:
10 log P0/P dB
Number of decimals by which the power in the load in the matched conditions would exceed the
power actually flowing in the load.
RETURN LOSS:
10 log10 Po/Pr dB.
Number of decibels by which the power in the load in the matched condition would exceed the
reflected (Return) power with connection to be actual load.
INTER MODULATION:
In a non-linear Network to which two or more sinusoidal signals are applied

simultaneously, a series of additional sinusoidal signal will arise, there are all Harmonics and
inter modulation produces of the applied signals.
Among the inter modulation produces of two signals = m1 t1 + m2t2, the old order
products, the two 3 order products frequencies (2 f1+f2) and (2f2-f1) are harmful, being closes to
f1+f2.
Measurement of Impedence.
P1 dB V1
1X1
O
V
P1 dB
V1/V2 = R+1x1/R ; V1/V2 = 10 P1-P2/20
1x1 = R. 10 P1-P2/20 – R
Ex: h = 0dB. P2 = -43.5 dB

R = 1r
1x1 = 10 43.5/20 = 150r.
Insulation level of Line Trap:
Residential voltage by nominal discharge

0.5mH 31.5 5.4
Front-of-wave Impulse
Sparkover voltage of the arrester
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CHAPTER–XIII
Peal : 26 KV
Insulation levels of Tuning device and Line Trap.
Typical factory impulse voltage: 90 KV
Impulse Test voltage of L.T. 75 KV

Front of wave impulse spark over voltage of arrester .. 62 KV
The performance of Line Trap can be assessed in terms of its EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE.
Tappling loss of a line trap is a measure of the loss of power sustained by carrier frequency
signal due to the finite blocking ability of the line trap. It is defined in terms of the ratio of the
signal voltages across an impedence equal to the characteristic impedence of the line with and
without shunt connection of the line trap. It is expressed in decibels (db). Rating of the Tapping
Loss::
The value of the tapping loss as determined by the shunt connection of the resistance
component only of the line trap impedence. (Tapping loss based on blocking resistance).
Tapping Loss::
Due to R+jx = 10 log (1+0.25+N)/N2+P2 db
Where N = R/Z & P = 1 x 1 /2.
Due to R only 20 log ( 1 + 1 /2N) db
Due to 1x1 only 10 log (1+0.25/P2) db
Band width of line trap
That frequency band V f1
Within which the blocking impedance does not fall short of a specified value.
OR
That frequency band V f2 within which the tapping loss does not exceed a specified value.
Rated band width:
Bandwidth expressed in terms of
Rated blocking impedance or rated tapping loss
V f1N or V f2N.
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CHAPTER–XIII
V f1N Band width expressed in terms of rated blocking impedence.

V f2N Carrier frequency band within which the rated tapping loss does
not exceed a specified value.
BLOCKING REQUIREMENTS:
Permissible variation of the blocking impedence and tapping loss quantities should be
within the band width of the line trap.
A maximum loss of 2.6 db for both tapping loss and rated tapping loss this corresponds to
Line trap blocking resistance 1-41 times the characterisitc impedence of the transmission line.
TYPICAL CASE:
Line trap blocking resistance: 570 ohms.

Transmission line characterestic impedence of a single conductor phase to earth impedence –
400
TEST ON LINE TRAPS:
Type Tests
1) Measurement of inductance of the main civil.
2) Measurement of Temperature Rise
3) Insulation tests.
4) Short time current tests
Routine tests
Measurement of blocking impedence
Measurement of tapping loss.
Measurement blocking impedance
2b
By means of a bridge method from which Resistance and Resistive and Reactive components
may be read off.
Measurement circuit.
Measurement of Tapping Loss(A7)
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CHAPTER–XIII
2L I
L
G V T
V0 3
2L
4
At = 20 log (V1/V2) dB
Z are resistors equal to characteristic impedance of the line.
V1 = VO/2 V2 = V
Coupling capacitor of coupling Device coupling capacitor and compiling device from a carrier
frequency filter for efficient and connection of CF currents to high voltage line. High frequency
characteristic of coupling capacitor.
Equivalent series resistance 40 r
Stray capacitance of Low for CC

voltage terminal } 200 pf and for CVT 300+0.05 Capacitance
Stray conductance of low 20 pvs for CC

voltage terminal } 50 pvs for CVT
High frequency current – to with stand atleast 1A ( )
value of current equival

to a power of 400 w for a terminal resistance 4400 ohm.
ROUTINE TESTS:
1. Capacitance at power frequency
a) in the standard tem. range for testing.
b) at rated power frequency
c) at sufficient low voltage to ensure No internal breakdown.
2. Voltage tests
a) Duration 1 min.
b) Test voltage between high voltage and earth terminals.
c) Low voltage terminal shall be earthed.
3. A.C. test voltage
Value corresponding to insulation level.
4. D.C. test voltage

Value twice the RMS value of the AC test voltage.
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5. Test between the low voltage and earth terminals.

AC voltage of 10 KV RMs.
Duration 1 Minute
6. Capacitance and tangent of the loss angle after the voltage tests.
a) at Rated voltage
b) at Rated frequency.
Measured capacitance shall not differ from the rated value by

more than – 5% + 10%
Tangent of the loss angle.
Limits of permissible variation subject to agreement.
The purpose of measurement is to check uniformity of production.
Typical value less than 0.5 x 10-3
Coupling Device :
Coupling Device is connected together with coupling capacitor The turning of the coupling
capacitor is to component of the coupling capacitor.
Impedence; in order to promote the efficient transmission of carrier frequent signals.
Turing device:
It matches the impedence between the power line carrier frequency connection.
TRANSFORMER
Galvanic Isolation between primary and secondary terminals of the coupling device to drain to
earth of the power frequency current devived by the coupling capacitor.
DRAIN COIL:
If limits the volt ge surges coming from the power line at the terminals of the coupling
device.
LIGHTING ARRESTORS:
Direct and efficient earthing of the system when necessary of the primary terminals of the
coupling device.
Carrier freq. requirements.
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CHAPTER–XIII
composite lost : not more than 2 dB
Return loss : preferably not less than 12dB
Nominal line 200-400 ohm

side impedence phase to earth coupling
400-700 ohm phase-phase coupling
Nominal equipment 75 ohm (unbalance)

sideimpedence 150 ohm (Balanced)
Destoration and Inter modulation Atleast 80 dB Below peak envelop power
INSULATION REQUIREMENT
Power freq. Level 5 Kvrms 1 min. isolation Transformers
Impulse level To with stand 1.2/50 impulse voltage 10 KV (peak)

(Peak value equal to twice the value of the impulse sparkover value of
the main Arrestor.
TESTS ON COUPLING DEVICE (ROUTINE/ACCEPTANCE)

1. Composit loss
2. Return loss
3. Power Freq. voltage test
MEASUREMENT OF COMPOSIT LOSS.
Z2
V
N V0 21
CF
Generator.
Loss = 20 Log 10 V0/2v 2 ½ dB.
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CHAPTER–XIII
MEASUREMENT RETURN LOSS.
J C
V
CF Generator G
V0 22
Z1
Return loss: 20 log (V1/V11) dB
V1 is the voltage measured by the Web meter (V) with switch closed.
V11 is the voltage measured by the voltmeter (V) with switch
The line boide and equipment side return loss shall preperably he not less than 12dB.
In certain cases values less than 12 dB may require to be accepted.
DISTORTION AND INTER MODULATION TEST
Selective c f
receiver
C f Generator G F1 G 21
F1 T
Apply to the secondary terminals of the coupling device, two generator, set on two different
frequencies conveniently located within the available bandwidth of the coupling device, Measure
across an impedence equal to the line side impedence connected to the primary side by means of
test capacitor, two signals are obtained, whose power is equal to one generator of the nominal
peak envelop power. Power frequency test of Isolating transformers.
Power fre. voltage of 5 KVrms for one min.
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CHAPTER–XIII
TEST ON DRAIN COIL:
Measurement of Impedence at power frequency.
Impedence at power frequency between the primary terminal and the earth terminal as
low as possible and in no case in excess of 20 ohm.
The frequency bandwidth, within which the composite loss does not exceed and the
return loss does not fall short of the specified values.
For coupling devices ICE REC 495 (1974) mentions for line side and equipment side
Impedence. A return loss greater than 12 dB Referred to the normal values, but impractice this
figure may be difficult to achieve.
For PLC terminals IEC REC 495 (1974) specified a Return loss greater than 10 dB
referred to the nominal value of carrier frequency impedance.
C.F. CONNECTING CABLE:
150 ohm balanced
Electrical characteristic
Resistance Max 23.4 ohms
Insulation Resistance Min. 10,000 M. ohm/km
Test voltage 50 H 2 min.
wire-wire – 500 VRMS
wire-shiled – 4000 V RMS
Mutual capacitor – 31 n /km
Earthing at equipment end
Eliminates power freq. current circulation.
May cause high voltage across the wdgs of the coupling transformer which will need to be
designed for this duty. Maintenance personnel will need to take precaution against the possibility
of potential differences during faults, between cable screen and thelocal earth.
B) Coupling device ad carrier terminal not part of same earthmesh.
Earthing at earth potential differences may be high in the case of a fault and the circulating
currents in the screen may be dangerous.
Earthing at equipment end only the common practices to earth only the one side to the screen at
the carrier equipment end. By use of Balanced cables some of the above problems can be
avoided.
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CHAPTER–XIII
APPLICATION OF PLCC SYSTEM

Analogue signals of frequency variation type.
Speech
Signals
Teleprotection
Telecontrol
Teleprinting
and Telefax.
As per IEC 495, IS 492, CC, TT Dissortion per 1 H droft in FSK Channel N 0.5 at 200 Bd.
Possible utilisation 4KH
Speech 300-2400 H
Pilot 2400-2700 V
Signals - 2700 H – 3660 H
V.F. Band 0.3 - 3.7 KH
Speech 0.3 - 2.4 KH
Dial tF6 2.58 KH
Signals 2.76 – 37
IF Freq. 16.45 KH
IF Band 12.7 – 16.15 KH
As approved by a national Authority the carrier frequency range
40 KH – 500 KH
Basic carrier frequency Band

for a single one way channel 2.5 KH, 4 KH
Nominal CF Band.
Band for a particulars one way PLCC channel.
e .g. 2.5, 2, 7.5, 10 kh

4, 8, 12, 16 KH
Nominal Impedence 75 r unbalanced

At CF output 150 r balanced
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CHAPTER–XIII
RETURN LOSS
10 dB R/2 = 1.925
Nominal C.F. Power is the permissible Emission power for which the equipment is designed
comparable with the requirements for superiors emissions available at CF output acc resistance
load equal to nominal load impedance. Mean CF Power averaged over a time sufficiently long
compared with the cycle time of the lowest modulating freq. During which average power
assures its highest value.
Ratio between PEP and manpower depends all factors in multiple signal. Speech level,
with or without compressor. No type and level of signals, may be assumed to be between 8.5 &
10 ds. under normal service condition speech levels (Relatine)
Four wire
Transmit Receinee
Range of 0.60-17 dBr. 3.5 to + 8 dBr.
Suggestion
-3.5 dBr – 3.5 dBr.
-14 dbr + 4 dbr
Two Recommendation
Transmit 0 dbr
Receive -7 dbr.
Balanced Normal Impedence 600 R

Return loss
Not less 14 db
Group delay distortion:

Suggested limits
300 – 3400 HZ CCITT M - 10 20
300 – 2400 HZ
Group delay distortion of a pair of transmitting and Receiving PLC Terminus for data
Transmission where speech channel is used for data transmission.
For 300 –3400 HZ
Starts 500 HZ - 3ms

600 HZ - 1.5ms
1000 HZ to 2600 HZ - 0.5ms

2800 HZ - 3ms
For 300 – 2400 HZ
500 HZ - 3ms
600 HZ - 1.5ms
1000 to 1900 HZ –0.5ms
2100 HZ - 3.0ms
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CHAPTER–XIII
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL :
For a variation of CF input signal level of 30 db, the U.F receive level speech/signal
varies of db.
LINEARITY :
As a function of UF input level over all loss of the speech circuts not differ by more
than + 0.3 dbr from overall loss at 0 dbmu.
For any input level between –10 dbm & 0 dbmu
Example 800 HZ
- 3.5 dbm - -3.5 dbm )(
- 5.5 dbm - -5.5 dbm )( ± 0.3db
- 8.5 dBm - -8.5 dbm )(
- 11.5 dBm - -11.5 dbm )( +0.3Db
- 13.5 dBm - -13.5 dbm )(
Limiter action :-
Increase in VF signal level of +15 dBm. Increase in CF output level must be +3 dBm.
Noise generated within the terminal weighted Telephone noise not be exceed 60 dBm
op.Noise generated within the terminals has limited significance, as under operational
conditions , the corona noise is dominant, in the order of –40 dBm op under operational
conditions a more realistic value is –55 dBm op.
CROSS TALK:
Due to signal channels, either individually or collectively the system shall not give rise to
a weighted disturbance power in the speech circuit of more than –60 dBm op.
Signalling input and output , the pulse distortion should exceed 5ms.
VOLTAGE REQUIREMENTS:
Power supply : DC; 500V DC 1 mohm

(both terminal connected together and earth )
1000V 1.2 /5 pulse for terminal not isolated from earth.
AC 2000V ms power frequency 1 min both terminals connected
together and earth .
CF input and output terminals ; terminals isolated from earth, 2000V ms power frequency 1 min.
Both terminals connected together and earth Terminals not isolated from earth
3000N 1.2 /50 pulse
CHAPTER–XIII
282
V.F Signalling and Alarm
Free from earth. 500V DC 1 min.
VFT channels its frequency and Tolerences :-
Channel Number
CCITT Recommendation R35 R37 R38 A
Nominal Modulation Rate 50 100 200 Bd.
Capacity of Homogenous 24 12 6
VFT channels in a standard
Carrier system with 4 KHZ spacing ;
Lowest mean frequency 420 480 600 HZ
Higher mean frequency 3180 3120 3000 HZ
Permissible deviation from the

Frequency at sending end ±2 ±3 ±4 HZ
Difference between two characteristic

Frequency in the same channel 60 120 240 HZ
Maximum in PLC system :- ±3 ±4 ±6
Noise in PLC system :-

Mainly caused by the power system operation..
Two main type of Noise : Substained white – moisse – like voltages (Random noise). Irregular
discharges across insulators and conductors. (Carona and brush discharge)
Impulse type noise:-

Shortsparks and bursts of high amplitude caused by,
1. Operation of Isolators.
2. Operation of breakers.
3. Short circuits.
4. Flash over
5. Atmospheric discharges.
Interference caused in PLC system due to HVDC system.
Other PLC system :
Sources external to power systems

Maritime Aeronautical system
Broad casting service.
System operating in MF and IF bands.
Reuse of me PLC frequencies:
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CHAPTER–XIII
Reuse at a geographically spaced distance which ensures a level difference of preferably 60db
between the useful signal and disturbing signal.
dB, dBm, dBu
10 log p1/p2 dB
20 log v1/v2 dB
Abritute Levels
1mw = 0 dBm
U = 0.7751 = 0 dBu
40 dBm 10W 600 ohm 77.5V + 40 dBu
+40 dBm 10W 150 ohm 38.7V + 34.0
+40 dBm 10W 75 ohm 27.4V + 31.0 dBu
Standard Limits for transmission quality of Data transmission. One of the most important factor
affecting the data transmission quality is the distortion in time of the significant instances
(known as telegraph distortion).
The degree of signal distortion must be kept within certain limits, the ultimate objective
being that the degree of distortion on received signals should be complaiable with the merging of
the receiving equipment.
The distortion limits,
600 Bands – leased circuits - 20 - 30%

1200 Bands – leased circuits - 25 - 35%
Degree of tolerable distortion (%)
Modulation rate 50 Bd 100 Bd 200 Bd
Channel spacing 120 HZ 240 HZ 480 HZ
Inherent inochronum
distortion with normal
reception level 5% 5% 5%
Incase of slow level variation
of +8.7 dB to 17.4 dB with
respect to normal reception
level 7% 7% 7%
Inpresence of interfrence
by a single wave freq.
equal to either of two
characteristics frequencies
with a end of 20 dB below
the signal level of the
test channel. 12 12 10
With introduction of a
frequency of the
signals. 5 5 5
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Distortion in a data channel causes Loss / Frequency distortion group delay distortion
Variation with time in over all loss

Random circuit Noise
Phase filter
Single tone interference
Frequency error
Harmonic Distortion
Text distortion due to white Noise
VFT FM 240 100 Bd
Channel level –17.5 dBm
For a Noise level of –24 dB.
For 50 Bd distortion is 12.5%

100 Bd distortion is 20%
Text distortion due to frequency distortion.
48 HZ – 13.5%
-8 HZ – 13.5%
Distortion in series connected VFT channel for 120 – 50 Bd.

For 4 Nos. of Series connected VFT channel,
For the normal level distortion will be 7%
If the level is above normal, the distortion varies minimum for 4 Nos 8%
Where as for a reception level below normal about 17.4 dB.
4 Nos. of Series connected
VFT channels, distortion becomes 12%
Distortion in FSK channel due to frequency change of 1 HZ
For 120 50 Bd 2.08 %

240 100 Bd 1.04 %
480 200 Bd 0.52 %
600 600 Bd 0.31 %
Limits for maintenance of Telephone type circuits for Data transmission Telegraph distortion
limits.
Leased Switched
300 Bd 20 – 25 20 – 25 %
600 Bd 20 – 30 25 – 30 %
1200 Bd 25 – 35 30 – 35 %
Bit error rate (max) Leased Switched

300 Bd 5 – 10-5 10-4
600 Bd 5 - 10-5 10-3
1200 Bd 5 –10-5 10-3
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PERIOD OF MEASUREMENT IS 15 MIN

Block Error Rate:
Example: Period of measurement = 15 min

No. of Bits transmitted = 1080000
Length of sequence = 511 Bits.
No. sequences transmitted = 2113.
Maximum Permissible line loss:

Total loss planning
Value as per IEC 5 dB.
Dielectric loss in capacitance, loss in coupling devices, loss in CF cable, loss in carrier
sets operating in parallel. (0.5 – 1.0 dB (IEC)).
PEP = 1010 =40 dBm
Coupling loss at Max. Permissible Min.Permissible S/N Noise

One line end line loss line loss Ratio level
Min. of 2 HZ
132 KV 5 dB 43 dB - 8 dBm 25 - 33dBm
220 KV 5 dB 33 dB - 2 dB 25 - 23dBm
400 KV 5 dB 23 dB + 12 dB 25 - 13dB
Power alocation in a multi purpose PLCC system is determined by the following properties of
the sub channels.
Noise band width.
Required signal to Noise Ratio.
Method of modulation.
Assumption.
Sum of voltages of individual sub channels at carrier frequency is equal to the voltages
corresponding to the PEP. of the transmitter. The speech limits rise is 0 dB. For is used for all
signal channels. operating range for all sub channels should be the same.
S/N ratio for speech 25 dB

for signalling channel 15 dB.
Noise power in a sub channel is proportional to its Noise Band Width.
Allocation of power in various sub channels of PLC terminals for speech plus signals without
teleprotection.
Criteria: Power proportional to Noise band width in AM channels, (Speech and Pilot)
power in FM signalling channel 6 dB lower than in equal Band width AM
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channels.
Sub channel Noise Band Power Voltage Level relative

Width HZ Ratio Ratio to speech
Speech 2100 2.5 10 0 dBn

Pilot dial 80 1 2 - 14 dBn
For 120 (50Bd) 80 ¼ 1 - 20 dBn
For 240 (100Bd) 160 2/4 1.5 - 17 dBn
For 480 (200Bd) 320 4/4 2 - 14 dBn
Calculation of Required Level In Speech Channel.
Level in speech
+
Sum of all sub channel, equ. Channel mn
= dBm (max) – 20 Log - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
Equ. channel No. for speech
dBu (max) = Voltage level corresponding to PEP of transmitted.
PLc terminal level: 10 WATT PEP

40 dBm PEP
34 dBm / 150 n
Example of calculation
Sub channel Eq. channel No.
Speech 10
Pilot 2
-------
12
-------
Speech level = 34 – 20 log 12/10
= 32 – 4 dB/150 n
Level Pilot = -14 dBr to speech
= 18.4 dB/150 n
NOTE:
Channel No. Channel specimen Type of medulator

Amplifier Frequency
001 – 024 120

151 – 165 170
301 – 308 360
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CHAPTER–XIII
Power Allocation:
Pr = PPEP – 20 log (nsi Bsi/Br + BZS/Br + Brc/Br + A.Bs/Br)

Pr = Signal level of Reference Channel dBm.
PPEP = Peak envelope power – dBm.
B = Noise Band width CHz.
Fs = Tel. Sig. Channel.
Rl = Reduced carrier.
A = 10 without compander.
1 with compander.
R = Reference channel.
Example:
PEP = + 40 dBm
Operation mod : Speech only
Suppressed carrier 300 – 2400 Hz.
Pr = 40 –20 log (80/80 + 10 x 2100/80

= 15 dBm
with reduced carrier
Pr = 40 – 20 log (80/80 + 200/80 + 10 x 2100/80)

= 14.52 dBm.
Example:
PEP = 40 dBm
Operation mode : Speech + Data
300 to 2400 Hz
1-Sub channel 200 Bd
2-Sub channel 100 Bd earth
Suppressed Carrier.
Pr = 40 – 20 log (80/80 + 320/80 + 2 160/80 + 10 x 2100/80)
= 13.14 dBm
Reduced carrier
Pr = 40 –20 log (80/80 + 320/80 + 2 160/80 + 200/80 + 10 x 2100/80)
= 12.54 dBm
Line Alternation:
Several modes of carrier signal propagation take place simultaneously on a multi

conductor line.
Main Characteristics of Natural Modes:

Each mode has its own specified propagation loss, Velocity and characteristic impedance.
The modes are independent of each other. The phase voltage at any location is the sector
sum of the phase mode voltages at that location, similarly the phase current is the vector
sum of the mode currents.
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NUMBER OF MODES:
3 modes in the case of single circuit line with 2 earth wires grounded at each tower.
7 modes in the case of double circuit line with one insulated earth wire.
Coupling arrangements should be chosen that the above transmitting power of lower loss
mode.
For practical coupling arrangements, such as phase to earth, phase to phase or inter circuit
coupling, the transmitting power is generally injected in the form of a mode mixture, part of it
much high loss (ground) ground mode, this resulting in a certain model conversion loss.
Line Alternation line

+ = L11 + 2 ac + aadd
aadd : Additional loss caused by discontinuities e.g., Coupling

circuit, transposition etc
L1 : alternation constent of lower loss mode
f
= 0.07 ---------- + 10.7 dB / pam
dC n
f = Frequency in KHZ
de = Diameter of phase conductor (nm)
n = Number of phase conductor in bundle.
Approx. + 10 % Upto 300 KHZ : + 20 % Upto 500 KHZ
Line Voltages above 150 KV
Earth resiotivity around 100 – 300 rm.
Additional alternation due fault distance.
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CHAPTER-XIV
HV AC TEST
By R&D
SOME DETAILS ON DIELECTRIC TESTS:-
The dielectrics break down due to several factors like increased voltage application,
temperature, the age of dielectric materials, presence of moisture and other contaminants.
When an arc is struck through an insulation, say of generator, it punches a pinhole

through the material. The result of the pinhole may not be felt immediately and an arc may
continue without causing damage for some time. Internal damages which take place in voids in
the dielectric erode electrical insulating materials causing serious damage. At sometime minor
faults can cause a short circuit causing considerable damage and may be leading to major shut
downs.
The following are some tests used for assessing insulation properties:
a) IR value measurement with meggers, P-I value tests (10 min to 1 min value)
b) Hipot tests (D.C and A.C):
RECOMMENDED TEXT VALUES ARE:
I. GENERATORS: (1 MIN. TESTS)
a) A.C tests for new winding or coil - 2E + 1

Subsequent test - 80% of first test.
Old machines - 0.6 (2E + 1)
Where 0.6 is the derating factor.
b) D.C. tests
A.C to D.C Conversion factor of 1.4 may be used.
i.e 11 KV A.C = 11 x 1.4 KV D.C.
c) Example I: 11 KV Old m/c: A.C Hipot value = {(2x11)+1}x0.6 = 13.8KV
d) Example: 11 KV old Gen. D.C hipot test

Value = {(2x11)+1}x0.6x1.4
=19 KV
e) Cables. (1 min)
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CHAPTER-XIV
A.C TESTS.
New Cables – 2.5 x Uo Where Uo is the phase to neutral KV rating of cable.
If the Cable is 11/6.35 KV
test value = 2.5 x 6.35
If the cable is 11/11 KV (normally used in generators)
test value = 2.5 x 11 = 27.5 KV
D.C TEST:-
A.C to D.C conversion factor of 1.4 may be used. An abstract of CIGRE report 28.8.1988
given below will be interesting to go through.
The necessity for such a A.C voltage test level is since the m/c phase to Neutral voltage
may reach (1.2 x 11 KV) When a m/c is separated from grid due to some valid reason the m/c
voltage may reach 1.2 times the ratio voltage. If earth faults occur in one phase of cable the
voltage in other phase of the Gen. may go to 11 KV to neutral in high impedance earthed
generators. The gen should withstand this value.
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292
*CHAPTER–XIV
293
*CHAPTER–XIV
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CHAPTER–XIV
C) Tan delta and Capacitance tests on generators
For a good insulation the Capacitance is almost constant at all voltages, but for insulation
containing voids, the capacitance value increases with increase in voltage due to discharge in
void. Tan delta test is a sensitive test for delection of moisture content, voids, crack and
deterioration etc. Any steep value in the tan delta indicates some abnormal condition. Absolute
values are not useful generally. Comparison with previous test results help.
There is a correction between increase in loss tangent (tan delta) and capacitance with
voltage and the energy dissipated in discharging voids.
D) The other tests available are partial discharge test and 0.1 HZ test.
SCOPE:
This covers the high voltage AC test conducted on equipments at site to measure the
leakage current.
APPLICATION:
This test is done on the stacks of 110 KV & 230 lightning Arresters, at rated voltage.
PERIODICITY:
The test is done at the time of commissioning, thereafter yearly.
TEST PROCEDURE:
TEST CIRCUIT:
L
Specimen
V Under test
A
N
Varia Voltmeter
cce
HV Testing
Transformer
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CHAPTER–XIV
Test equipments
HV Testing Transformer 220V/60 KV, 600 VA
Ammeter 0-10 mA with resolution of 0.1 mA
Voltmeter 0-250 V AC
Variac 230 V/0-260, 5A.
The Lightning Arrester to be tested is completely isolated both from supply end and from
ground.
The connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram. The voltage is applied
gradually on the LA under test using the variac, keeping an eye on the ammeter & voltmeter
readings. The leakage current readings are noted at say 30%, 60% & 100% of the MCOV rating
of the Arrestor. Care should be taken not to exceed the MCOV. The Voltage should be reduced
as soon as MCOV is reached. Normally the test is done on each stack separately.
Precautions:
The IR value of the LA is to be tested before conducting the HV AC test.
While testing individual stacks of a LA, it should be ensured that the stack is not kept on
the ground while testing.
The test voltage should not exceed the MCOV values for any stack. The HV leads from
the HV testing Transformer should not be very close to conducting surfaces and adequate
clearance shall be maintained.
Significance of the Test:
A surge arrestor normally acts as an insulator to normal system conditions, hence this
insulation property is, as in any insulation system, subject to certain deterioration.
Hence a power frequency leakage current test at the rated voltage of the Arrestor is a
practical field test to determine the condition of arrestors in service.
Results and Analysis:
The leakage current values have to be interpreted on a comparative basis, emphasis is on

variation from earlier recorded values than on absolute values. However a limit value of 3 mA is
taken as a criteria. Also, the leakage current value at rated voltage should not exceed the
minimum level recommended by the supplier. The readings are to be used more as trend analysis
for detecting deterioration/degradation in the Arrester components.
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CHAPTER–XIV
Reference:
TNEB Code of Technical Institution/1990.
HV DC Test:
Scope:
This covers the high voltage DC test conducted on equipment at site to check the voltage
withstand capability and the leakage current.
Application:
The test is done on equipments, in which HV AC test cannot be effectively done due to
high capacitance and consequent power requirement of the testing apparatus.
Typical applications include test on Generator Stator Coils, H.T. motors, Cables, Busbars
etc.
Periodicity:
Normally the test is done after overhaul, recommissioning as per field requirements.
Test Procedure:
Test Circuit:
Diode
HV
Diode To
L Specimen
t
C
N A
Variac
Ammeter
ce HV Testing
Transformer
297
CHAPTER–XIV
Test equipments:
HV Testing Transformer - 220 V/60 KV, 600 VA

Diodes - HV Rectifier Diodes
Ammeter - 1 mA – 10 mA Range
Variac - 1 phase, 5A
If the test specimen is a HT motor, the 3 phases of the stator winding terminals may be
shorted together and the High Voltage lead should be connected to it. If test can be done on
separate phases, the same may also be done. The HVDC is to be applied gradually, preventing
any overshoot of the ammeter. The leakage current may be measured at the rated voltage after
about one minute.
In the case of cables, while conducting the test on one phase, the other two phases in a 3
core cable should be earthed.
Precaution:
The HV DC test must be done only after conducting the IR value test (with a 5 KV
megger) and only if the IR value is found satisfactory.
As the capacitance of the specimen, would be normally high especially in the case of
cables, proper care should be taken to sufficiently discharge the specimen after the test.
The normal leakage current values would be in the range of 0.05mA - 0.5mA.
Dissolved Gas Analysis test:
Scope:
This covers DGA test of Transformer oil samples using Gas chromatography technique to
detect and quantify dissolved gases in the oil.
Application:
The test is applied in case of HV Transformers mainly to detect incipient faults that may develop
inside the Transformers and generally to diagnose the condition of the Transformers in service
and to suggest future action.
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CHAPTER–XIV
Description:
The Transformer in service is subject to electrical & thermal stresses resulting in

liberation of gases from the hydrocarbon mineral oil used in the Transformers. Cellulose (paper
insulation) also is involved in the formation of gases, which are dissolved in the oil. Gases may
be formed, due to natural aging and also as a result of faults. Basically, the mechanism of gas
formation in oil includes oxidation, vapourisation, insulation decomposition, oil breakdown etc.
An assessment of these gases, that are dissolved in the oil, would help in diagnosing the internal
condition of the Transformer. Operation with a fault may seriously damage the equipment and it
is useful to detect the fault at a very early stage of development.
In the case of fault, its type & severity may be inferred from the composition of the gases
and the rate of gas formation. In the case of incipient faults, the gases formed are partly dissolved
in the oil, hence periodic analysis of oil samples for the amount and composition of dissolved
gases forms a means of detecting faults.
DGA involves the following steps:
(a) Sampling of oil

(b) Extraction of gases from the oil
(c) Analysis of the extracted gases using gas chromatograph.
(d) Calculation of concentration of gases in PPM.
(e) Interpretation of results.
Periodicity:
The DGA is done on all power/auto transformer of 110KV class & above on yearly basis
and on special occasions warranted by service conditions. In the case of new Transformers the
test is recommended one month after commissioning and thereafter yearly. A DGA test one
month before expiry of the guarantee period of the Transformer is also recommended.
TEST PROCEDURE:
Equipment used:
(a) The Gas extraction plant consisting of magnetic stirrer, vacuum pump, mercury reservior,
degassing system.
(b) Gas Chromotograph.
(c) Output unit namely Integrator and PC
The Gas – Chromatographic system consists of a carrier gas stream supplied by a gas
cylinder, a sample inlet /injection port, a chromatographic column, detectors, and an output
recorder.
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CHAPTER–XIV
The carrier Gas Nitrogen obtained from cylinder is passed through flow regulator to the
column. The carrier gas passes through the sample inlet system where it picks up the sample to
be analysed. The carrier gas sweeps the sample being injected into its stream and enters into the
column where the separation takes place.
Absorption columns are used for the separation of gaseous mixtures. Molecular sieves
Poropak Q type absorbents are used to separate CO, CO2, H2 gases. Silica gel type absorbents
are used to separate hydrocarbon gases.
Detectors (Flame Ionisation and Thermal conductivity detectors) are used in detecting the
Gases and works on the principle of thermal conductivity (TCD) of the gases and the electrical
conductivity of gases which have been partially ionised The FID is used for hydrocarbons and
the TCD for atmospheric gases like CO, CO2, & Hydrogen.
The Gas extraction plant is first evacuated with the help of the rotary vacuum pump.
When sufficient vacuum is achieved, oil is let into the degassing vessel and stirred till complete
degassing is achieved. Using the mercury column, the evolved gases are compressed to the
known volume.
The Gases are drawn by means of airtight syringes and injected into the Gas
Chromatograph, after the Gas Chromatograph is properly set up with carrier Gas etc. The
detection and quantification of gases take place in the Chromatograph. The Chromatograph is
calibrated by means of a standard gas mixture containing a suitable known amount of each of the
gas components to be analysed to establish the calibration curve and retention time. An
Integrator connected to the output of the Chromatograph gives the proportional area in units for
different gases. The method of calibration involves measuring the area of each peak and
retention time, identifying the gases corresponding to each peak by comparison with the
chromatogram obtained by calibration & obtaining the gas values in PPM. The PPM values of
the gases are calculated by comparing with standard gas values and the quantity of dissolved
gases in PPM is than calculated for each gas.
Precaution:
The samples must be collected, labeled, stored, Transported and tested with proper
sampling, storing and testing procedures to obtain accurate results.
Analysis & Interpretation:
There are several methods for interpreting the results of the DGA test. Firstly a check is
made by comparing the concentration levels with levels that are permissible in a healthy
Transformer depending upon the service age of the Transformer. These permissible
concentration levels for gases are tabulated, for reference.
Then, in case of higher gas levels, than the permissible levels, or in cases where gas
levels show abnormal increasing trend from previous recorded values, the Roger’s method of
diagnosis or the 3 ratio method prescribed in IS 10593 may be used for interpretation.
Reference:
IS 1866, IS 9434, IS 10593, CPRI Publications.
300
CHAPTER–XIV
LIMITING VALUES
IS 1866 – 1983
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEST EQU. VOLTAGE METHOD LIMIT
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ELECTRIC STRENGTH, Min  145 KV IS : 6792 50
KV < 145  72.5 KV 40
< 72.5 KV 30
WATER CONTENT  145 KV IS : 335 25

PPM, Max < 145 KV 35
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE ALL V IS : 6103 0.1

@ 90, 10 E 12 Ohm-Cm Min
TAN DELTA  145 KV IS : 6262 0.2

@ 90, Max < 145 KV 1.0
ACIDITY ALL V IS : 1448 0.5

Mg KOH/g, Max
I F T, N/m, Min ALL V IS : 6104 0.015
FLASH POINT Min ALL V IS : 1448 125 or

Deg C, Min Max. Decrease of 15
SEDIMENT AND/OR ALL V IS 1866 NIL

PRECIPITABLE SLUDGE
PERMISSIBLE GAS CONCENTRATIONS
GAS <4 YEARS 4-10 YEARS >10 YEARS

1 HYDROGEN 100/150 200/300 200/300
2 METHANE 50/70 100/150 200/300
3 ACETYLENE 20/30 30/50 200/150
4 ETHYLENE 100/150 150/200 200/400
5 ETHANE 30/50 100/150 800/1000
6 CARBON MONOXIDE 200/300 400/500 600/700
7 CARBON DI OXIDE 3000/3500 4000/5000 9000/12000
301
CHAPTER–XIV
Furan Analysis Test:

Introduction:
Paper is the major solid insulant in Transformers. While there are a number of tests to
monitor the condition of the oil in the Transformer, till recently there was no practical technique
available for condition assessment of the solid insulation in the Transformers.
A new testing method has emerged in which condition of solid insulation is assessed by
analysing the degradation of products of cellulose paper called furanic compounds using High
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) or any other suitable equipment.
Application:
The test is specially applicable to Transformers that have put in more than 10 years of
service life and also in cases where the involvement of cellulose is suspected in faults that have
been detected irrespective of service age of Transformers.
Furan compounds:
Furanic compounds commonly referred to as furans, are products of degradation of
cellulosic materials and are dissolved in the oil. The furanic compounds that are detected.
quantified and analysed are
2 – Furfural dehyde
5 – Hydroxy methyl – 2 furfural
2 – Acetyl furan
5 – Methyl – 2 – furfural
2 – Furfural alcohol
of these 2 – furfural dehyde is found to be the most commonly monitored furan compound.
Periodicity:
The periodicity for this has not been established but it is suggested that a reference test
value for all Transformer in the 10th year of service and yearly testing from the 15th year onwards
may be adopted presently.
Test Procedure:
Equipments:
Equipments such as High Performance Liquid Chromatograph, visible range spectrometer are
used in Furan Analysis. However the HPLC is the standard equipment used.
Method:
(a) Furanic compounds in the oil samples are extracted from a known volume of test
specimen.
(b) A portion of the extract is introduced into an HPLC system equipped with a
suitable analytical column & UV detector.
(c) Furanic Compounds in the test specimen are identified and quantified by
comparison to standards of known concentration.
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CHAPTER–XIV
Result and Analysis:
The furan compounds are analysed on a trend basis. The concentration levels are
compared with previous values and the assessment of solid insulation as healthy, initial stage of
degradation, failure levels etc are made and appropriate action taken.
Reference
IEC 1198/1993
ASTM D 5837-95
CPRI Publications.
Transformer oil tests:

(a) Electric Strength (BDV)
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are inservice and use uninhibited
insulation oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Definition:
The voltage at which the oil breaks down when subjected to an ac electric field with a
continuously increasing voltage contained in a specified apparatus. The voltage is expressed in
KV.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of any rating and switch gears.
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants. However the BDV of oil samples from
Transformer of all voltage class & from OLTC shall be tested on a quarterly periodicity,
separately with locally available test kits.
Test procedure:
The test is done with a test cell, made by glass or plastic, which shall be transparent and
non-absorbent, with an effective volume of 300 to 500 ml and preferably a closed one. The
electrodes are mounted on a horizontal axis and shall be 2.5 mm apart.
The test procedure is begun by adjusting the sphere gap of the electrodes accurately by
the use of 2.5 mm gauge (supplied with the kit).
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CHAPTER–XIV
Initially some of the oil from the sampling container is poured out to clean the tip of the
sample container. The test cell shall be cleaned by rinsing with the test oil twice before filling the
test oil for the test. The oil, then, should be poured gradually, avoiding formation of air bubbles.
The oil is filled to a height of 40 mm from the axis of electrodes. The test cell with oil is
then placed in the testing unit. A period of 5 minutes is allowed for the oil to settle. Then voltage
is applied at the rate of rise of 2 KV/second. The voltage is thus increased to a value where the
oil breaks down and the corresponding voltage is noted. The test is carried out six times on the
same oil sample filling with intervals of 2 minutes. The Arithmetic mean value of the six
readings is taken as the BDV of the oil sample.
Precaution:
The sample must not be exposed to atmosphere and should be as near to the actual oil in
the Transformer as possible, in all aspects..
The sample container may be shaken upside down to get a homogenous sample for test.
The container electrodes etc may be rinsed thoroughly with test sample, prior to the
commencement of the test.
The test values are interpreted as per IS 335 for new oil and as per IS 1866 for oil in
service.
For oil in service the limit values are as follows:
Equipment voltage Limit (Minimum)
145 KV and above 50 KV

Between 72.5 KV and 145 KV 40 KV
Less than 72.5 KVA 30 KV
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6792
(b) Flash Point:
Scope:
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
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CHAPTER–XIV
Definition:
It is the temperature at which the oil gives off so much vapour that this vapour, when
mixed with air, forms an ignitable mixture and gives a momentary flash on application of a small
pilot flame under the prescribed conditions.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformer of all ratings.
Periodicity:
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants.
Test procedure:
The test equipments used are pensky-martin closed cup apparatus, thermometers and
variac.
The cup is cleaned well by rinsing twice with the test oil. Oil is filled upto the marking
provided and is placed in the test apparatus. The oil is heated and from about 100’C onwards, a
small pilot flame is used to ignite the mixture and the temperature at which this mixture gets
ignited is noted and recorded as the Flash-Point.
Minimum limit is 125’C or maximum decrease of 15’C for all voltage class.
Reference:
IS 335. IS 1866, IS 1448
(c) Neutralisation Value (Acidity)
Scope:
Definition:
It is the measure of free organic and inorganic acids present in the oil. It is expressed in
terms of the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the total free
acids in one gram of the oil
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all rating.
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CHAPTER–XIV
Periodicity:
Test Procedure:
The materials used for the test are indicator bottle containing universal indicator with PH
value of 4 & 11, clean, dry glass test tubes and a color chart calibrated with neutralisation
number values.
The test procedure is, 1.1 ml. of sampling oil to be tested is accurately pipetted into a
clean dry test tube. To this 1 ml of Isoprophyl, alcohol. 1.0 ml of 0.0085 N Sodium Carbonate
solution are added. Then, to this five drops of the universal indicator are added and gently
shaked.
0.0085 N of Sodium Carbonate solution is prepared by dissolving 0.085 N of Sodium

Carbonate in 10ml of distilled water to get 0.0085 N of sodium carbonate solution.
The resulting mixture develops a color depending on the PH value of the mixture. This
color is compared with the standard chart, which gives the approximate neutralisation value
ranging from 0 to 1.0.
Maximum limit for all voltage clause is 0.5.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866,
(d) Specific Resistance (Resistivity)
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are in service and use uninhibited
Definition:
It is the ratio of the dc potential gradient in volts per centimeter paralleling the current
flow within the specimens to the current density in amperes per square centimeters at a given
instant of time and under prescribed conditions. This is numerically equal to the resistance
between opposite faces of a centimeter cube of the liquid. It is expressed in Ohm-centimeter.
306
CHAPTER–XIV
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all ratings.
Periodicity:
Test procedure
The equipments needed for the test are million megohm meter, oil cell, oil cell heater.
The oil is heated upto 90’C and 500 V d.c. applied, and after one minute the megohm
indicated is noted and the Resistivity value is calculated with appropriate multiplication factors
and cell constant.
Results & Analysis
Minimum limit is 0.1x10^12 Ohm-cm at 90’C for all voltages.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6103.
(e) Dielectric Dissipation Factor (Tan delta)
Scope:
Definition:
It is the Tangent of the angle (delta) by which the phase difference between applied
voltage and resulting current deviates from 1/2 radian when the dielectric of the capacitor
consists exclusively of the insulating oil.
Application:
Periodicity:
307
CHAPTER–XIV
Test procedure:
The equipments required are Dielectric constant test kit, oil cell, oil cell heater.
The oil cell is thoroughly rinsed with the sample oil to be tested and about 35 ml of oil is
taken in the cell and heated to 90'C. Then 500V AC is applied to the terminals of the oil cell. The
Tan delta bridge is balanced by adjusting the potentiometers to get null deflection. The Tan delta
value obtained is recorded.
Results & Analysis:
The maximum limit for Tan delta at 90'C is 0.2 for voltages of 145 Kv & above and 1.0
for voltages below 145 KV.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6262.
(f) Interfacial Tension:
Scope:
Definition:
It is the force necessary to detach a planar ring of platinum wire from the surface of the
liquid of higher surface tension that is upward from the water-oil surface. It is expressed in
dynes/cm. or N/m.
Application:
Periodicity:
Test procedure:
The apparatus required are tensiometer, fine platinum ring, glass beakers.
Before starting the test, all glass beakers are cleaned with isoprophyl alcohol and acetone.
The platinum ring is also cleaned with isoprophyl alcohol & acetone. The tensiometer is placed
in a horizontal plane.
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CHAPTER–XIV
About 20-25 ml. of distilled water is taken in the sample container and is placed on the
adjustable platform of the densitometer. The platinum ring is suspended from the densitometer.
The adjusting platform is raised till the platinum ring is immersed in the water to a depth not
exceeding 6 mm and at the centre of the glass beaker.
Now gradually, the platform is lowered, increasing the torque of the ring system by
maintaining the tension arm in the zero position. As the film of water adhering to the ring
approaches the breaking point, slow adjustment is made to ensure that the moving system is in
the zero position when rupture occurs. The surface tension of the water is noted. The value is
normally 71 to 72 dynes/cm.
Now the densitometer scale is brought to zero and the adjustable platform is raised until
the ring is immersed to a depth of about 5 mm in the distilled water. The sample oil to be tested
is poured slowly along the walls of the beaker over the distilled water. The platform is slowly
lowered, increasing the tension of the ring system. The IFT is the scale reading at which the ring
breaks free from the interface.
Results & Analysis:
The minimum limit for all voltage is 15 dynes/cm.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6104
(q) Water Content:

Scope:
Description:
This test is for the determination of water content usually in the range of 0-75 ppm in the
oil.
The Karl-fisher method is used. The method is based on the reaction of water with Iodine
and Sulphur-di-oxide in Pyridine/methonol solution.
Application:
Periodicity:
309
CHAPTER–XIV
Test Procedure:
The materials required for the test are methanol with less than 0.02% water content, Karl-
fisher Reagent, Titration vessel.
The titration vessel is made moisture free.

The Karl fisher Reagent and the methanol are taken in the two sides of the burette to
levels. A certain quantity of methanol is allowed in the test vessel. The pointer will show end
point as water. The electro magnetic stirrer should rotate at a speed of 150-300 rpm. Karl Fisher
Reagent is allowed into the vessel to neutralise the water. When all the water is separted, the
pointer will show Karl Fisher Reagent-O'. A known quantity of water say 20l is introduced with
a syringe. The pointer will once again show water indication. Steadily and gradually the Karl
Fischer Reagent is added continuously so as to bring the pointer to Karl Fisher 'O' position. The
initial and final readings are noted. The difference is the volume of Karl fisher required to
neutralise 20l of water. The same procedure is repeated with sample oil and the water content
present in the oil is calculated using the formula (20 X K.F. required to neutralise the Oil X 103 )
/ ( 25 X 0.88 X K.F. required to neutralise water).
Results & Analysis:
The minimum limit for Transformers of voltage class 145 KV & above is 25 PPM and for
voltages below 145 KV is 35 ppm.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 2362
(h) Sludge Test:
Scope:
Description:
This test is conducted to determine the presence of sediments and perceptible sludge in
the oil.
Application:
Periodicity:
The sludge test is carried out when the IFT value of oil is very low say below 13 Dynes /
cm.
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Test procedure:
11 ml of the test sample oil is pipetted in a clean conical flask. 100 ml. of Hexane or N-
heptane is added to this oil. The mixture is shaken well and is kept in a dark place for 24 hours.
At the end of 24 hour, it is checked for any precipitation in the oil. If any precipitation is
observed, the sample oil contains sludge.
Results & Analysis:
For all voltage class sludge should be NIL.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866.
Note:
All Indian standards referred versions are the latest versions revised/amended from time
to time.
Test procedure for measurement of Tan delta and Capacitance of equipments.
1. Scope: This covers the method of measuring the dielectric loss properties of the
insulation system of equipments by measuring the Tan delta and Capacitance values.
2. Definition: Tan delta is the tangent of the dielectric loss angle of an insulation system.
It is also referred to as dissipation factor or dielectric loss factor.
3. Significance of Tan delta value in insulation systems:
In an insulation system, the dielectric loss is given by V2 WC tan delta watts. If the
dielectric power loss is more, the dielectric strength of the insulation would be reduced. The Tan
delta is affected by moisture, voids and ionization in the Insulation. Hence it is indicative of the
quality of insulation.
4. Principle of Tan delta and Capacitance measurement for HV equipments.
4.1 The High Voltage electrical equipments have conductors HV and LV separated by an
insulating medium. It can also be a conductor or winding with an HT terminal and the LV
terminal connected to ground. These systems can be represented as two and three terminal
capacitors. An example of a two terminal capacitor is the bushing of an equipment. The central
conductor is one terminal and the mounting flange (ground) is the other terminal. An example for
a three terminal capacitor is a bushing with a Tan delta test tap. In this case the central conductor
is one terminal, the test tap is the second terminal and the mounting flange is the third terminal.
Likewise most of the HV equipments can be visualised as capacitors with simple and complex
insulation systems and these can be measured with a test set that can measure both grounded and
ungrounded specimens.
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4.2 The Vector Relationship:

I
IC
Ir V
In the ideal case, the capacitance current leads the voltage by 90'. But in practice, in all
insulation systems, there exists a loss current Ir which is small in magnitude but in phase with the
voltage, as shown above. The total current I, therefore leads the voltage by an angle which is less
than 90. The angle by which it is less than 90 is known as the loss angle delta and in all
practical cases, the magnitude of Ic and I are same as Ir is very small and the power factor and
dissipation factor tend to be the same.
In the above diagram Dissipation factor = tan delta; As the important characteristic of a
capacitor is its dissipation factor, it is measured and monitored as a diagnostic test of insulation
systems.
5. Application:
The test is conducted on the following:
(1) Power and Auto Transformer Bushings

(2) Power and Auto Transformer Windings
(3) Generator stator coils
(4) Current and Potential Transformers.
(5) CVTs
(6) Any other HV equipment where insulating condition is to be tested.
6. Periodicity:
The test is done at the time of commissioning and thereafter yearly and on actual
requirement depending on the conditions of the equipment.
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Test procedure:
There are two basic versions of testing (i.e.) Grounded specimen test and ungrounded
specimen test. The circuit diagram are shown below:
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The circuit connections are given as shown above depending on whether the specimen is
grounded or floating. The Input voltage is raised gradually through a variac till the desired HV
Voltage is reached for the specimen. The bridge circuit consists of a differential transformer, R-C
network, known standard capacitor (Cn) and the unknown specimen (Cx) under test. The same
HV voltage is applied to both the known and specimen capacitors. The currents through the two
capacitors pass through the differential Transformer, which is balanced by means of adjustment
of the bridge capacitors, which are provided with multiplication selectors. Once the bridge is
balanced for the capacitance value the capacitance selected is read directly from the multipliers.
The tan delta is then adjusted to get the balanced horizontal position in the Oscilloscope. The
value of Tan delta is also directly read from the bridge Tan delta selector with appropriate
decimals.
Precautions:
(1) It is always preferable to conduct the Tan delta test after the IR value test has been done
and found satisfactory.
(2) The test voltage should not exceed the rated voltage of the equipment, under test.
(3) Adequate safety precautions are to be taken when the test is on, Inadvertent entry to
testing area must be prevented by proper measures.
(4) Bushings etc. should be well cleaned and the test must be carried out in dry weather
condition.
(5) Make sure the input voltage variac is in the 'O' position before the start of the test.
(6) Interference from neighbouring live lines should be minimum. Modern kits with
interference suppression circuits are preferred while testing in yards etc.
(7) For Generator windings and higher capacitance specimen's the variac and the testing
Transformer should be of higher rating to carry the increased charging current.
Test value Interpretation:
In the case of Bushings the ISS prescribes a maximum value of 0.007 for oil
impregnanted condensor bushings and 0.020 for noncondenser bushings. These are values for
new bushings and for bushings, windings and other equipments that are inservice trend
monitoring is the best suggested course for proper analysis of the test results.
Reference:
1. MWBTan delta and Capacitance kit operating manual.

2. IS2099-1973.
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CHAPTER-XV
MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTION RELAYS
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
9.1 SITE VISITS:
During the site visits, the following inspection works may be done in the protection and
control rooms and arrangements may be made to coordinate with other departments for
necessary works :
1. The room should be tidy and clean
2. Sufficient lighting should be there
3. There should not be any leakage of water
4. Sun rays should not fall directly on panels.
5. The panels should be vermin proof.
6. The inside of the panels should be free from cobwebs, dust, hanging loose wires etc.
7. The room temperature should be with in limits.
8. The outside of the panels should be clean.
9. All the relay covers should be tightened and clean.
10. Fault recorders should be in working condition.
11. All the relay catalogues and drawings should be well maintained and be available in easily
traceable location. A list of these items may be readily available.
12. General condition of the batteries should be checked and reported to the concerned if any
improvement is required.
9.2. MAINTENANCE TESTING OF RELAYS:
All the protective relays have to be tested ONCE in a year and calibrated.
The procedures for testing should be well studied and understood. Latest digital relays have
self test facilities and these relays need testing once in 5 years only as per the manufacturers.
Otherwise periodic testing is extremely important, as almost all the protective equipments are
passive for most of the time. They are called upon to act only when abnormal conditions
occur.
9.3. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS ON TESTING AND HANDLING OF RELAYS:
- Examine relay coils like current coil, voltage coil, flag coil, D.C. auxiliary coil, timer coil
etc. for continuity.
- Check for burns on contacts, sticking up of moving parts, meeting surface and fixed
contacts.
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CHAPTER–XV
Experience shows that moving parts normally stick to the mechanical back stop. In
armature attracted relays, there is remanence magnetic sticking up also. The starters in L3WYS
distance relays have this problem. Contacts sticking up with backstop have been experienced
frequently in EE relays. These should be cleaned each time without fail with trichloroethylene
(good to clean oil and grease), CTC (good to remove carbon), or white petrol (good to clean disc
jewel bearings).
9.4 HANDLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT:
a) A person’s normal movements can easily generate electrostatic potentials of several
thousand volts. Discharge of these voltages into semiconductor devices particularly chips when
handling electronic circuits can cause serious damage, which often may not be immediately
apparent but the reliability of the circuit will have been reduced.
b) Do not remove the modules unnecessarily. However, if it becomes necessary to
withdraw a module, the following precautions should be taken to preserve the high reliability and
long life for which the equipment has been designed and manufactured
- ensure that you are at the same electrostatic potential as the equipment by
touching the case.
- Handle the module by its front plate, frame or edges of the PCB. Avoid touching
the electronic components, PCB track or connectors.
- Do not pass the module to any person without first ensuring that you are both at
the same electrostatic potential. Shaking hands achieves equipotential.
- Place the module on an antistatic surface or on a conducting surface which is at
the same potential as yourself.
- Store or transport the module in a conductive bag.
- If you are making measurements on the internal electronic circuitry of an
equipment in service, it is preferable that you are earthed to the case with a
conductive wrist strap.
- Wrist straps should have a resistance to ground between 500 K – 10 m Ohms.
- If a wrist strap is not available, you should maintain regular contact with the case
to prevent the build up of static.
- Instruments used should be earthed to the case whenever possible.
- Re-soldering may affect the capacitance of the circuitry.
9.5 Take precautions to avail line clear on the equipment to be tested. Place green flags in the
panel under test.
9.6 Ensure that P.T voltages are not available to the relay under test. P.Ts in generators
should be kept isolated : otherwise back feeding of high-voltage to the Gen. is possible.
317
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9.7. Mark down the existing physical position of potentiometer, time dial pointers etc. with a
pencil. This will help restore in case of inadvertent changes during handling.
9.8. Actuation of certain relays like Generator differential or split phase relay may release
CO2 in generators. Hence, proper isolations of CO2 circuits should be ensured.
9.9. Actuation of certain relays could operate LBB schemes. Precautions should be taken,
while testing LBB and BB relays, extra care should be taken to isolate the TRIPPING
Circuits. In some cases, BB relays and other relays may be in same core of C.T. Unless
care is taken, the ENTIRE SUB STATION may go BLACK OUT.
9.10. There may be necessity to change some settings during testing. Original settings should
be restored by making entries in site register.
9.11. Some wiring may need removal for testing. They should be entered in register and before
closing the job the wiring should be restored promptly. Any removal of TB. links should
be treated similarly. If ferrules are not available in the removed leads, temporary ferruling
should necessarily be done before removing.
9.12. The fuses removed should be entered in the site register to enable putting back without
fail.
9.13. Cartridge type fuses should not be checked with higher range in multimeters or for
continuity buzzer. It should give zero ohms in an accurate low range multimeter since
failed fuses also give continuity in high ranges.
9.14. Current can be injected to the relay without removing them C.T leads. Removal is not a
must but this should be judiciously done. Refer to 9.9 above.
9.15. Earth fault selection relays in some distance relays need shorting during testing to avoid
overloading.
9.16. Temporary wedges placed should be removed back.
9.17. The relay coils and the auxiliary switching relays are not continuous rated. Hence they
should not be engaged continuously.
9.18. Some operations like test closing of breakers could lead to L.T. supply changeovers
unwantedly and even they may back charge the machine. Precautions have to be taken.
9.19. Once L.C. is availed, any operation is the responsibility of the engineer who has availed
the L.C. but it shall be done with information to operator concerned.
9.20. The maintenance engineers should also witness the relay tests to the extent possible since
they are the owners of the relays.
9.21. While test tripping the breakers through the relays, the manually picked up relays should
not be released until the breaker has tripped since the relay contacts are not designed to
break the trip coil current. When the breaker trips, the trip coil current will be broken by
the breaker auxiliary contact.
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CHAPTER–XV
9.22. After normalising, the availability of D.C. voltage, P.T. voltage at the relay inputs should
be confirmed. The load current passing through the C.T. should be confirmed by
measuring the voltage burden between the current coil terminals, noting down the load
current also in the register.
9.23. Do not try to do any modification to the wiring or change in settings without analysing
fully and without having consultation with superiors unless other wise situation warrants,
in which case ratification should be later obtained.
9.24. Do not assume that the scheme drawings are always correct. Some modifications could
have been done and not marked. Always have a suspecting eye.
9.25. Any modification done should be communicated to all concerned who should incorporate
them in the drawings in their offices without fail.
9.26. History of settings and trouble shooting should be entered in permanent registers.
9.27. Faulty operations or LED indications should be checked.
9.28. Wherever master relays are available, all the connected relays should be test operated to
ensure the picking up of master relay. Test tripping of breaker can be checked through
master relay.
9.29. All alarm/ annunciator points should be checked without fail.
9.30. P.T. voltage availability, D.C. aux. supply availability across all the relays terminals
should be confirmed.
9.31. Voltage burden at the relay current terminals after normalising the equipment should be
measured and recorded in the test report also noting down the load current at the time of
burden measurement.
9.32. It is preferable to note down in the glass cover of the relays the date of last test done.
9.33. LOAD ON C.Ts
The peak load on the lines, feeders and substation transformers may be reviewed for any
possible overloading of C.Ts beyond the limits once in 3 months and entered in a separate
permanent register called “Peak Load on C.Ts”. The C.Ts can be overloaded by 20%
continuously.
9.34. RECORDS:
An official test circuit diary for each type of relay shall be maintained in hand, containing
the test procedure, precautions to be taken, isolation to be done, model test result, settings
adopted etc. Relay catalogues should invariably be on hand.
All the testing works and results should be first recorded at site in a permanent register/ note
books with printed page numbers to avoid tampering of details later. The test results shall be
authenticated by the engineer present. Names of the testers should be entered. The test results
may then be entered in the specified form and sent to higher officers. Standardised specimen test
report form is enclosed in Annexure.2 B/A means before adjustment and A/A means after
adjustment. Changes may be done in the form if necessary to suit local conditions. Any
abnormality noticed during the testing may be recorded under the column “Remarks” in the test
report.
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CHAPTER–XV
The test schedule with tests done date and tests due date shall be displayed conspicuously in the
office room in a Fixograph or in a board so as to review them frequently.
The details of the tests done may also be recorded in a permanent register with pagevar
allocation for each relay. A few pages together may be allocated for each relay or set of relays in
the case of 3O/L. One register may be put up for each substation or for more substations
combined.
A specimen of one page of the register for a relay is given below:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Feeder/Line/Transformer : S/S :
Relay details : (Make, Type, Model, Sl.No., rating,
D.C.aux. voltage etc.)
Settings Range available :
Settings adopted :
C.T.Ratio available :
C.T.Ratio adopted :
V.T.Ratio adopted :
Date of Commissioning :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sl. Date of Date of Remarks Signature Signature
No. Last Next of of
test test Protection Reviewing
done. Due. Engineer. Officer.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) Deails of
settings changed
with reference
letters no.
2) Details of any
defects.
3) Details of
modification
4) Details of
“Obsoletion”
Communicated
by the
suppliers.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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CHAPTER–XV
TEST REPORT
1. Name of S/S. :
2. Name of Feeder/Line :
3. (a) Relay : (Ex. Distance Relay Main 1/Main 2)
(b) Make : (ABB)
(c) Type : (Ex. RAZOA)
(d) Sl.No. :
4. Nature of Test : Special/Routine (State reason if it
is special)
5. Date of last testing :
6. Date of this testing :
7. Page No.of Test record (site) Book : (Including Volume No.)
8. Testing instruments used : (Ex: TURH KIT, WICO megger,
5A ammeter, 150 V Volmeter)
9. Test Results:
(a) Relay (Ex: For O/C relay)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Test Time Time Obtained Remarks
Current Exp.
R O Y O B O
BA AA BA AA BA AA
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
P.U. 2 Amp. 2.1 2.1 2.1 -- 2.0 --
4A 1 Sec. 1.4 1.0 1.1 -- 1.0 -- Time dia
adjusted
8A 0.7 Sec. 0.9 0.71 0.75 -- 0.65 -- in R
phase
20 A 0.3 Sec. 0.5 0.31 0.31 -- 0.28 -- relay.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) Checking of Flag or LED (indications of relays) and the annunciator points.
(c) Meggering
C.T.Sec. to Earth
(d) C.T.Burden (VOLTAGE MEASURING IN THE C.T.SECONDARY CIRCUTT AT REIAY
TERMINALS)
R-N = V : Y-N = V : B-N =V
Load Current:
(e) P.T.Voltage
R-Y = R-N =
Y-B = Y-N =
B-R = B-N =
(f) Trip Circuit testing (test tripping the breakers through relay)
(g) Remarks:
1) Checking of all fuses
(Sd) TESTER ASST.ENGINEER ASST.EXE.ENGINEER.
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CHAPTER-XVI
GAS INSULATED SUB-STATIONS
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
The informations given be low are abstracted from several ASEA GIS equipment
booklets.
Gas insulated Sub-station of certain types takes up only about 10% of the area of
conventional Sub-stations.
Figure-1 shows below the comparison, for a volt level upto 170 KV.
Figure-1
HISTORY: Use of SF-6 gas for breakers was started in mid sixties.
GIS programmes were launched in seventies. In early 1977, first GIS was commissioned
by ASEA in Sweden upto 420 KV. Now GIS of several thousand KV are available.
At lower levels of voltage three phase systems are used.

At UHV levels single phase systems are used.
ADVANTAGES:
1) The area required is very much less

2) Quicker and simpler erection
3) Easier maintenance
4) Insensitive to influences of surroundings
GAS PRESSURE:
The higher the gas pressure (density), the higher will be the insulation strength of the gas
and smaller the dimensions of the enclosure. Normal pressure is 7 bars.
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CHAPTER–XVI
In some designs, the equipment can withstand the rated voltage also when the gas
pressure decreases to atmopheric pressure provided no switching is done.
COMPONENTS:
- Conductors
- Insulators
- Enclosures
- Gas
- Spacers
SPACERS: - forms a solid insulation, in parallel with gas, between the conductor in the centre
and the surrounding earthed enclosure. The earthed enclosure is in the form of metallic tube. In
the centre of this there is the conductor which is supported and held in place by insulating cones
called spacers. The space between conductor and enclosure is filled with SF 6 gas at
overpressure. See Figure 2 to 5.
323
CHAPTER–XVI
FIGURE - 2
FIGURE - 3
FIGURE - 4
324
CHAPTER–XVI
FIGURE - 5
FIGURE - 6
325
CHAPTER–XVI
326
CHAPTER–XVI
FIGURE - 6
FIGURE - 8
327
CHAPTER–XVI
The spacers have to withstand mechanical forces from gravity, apparatus function,
pressure differences between gas sections, earthquakes and short circuit currents. Disc type
spares are also used.
CONDUCTORS:
Consists of aluminum tubes with joining contacts at the ends. Current is transmitted via the
spring loaded contact member to the copper parts and against which the contact member rests.
These are later welded to the aluminium parts.
JOINTS:
There are angled joints and T-Joints
EXPANSION JOINTS:
Expansion joints are provided partly to compensate for the tolerance during manufacture and
partly to allow for thermal expansion.
OTHER COMPONENTS: Like disconnectors, CTs, VTs etc. are shown in figure below:
FIGURE-9
Disconnector straight
1. Fixed contact
2. Moving contact
3. Operating devise
328
CHAPTER–XVI
1. FIGURE-10
Angled and T disconnectors
Disconnectors can be operated by Motor devices.
T-disconector
Fig - 10
329
CHAPTER–XVI
- Shows continuous position indication

- Possibility of using the earthing switches as a test probe for measuring contact resistance and
polarity of instrument transformers
- Can be located in the same housing as disconnectors but also elsewhere.
- Can be operated either manually or Motor operated
- There are two types such as fast operating and slow operating
FIGURE – 12
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
- Voltage transformers can be set up where it is required i.e. on bus bars and outgoing circuits.
330
CHAPTER–XVI
Figure – 13
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
331
CHAPTER–XVI
332
CHAPTER–XVI
FIGURE – 16: SF-6 AIR BUSHING
The bushing can be adopted to any existing oil filled or PEX cable
- Also used for High potential testing of GIS bus bars etc.
EXTENSION:
The GIS can be extended usually by lengthening the bus bars and adding more breaker
groups provided necessary space is provided in the building. Erection sequence must be checked
in detail. Another question to investigate is the procedure of testing after installation of the new
parts.
SAFETY:
The probability of anybody being injured in a GIS will 0.000025 per year or once per
1300 years. GIS is said to be 40 times safer than conventional sub-stations
TESTING OF GIS:
1) Testing of Gas:
Non return valves are provided to fix the gas density switches. After removing the switch
assembly, external gas hoses can be connected and gas filling, draining, testing can be done.
2) Breaker testings:
Since the poles are inside the gas tank, approach to do the timing tests, primary injection
through CTs were difficult. For one end, the earth switch end which is insulated before the earth
connection can be used. For the other end the earth switch cannot be used since all the three
phases are looped inside the SF-6 chamber and only the neutral is brought out. Hence, the cable
ends which was at a distance of 100 meters from S.S. were used for the above tests. The layout
of cable system is shown in Figure-17. This was also used for hipot testing the cables. D.C. hipot
testing of GIS has to be avoided.
333
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335
CHAPTER-XVII
REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF TRIPPINGS
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
ALL THE TRIPPINGS SHOULD BE REVIEWED.
Analysis of the operation of protective relays or the scheme is very important for a protection
engineer.
The following types of operations need analysis:-

- Maloperation i.e False tripping in the absence of primary fault.
- Incorrect operation or unwanted operation during a primary fault.
- Failure to operate.
The protection engineer may carry out the analysis in the above lines and do the needful for
improvements. The action taken may be reported to the head office for scrutiny. There are
always possibilities for human error in the protection works and hence a scrutiny by another
agency is an Absolute Necessity.
All the trippings of transmission and sub-transmission level lines and transformers at
Substations should be reported by T.M. to the concerned head office in the form given below:
Transmission line fults:
A line fault is a condition where electric current follows an abnormal path due to failure
or the removal of insulation which normally confines it to the conductor.
Insulation is usually either air or high resisting material which may also be used as a
mechanical support. Air insulation can be accidentally short circuited by birds, rodents, snakes,
monkeys tree limbs, unintentional grounding by maintenance crew etc., or broken down by over
voltage due to lighting or weakened by ionisation due to fire. Organic insulation can deteriorate
due to heat or ageing or can b broken down by over voltage due to lighting, switching surges or
faults at other locations.
Porcelain insulators can be bridged by moisture with dirt salt or industrial pollution or
can develop a crack due to mechanical forces. In such cases the initial lowering of resistance
causes a small current to bee diverted which hastens the deterioration or ionisation causing this
current further to increase in a progressive manner until a flash over occurs.
336
CHAPTER-XVII
Overhead transmission lines are most vulnerable for lighting strokes. More than 50% of
electrical faults of overhead lines are known to be caused by lightning. As per Van C.
Warrington, all faults occur within 40 degrees before voltage maximum at lines over 100KV.
The shield wires intercept most direct strokes and allow them to be conducted harmlessly to
ground. Some time, they could reach the conductors below the shield wire. In such cases, the
lightning surge will bee distributed in all directions of the lines connected, depending upon the
point of incidence. For example, a lighting strike penetrating the shielding system and
terminating on a phase conductor would generate traveling waves of the same magnitude and
polarity propagating in opposite directions.
Some times, these waves may attenuate and die without any problems. Most of the times,
they keep on propagating on the line. Of all the line insulators are in healthy condition, the
surges reach the terminal substations and be bypassed to the ground through lighting arresters.
In this case, protection needs to operate and line will remain healthy since surge current is by
passed within micro seconds.
If any of the lines insulators re weak, it can undergo flash over due to the surge. “The
possibility of even the direct stroke causing a flash over near voltage zero is minimised by the
fact that the lighting stroke lasts only one or two microseconds and, if the line voltage were near
zero at the moment, there would be nothing to sustain the flow of power after the stroke.
Although the stroke current may be upto 100,000A there is less then a coulomb in a stroke, so
there would be no cloud of ionised air maintaining a low resistance path until the voltage built
up” (Van C. Warrington : vol 2). Once a flash over occurs, there will be system frequency
follow current depending upon the fault level and the arc will not extinguish till the system
voltage is interrupted by the protection. This means that both end relays of a tied line should
operate and isolate the line. A single end tripping will not suffice. Many a times, the flash over
does not damage the insulator and the line can be recharged. This is called a “passing faults”.
Short circulating the line insulator by snakes, birds etc., as discussed before, will also come
under this category.
But, if the insulator gets damaged by the flashover, it will not withstand the power system
voltage if reenergized and the protection will again operate. This is a kind “permanent fault”.
There are different types of permanent faults which are not discussed here.
The flashover may occur in more than one towers due the lighting surge wave. If one
such flashover leads to a permanent damage in the second zone of a distance relays and another
flashover causes a temporary flashover in its first zone coverage, both end relays will trip on first
zone and may cause confusion when analysing by the protection engineer.
Single end trappings should be treated in a special manner. From the discussions so far
made, at will be clear that there can not be single end trippings at all! But, they do occur. A tall
tree ay swing and touch a conductor in the second zone but may withdraw before the second
zone time of the relay. In this case, only the other end will trip on first zone. A jumper may get
open and fall on the tower arm in one side and the tripping will be single en only. A conductor
may snap and tall to ground in only one side of the lines and the result will be single end
tripping. Hence, the protection engineer shall not take granted any single end tripping which is
very rare. If the cause is not established clearly, the protection system should be checked
thoroughly in the case of single end trippings.
CHAPTER-XVII
337
Lighting need not even come in direct contact with power lines to cause problems, since
induced charges can be introduced into the system from nearby lighting strokes to ground.
Although the cloud and earth charges are neutralised through the established cloud – to – ground
path, a charge will be trapped on the line. The magnitude of this trapped charge depends on the
initial cloud to earth gradient and proximity of the stroke to the line. Voltage induced on the line
from the remote stroke will propagate along the line causing similar problems as that of direct
stroke.
When a lightning directly strike a tower or the earth conductor the tower has to carry
huge transient currents. If the tower footing resistance is considerable, then the potential of the
tower would rise steeply with respect to the line and consequently the insulator string would
flash over. This is known a “BACKFLASHOVER”. It is clear that too many trippings on
temporary faults may also indicate more tower footing resistance, needing improvements.
338
CHAPTER–XVII
TM
From To
The Superintending Engineer
Asst.Exe.Engineer/Shift Copy to the Exe. Engineer/O
110 KV/line tripping Copy to the EE/GRT (MRT)
message Copy to the AEE/GRT (MRT)
1. Name of Sub-Station :
2. Name of line :
3. Time & Date of tripping :
4. Relay indications )
at both End. )
5. Is the line radial or )
Tied at both ends )
6. Load on the line prior )
to tripping MW, MVAR, )
AMPS. )
7. Bus voltages recorded )
before tripping – at )
the time of tripping - )
after tripping. )
8. Special observations )
like grunt in generators,
flickering of lamps )
oscillations in panel )
meters. )
9. Any other simultaneous )
trippings of 132 KV )
lines or distribution )
lines. )
10. Climate :
11. Time and date of )
normalisation )
12. Remarks :
Asst. Exe. Engineer / Shift.
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1) Every grid and upstream radial feeders tripping shall be reviewed monthly.
2) Even correct trippings of grid feeders and upstream radial feeders should also be reviewed
and classified as “IN ORDER” and reported to higher office. A correct tripping in the view
of one engineer (may be inexperienced) may be a wrong one. There are instances that single
end tripping of grid feeders have been classified as IN ORDER in some cases without
analysis. Correct single end trippings of grid lines are also possible but extremely remote – a
line getting open and conductor making ground fault in only one side.
3) Review of transformers and generators shall be reviewed then and there. Our old practice is
that the review should be made within 24 hours. It is felt that this is even now very essential.
Maloperation of any equipment i.e. radial lines, tie lines, Transformers, Generators shall be
analysed within 24 Hours.
4) Correct operations shall be classified as due to
- Weather
- Lightning
- External incidents
- Failure of line or equipments
- Overload
- System disturbance
- Cause not known.
5. Incorrect relay operations shall be classified as due to
- Design limitations
- Inadequate or Incorrect settings
- Construction defect
- Maintenance defect
- Failure of relay component
- Caused by pilot channel
- Personnel errors
- Incorrect application of relays
- Unexplained.
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6. Relay tripping registers shall be maintained by protection wing as well as substations O&M
wing.
7. Protection engineers should be knowing how to calculate the fault level at any point in the
system. Fault level of local substations should be calculated by them and exhibited in the
premises conspicuously.
8. Some of the interesting review and analysis are discussed below:
I. WRONG CONNECTION OF GENERATOR – ROTOR EARTH FAULT RELAYS AT

ALIYAR POWER HOUSE AND SHOLAYAR POWER HOUSE.I.
The Generator rotor earth fault relays were with wrong connections at Aliyar Power
House and Sholayar Power House.2 since their commissioning. The relays were not operating
during normal conditions though there was an earth fault existing in the rotor and were operating
“Correctly” for a short moment during shutdown sequences. The circumstances which warranted
the tracing of the fault and action taken to rectify the defect are narrated in the following lines:-
On 23.12.79, 27.7.80 and 1.9.80 the rotor earth fault relay of the 60 M.W. Hydro
generator at Aliyar Power House acted for a short-while during normal shutdown sequences soon
after the shutdown impulse was given.
Every time the relay was tested and found to be normal. The details of the I.R. value of
the rotor circuits meggered on 23.12.79 are not available and the I.R. value of the rotor circuits
meggered subsequent to the operation of the relay on 27.7.80 and 1.9.80 were low and was of the
order of 0.2 to 0.3 M. Ohms.
No serious thought was given for the relay operation on 23.12.79 considering it as
freakish. Only after a recurrence on 27.7.80 the matter was studied in detail.
The relay was acting just for a moment during the shutdown sequence and it was not
acting during normal running of the machine or during shutdown time and this required a deep
study of the subject.
While going through the original schematic drawing of the Generator on 30.9.80 it was
observed that the rotor earth fault relay was given wrong connection.
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The scheme as per the given drawing is shown below :
In this connection scheme, the rectifiers in the bridges of the relay will permit flow of
current when the circuit is closed by earthing the point ‘A’. This current would be due to the
D.C. source voltage available at the terminals 9 & 10 of the relay. It could be seen that the D.C.
voltage on t he rotor is in “subtractive series” connections with the D.C. source voltage of the
relay. Hence, if the earthing point is slowly moved from point A towards point B, the resultant
voltage across the relay coil would be V9-10 – V A F. As long as V9-10 is greater than VA-F,
there would be a flow of current through the relay element R. When VAF becomes greater than
V 9-10, the resultant voltage would not be able to drive any current through the circuit since
there are the rectifiers in the bridge of the relay which will not permit any flow of current when
they are supplied with a voltage of reverse polarity. This means that only a very small zone of
the motor from the point A towards B was under protection of the relay so far. (It was confirmed
later that the relay current was zero even when the point B was earthed solidly.)
In the first look, it seemed that the problem has further confused since it was operating
during a particulars period of shutdown sequence, though it was connected in a “non-operating
way”. On further analysis, the “wrong connection” was found to be the cause for the momentary
operation of the relay during the shutdown sequence alone as explained below.
The Generator at Aliyar has “de-excitation scheme” during shutdown sequence i.e. as
soon as the shutdown impulse is given, the main exciter voltage is reversed rapidly to cause “de-
excitation of the rotor” before the tripping of the field breaker. When the main exciter output
voltage is reversed, it comes in “additive series” with the D.C. supply voltage of the relay i.e. the
relay gets “correct connection” accidently for a moment and if a rotor earth fault is persisting it
measures and indicates and this a what had occurred on all the three occassions. This was got
proved on 5.9.80. Necessary modification in the
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342
scheme was down on 5.9.80 by interchanging the internal wiring leads in the terminal 9 & 10 of
the relay, after getting oral approval of the Divisional Engineer/GRT/Thudiyalur. The machine
was running and when the relay was put back in service after modification, the relay acted
immediately. A persisting rotor earth fault was suspected. On earthing t he rotor through a 5 K
resistor, there was measured a leakage current of 0.75 m.amps. So far it was not detected by the
relay and after modification it has detected.
Even with the original wrong connection, the relay should have detected the earth fault
when the machine has come to rest i.e when the rotor voltage has come to zero. This was not
there and it could be explained as below with an example.
Let the D.C. source voltage of the relay be 55 V The setting current required for the relay
element to pickup is 1.1 m.amps.
Therefore I.R. value detected by the relay
55
= = 50000 Ohms.
1.1 ma
This much of low I.R. value will be detected by the relay if the fault is in any portion of
the rotor when the machine is shutdown.
Let the rotor voltage be 55 Volts.

Assuming that the connections are O.K, and a fault of 100000 Ohms occurs at point B
when the machine is running.
Total voltage available for the )

relay element ) = 55 + 55 = 110 V
Therefore the leakage current or )

the operating current through ) 110
the relay element ) = - - - - - - - = 1.1 ma
) 100000
Hence the relay could operate i.e a fault of 100000 ohms at point B could be detected by
the relay only when the machine is in service and the same fault would go undetected when the
machine is shutdown since the relay current in the case would be only 55/100000 = 0.55 ma i.e.
the “aid” voltage of the rotor is not available now.
The relay available at Aliyar Power House is of English Electric make type VME. The
same type relay was available at Sholayar Power House 2 also. When the studies were going on
at Aliyar Power House, the scheme at Sholayar Power House.2 was checked for comparison. It
was found that the very same defect was there also. That relay was also operating for a moment
several times when the machine was tripping on faults since 1971. The relay has not picked up
during normal shutdowns as was operating in the case of Aliyar Power House due to the fact that
the de-excitation scheme comes into operation only during fault trippings of the machine at
Sholayar Power House.2 and is not coming during normal shutdowns. The modification was also
carried out at Sholayar Power House 2 afterwards.
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Such defects with similar type of rotor earth fault relays could be detected only by test-
earthing both ends of the rotor while the machine is running. Any testing by earthing the rotor
when the machine is not in service or by earthing any one end of the rotor when the machine is in
service is not the complete one and will not reveal such defects.
II. ROTOR LIFT PROTECTION AT KADAMPARAI POWER HOUSE:
Top beam
Setting
Electrical Contact
Gap = 1.2 m.m
Rotor bracket beam
During over-speeds or any unbalance problems, the rotors of the generators may get lifted
up in the case of vertical machines. At Kadamparai, rotor lift protection is given to trip the
machine. When the rotor bracket beam lifts up by 1.2 mm (Original setting), the protection will
operate.
The machine was tripping frequently from 11.4.91. It was tripping.

a) before synchronism
b) after synchronism
c) When the load was changed
d) Even when the machine was running smoothly.
After struggling continuously for 8 days, the reason was found to be rather funny.
Whenever the side doors of the generator was opened for some reason or other, the entire top
platform with the beam bent and moved down by 1.2 mm due to downward suction of air caused
by all blower fans.
Prior to 11.4.91, all the blower fans could not be switched on due to problems in some
fans.
III. TRIPPINGS OF GENERATOR 2 at KUNDAH POWER HOUSE. 3 ON BUCHHOLZ

INDICATION:
Generator No. 2 at Kundah Power House 3 tripped on transformer buchholz indication
and Generator O/V relay indication. There was no air or gas in the buchholz relay and the
machine was put back in service. Though the machine was running OK, the machine was
shutdown to probe further for the tripping.
The cable coming from the transformer was found damaged. Thinking that this could be
the reason, the machine was re-serviced. The machine tripped again after one day with the same
relay indication.
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Staff who checked the Buchholz relay by dismantling it said that the diaphragm was
weak and that could be the cause.
But, it was approached from another angle. Why the Generator O/V relay has acted? Had
the Buchholz relay first acted, the machine field breaker would have tripped immediately along
with the main breaker and there could not be any reason for the machine voltage to rise.
It was decided to test the O/V relay. It was operating even for normal voltage of 11.2 KV
on the machine. And, when the O/V relay acted, Buchholz trip alarm came.
There were two culprits:

1) Wrong calibration of O/V relay
2) Wrong connection of annunciator.
IV. PERSONNEL ERROR:
The generator at one Power House was reported one day to have tripped without any
relay indication except master relay operation.
After thorough checking of Generator, transformer, Cables, Protection system nothing

could be found out. Everyone was hesitant to restart the machine but the concerned operator said
the machine can be restarted. Here was the clue:
On further interrogation with the operator, Switch Board Attendant and other staff, the
truth came out. When the operator had observed some oscillations of some meters, he thought
that something was wrong with the machine and operated the emergency push-button.
V. ANOTHER PERSONNEL ERROR:
Machine. 1 at one Power House was reported to have tripped on Generator differential relay.
When the operator on duty was contacted over phone, he said that when he wanted to shut down
unit.1, he just put his hand on the L.T. breaker switch of machine. 1 and at that instant the
machine had tripped.
Not a deliberate, but an upset boss shouted at the operator over phone :
“Are you playing? How can it trip when you just touch it? Do you think that I am a fool? Do
you think that I do not know what happened?”
Immediately, the operator surrendered and accepted that he had done a wrong operation by
paralleling the L.T. system of machine 1 and machine.3 after tripping he main breaker of
machine.1.
Shouting helps some times for analysis:
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VI. MALOPERATION OF TRANFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAY:
At one Sub-Station, both the transformers were tripping one differential relay frequently for
through faults i.e for known fault on downstream radial feeders. This was happening for many
years and several testes on transformer and relays were in vain.
The ultimate reason was very simple. The differential relay p.u. setting was 15% but the
transformer had tap range upto 17.5% with OLTC. When the tap moves to extreme, position, the
mismatch current was sufficient to operate the relay.
VII. MALOPERATION OF DISTANCE RELAYS:
When the author joined at Saudi Arabia, the first assignment was the analysis of the
frequent tripping of a double circuit feeder outgoing from a Power House for reverse faults, Er.
Arunachalam who has contributed some chapters in this Manual was the protection incharge.
Though the problem could not be identified by them so far, it was not at all a problem for both of
us.
Attacked the first point and found that the C.T. connection were opposite.
The problem was set right without availing a shutdown and also without succumbing to
the threat from the local boss that both of us would be sent to fail if anything wrong happened.
This particular analysis is so simple that it does not deserve inclusion in this manual but
this is included to show the capability and standard of the protection engineers in our board on
comparison. The problem had caused several black outs to the system there but was not given
due though for several years.
The author wishes to mention on more things – purely personal:
In one committee meeting held to finalise the procedures to commission a new

substation, 10 out 12 people were from India and nine out of the ten were from Tamil Nadu.
VIII. DOWN TO THE EARTH PROBLEM
During a pre-commissioning test in a Sub-Station, a transformer differential relay type

MBCH, a static relay, was not behaving properly.
When the relay was tested by another engineer next day, the relay behaved correctly.
The reason was:
The first engineer tested the relay keeping it outside the case. That was his usual method.
The second engineer did by his method by keeping it inside the case.
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Later, on enquiry from an engineer from the relay manufacturing company, the reason
given was that the static relay will misbehave if its chassis is not earthed properly. Proper
earthing is provided inside the case and when the relay is racked out, the earth is lost.
IX. BLIND APPROACH:
For the known fault on a distribution feeder from Sub-station in Saudi Arabia, several
feeders were tripping simultaneously even in other substations very far away.
How to approach?
One of the author’s Colleagues, a distribution engineer, hailing from our board, came up
with suggestion one day. He was telling that one particular feeder which had a very high pick up
setting had never tripped on similar occasion. On that basis, he suggested to revise the settings of
all other feeders.
The suggestion looked very childish. Comparing with the peak load the settings were
more than sufficient in all feeders.
However, the subject was digged further.
A phenomenon called “COLD RUSH” was explained in an article appeared in the

lectures at PSTI, Bangalore. There was not much explanation but it gave a starting point.
On further searching, it was found that the “Cold-Rush” is a very big problem where
loads are predominant with Air-conditioners, even in United States. Several black out have
occurred.
What is a “Cold Rush”?
When a fault occurs at a particular location in a system, the system voltage drops. When
the voltage drops to 70% and below, the A.C. units stall. Even if the voltage is restored
immediately, they take a very high current of 5 times the full load current till the bleeding of
pressure system completes.
This takes more than a minute and hence the load on the healthy feeders suddenly shoot
up to several times the full load, causing the tripping.
The problem was solved temporarily by increasing the P.U. settings as suggested by our
colleague, though by layman approach.
The correct solution for this problem is to provide U/V tripping in all the air conditioners.
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X. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH CURRENTS IN HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM:
The theory of this subject is dealt in several books including GEC measurements book
and Russian books. Chances are very remote for the protection engineer to go into it deeply but
one of our former engineers, Er. Srinivasaraghavan, Disvisional Engineer (Generation) has
produced a very good article on this subject in MSEB. Journal dated June 1952. A reproduction
of the full article (since not even one word is extrawritten) will certainly help to guide our
engineers.
ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT JOURNAL
IT IS THE GENERAL practice to earthed the neutral in high voltage transmission

systems, at one voltage transmission systems, at one point only, that is at the sending end. In case
of earth fault in one of the phases, the earth current flows from the fault to the earthed neutral
through earth and actuates the earth fault relay and trips the breakers, thus isolating the fault.
There have been instances where star/star transformers with tertiary delta have been connected at
the end of transmission system, the neutral point on the H.V. side of these transformers being
brought out and connected to earth. Thus the neutral is earthed also at a point, other than at the
sending end. In such cases, earth fault.
Current flows not only from the fault to the sending end neutral but also from the neutral
point of the star/star transformer, though this is beyond the fault. The distribution of the
fault current is as shown in diagram I.
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In this diagram G is the generator feeding into a transmission line through a

delta/star step up transformer T1, T2 is a step down transformer connected to the end of
the transmission line, the connections of the windings being star/star with tertiary delta
and the neutral point on the H.V. side being connected to earth.
The effect of the current flowing into the fault not only through the faulty phase,
but also through the healthy phases from beyond the fault on the operation of protective
equipments is interesting. A few examples that have actually occurred some years black
in the Department’s E.H.T. net work are mentioned here:
(i) Coimbatore –Madurai-Koilpatti 66 KV line – (Diagram 2).--The neutral points

of the star connected auto-transformers at Coimbatore were solidly connected to earth: in
addition, the neutral pint of the star/star transformers with tertiary delta at Koilpatti end
was earthed. For earth faults in the lines between Coimbatore and Madurai, the 66 KV
OCB on the outgoing line to Koilpatti a Madurai end used to trip out: the 66 KV fuses on
the transformers at Koilpatti end also used to blow out on certain occasions. The remedy
was either to isolated the neutral at Koilpatti or raise the setting of the earth fault relay on
the Koilpatti line at Madurai end sufficiently high to prevent its operating under such
fault condition. The former course was adopted.
(ii) Coimbatore-Prianaickenpalayam – Nellitharai 11 KV line. Mettupalayam

was original fed from Nellitharai S.S. by stopping down the 66 KV voltage to 11 KV
through delta/star transforms, When Nellitharai sub-station was abolished after changing
over to feed from Coimbatore. The 66 KV/11 KV transformers were left at Nellitharai for
some time and this used to be kept energised at 11 KV from Coimbatore end and isolated
on the 66 KV side. Under such conditions, there have been cases when the 11 KV OCB
at Nellitharai tripped for a fault on the line between Coimbatore and Nellitharai (vide
diagram 3).
In both these instances the operation of the OCBs beyond the point of the fault are
evidently due to flow of earth fault current from the neutral of the transformer at the
remote end in these case at Koilpatti and Nellitharai.
XI. PROTECTION ENGINEERS’ PROBLEMS:
Another good article written by Er.G.A. VISVANANTHAN, in MSEB. Journal

(date not known) is also reproduced since this is also very illustrative:
IT IS NOT very uncommon to have certain unexplainable operation of relays in spite of

very careful selection of relay settings. In many such cases definite faults were found to
exist outside the sphere normally scrutinized by the protection engineer. It is, therefore,
necessary that the engineer should proceed with tan open mind to investigate such
apparent maloperations. The following occurrence is an example:-
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EARTH FAULT CURRENT
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At Tiruvarur in the Mettur Electricity System, a 11 K.V. feeder is taken for about
a mile from the Government sub-station to the South Madras Electric Supply licensee’s
power house from where a number of feeders are taken out to the licensees; various
stations. At the Government sub-station the feeder is protected with 2 overload and one
earth leakage relay and at the licensees’ Power House, the incoming and the outgoing
feeders have also 2 overload and one earth leakage relay; some four years back
complaints were being received from that station that for earth faults on any of the
licensees’ feeders, the relay at the Government sub-station end only would trip, thus
causing supply failure to the licensee’s entire area.
The testing of relays and O.C.Bs. in the Government sub-station and gradation of
settings of relays at both the ends of the feeder and those on the out-feeders at the
licensee Power House did not stop this occurrence. Finally it was decide to check up the
connections of and test the relays and O.C. Bs. at the licensees’ Power House.
On examinations, it was found that on each feeder, the connexions were as shown in
the sketch below with an earth connection at “a”
This explains the non-operations of the earth leakage relays at he licensees’ end for
an outside fault, while tripping the relay at the Sub-station end. This earth connexion was
removed and the relays and O.C.Bs. were tested. From then on wards the relays operated
satisfactorily.
G. A. VISVANATHAN.
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EXPERIENCES IN PROTECTION FIELD
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
FEEDER TRIPPINGS DUE TO SINGLE PHASE FUSE BLOW-OUT:
(Arti cle by: Sri. S. Raghunatha Rao B.E; D.E(E) & Sri. P. Narayanan B.E; D.E(E)
The blow-out of the H.G. fuse on the H.V. side on one phase of the Delta/Star
Power Transformer at a Sub-station may cause feeder trippings on L.V. side.
There was recently an occurrence of this nature at Poonamallee Sub-station, when
the 33 K.V. H.G. fuse on the yellow phase of single 3-MVA: 33/11 K.V. Transformer in
service at the time below off. Of the four numbers 11 K.V. feeders taking off the station,
three tripped on over-load blue phase while the fourth feeder was standing.
A review has indicated that the fuse blow out should have preceded the feeder
trippings, the blow out being caused by mere over-load over a period of time during the
peak period. (Two strands of 21 SWG timed copper wire were used for the fuses in the
absence of OCB control on the H.V. side.)
The trippings of the 11 KV. Feeders are analysed with the help of vector diagrams
given below : --
With the blowing out of the H.V. fuse on the yellow phase the voltage vectors of
phases R and Y on the primary and r and y on the secondary side collapses, Y becoming
Y’ and r and y moving to r’ and y’. This results in only half the normal voltage being
impressed across the windings R and Y of the primary and a single phase secondary
supply with normal voltage between the blue phase and neutral and half the normal
voltage between the red and yellow phases and neutral. Consequent upon the full
secondary voltage being available only between the blue phase and neutral there should
have been a disproportionately heavier drawal of power on the blue phase. The three 11
K.V. feeders, which were already fairly loaded at the time of occurrence all tripped on
overload blue phase, the heavier drawal on this phase, resulting in load currents
exceeding the overload settings. The fourth feeder, which was also in service at that
time, is understood to have had practically negligible load and the fact of this feeder not
tripping is perhaps explained by the failure of the load on the blue phase of this feeder to
reach the plug setting value, notwithstanding the heavier drawal of power on this phase.
EARTH FAULT RELAY:
There is a big article on this subject by ER.K.S. DORAISWAMY, Divisional
Engineer on this heading published in December 49 of MSEB. Journal. The conclusion
is given below:
The current flow in a residually connected earth fault relay in series with 2 O/L
relays, is only a fraction of the unbalanced current. The true replica of earth fault current
will not be flowing through the E/L relay particularly when it setting is very low.
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Number of tests were done in the MRT. Lab at Coimbatore and results and
tabulated. The readings show that with the E/L relay plug setting at 20% the E/L relay
sets only 40% of current in the faulty phase and the balance current flows through the
other phase relays. At 70% P.U. setting, the current sharing is 79%.
BREAKER MECHANISM FAULT:
For a fault on Aliyar – Sholayar feeder.2 in 1980, all the 110 KV feeders
emanating from Aliyar tripped at remote ends. The relay had operated in Aliyar-Sholayar
feeder.2 also and the breaker had also tripped.
The system was normalised without too much digging out.
On deeper investigation next day, the relay contacts of Sholayar feeder.2 at ALR
end had burnt and damaged.
Why the contacts should burn?
Suspected the breaker and the timings were measured. Much increased. This was
due to heavy friction in the mechanism.
In cricket, the match is not over till the last ball is bowled, Kapil says. In
protection, the investigation is not over till the cause is traced out.
CONCLUSION:
It should be clearly understood that only maticulous, strict adherence to rigid

testing standards and indepth knowledge of tripping analysis go a long way in ensuring
the correct operation of protective gear and elimination of unwanted operation or minor
mishaps which often prove very costly. In spite of everything, only 80% of the faults are
still cleared correctly by the protection systems as per experts. This is why – protection
is an ART where perfection is impossible.
SOME EXPERIENCES IN THE FIELD WORKS:
To start with, item 1 is reproduced from our old MSEB (Now TNEB) Journal
June 1960 – an article “Operation and Maintenance Problems” written by
Er. S. Mohammed Ali, then Divisional Electrical Engineer.
1) “Know what you are doing”
In many of our potential transformers, the secondary yellow phase is connected to

earth and the neutral left insulated. A section officer look out the P.T. for routine
overhaul. While reconnecting the wires, he did his job all right but finding the neutral
was without a connection, he attached an earth wire to it as is done on any distribution
transformer. In a few minutes after energising it, the P.T. was found burnt out. This
mistake can be attributed to (i) ignorance and (ii) not marking each terminal while
disconnecting. It is a good practice that while disconnecting wires in any terminal board,
each terminal is clearly tagged.
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It is equally good practice to record the order of parts dismantled when handling
any mechanical equipment. What is dismantled in a few seconds may take hours to refit
if you have lost sight of the order of things.
2) Earthing of P.T. secondary at Moyar
Originally, the P.T. secondary Yellow phase was connected to earth and the
neutral left insulated when Moyar was commissioned in 1952.
After all the distance relays and synchronising scheme were completely replaced
and modified in the years 1992/93, the Yellow phase earth remained in Yellow phase. As
per the manufacturers of the new distance relays provided, the P.T. neutral needs earthed.
This was corrected in 1997. The implications can be set aside but the overlooked is
overlooked.
3) P.T. failure at Maravakandy:
When the commissioning tests were done on 14-6-92 at Maravakandy Mini

Hydro Power House (1 x 750 KW) in Nilgiris, at the time of building the machine
voltage to its rated value of 3.3 KV one of the two PTs of V-connected machine PT got
burnt out.
A spare P.T. was erected on 26.2.92 and it also got burnt out when energised.
When the contractor brought replacement P.T. on 20-7-92, he informed that they
have supplied 3.3 KV / √3 110 / √3 P.T. so far instead of 3.3 KV / 110 V PTs with the
name plate of 3.3 KV / 110 V ratings.
Any site done with station L.T. supply will not reveal the defect.
4) Mixing of P.T. wiring with C.T. wiring:
When the P.T. secondary circuits were meggered on 25-3-1978 in the station L.T.
supply circuit of one of the generators at Sholayar PH I (Commissioned in 1971), the
circuit was giving zero IR value. The reason was found to be the wiring mixing between
P.T. and C.T. circuits. One C.T. was actually feeding the potential coil of an energy
meter. The Polarity connections of the CTs were also opposite.
5) Mixing of A.C. supply with D.C. circuit at Sandynallah S.S.
When the routine meggering of D.C. circuits was done in 1971 at 110 KV
Sandinallah S.S. in Nilgiris it was found that there was wiring mixing between station LT
supply and station DC supply. If annual meggering was done effectively, this could have
been identified early.
6) Loss of P.T. supply at Moyar PH
The layout of the 110KV buses at Moyar Power House existed in service in 1997
is given in Figure 12.1.
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Normal operational procedures are:
- Keep 189 A – PT and 189 B – PT isolators closed energising the 110 KV feeder
Bus PT and taking PT loads on this P.T.
- Keep transformer bus dead
- Keep the 189 A and 189 B isolators of the generators which are running and keep
them open in idle generators.
- When LC is needed in 110 KV feeder bus P.T. close any one of the isolator of
transformer bus of running generators and avail the relay loads on Transformer
bus P.T. De-energise the feeder bus P.T. by opening both its isolators. Such L.Cs
were being availed monthly for maintenance works.
Let us assume that all the three machines are running. But P.T. is on L.C.
Transformer bus P.T. is fed from machine 1.
Suppose, machine 1 trips on fault. Its OCB trips and machine 1 voltage goes to
zero thereby the bus P.T. looses its supply. All the distance relays will trip on loss of PT
supply, causing black out at Moyar.
The same black out will happen if the operator shuts down machine 1 and opens
the 189 A and 189 B without knowing the implications.
It was told that there were many cases of all feeders tripping simultaneously
before at Moyar end only.
Another problem is the non-existence of a true bus coupler isolator. Any

inadvertent penning of one of the isolators in all the generators and PT, there is the
possibility of separation of the two buses. If Bus PT is Bus A in such an eventuality,
faults on Singera feeder 2 and Gobi feeder 2 will not be sensed by the P.T. in service
leading to possible non operation of protection.
By connecting both bus P.Ts to both buses and introducing a bus coupler 189
AB – BC as shown in figure 12.2 solved all the above problems.
Even now 189 A isolators of the generators are useless since the 110 KV lightning
arrestors of transformers are connected through 189 B isolators only.
Action is being taken to remove the copper tubular bus bars of transformer bus
completely.
In the authors opinion, the design of the bus arrangement is non-standard. With
50% of the bus structure materials, a simpler bus with the same facility could have been
designed and erected. Even now, a comprehensive operation with one bus is not possible
since the feeders do not have bus selection facility. Selection arrangement can be made
but very laborious. This can be done if MUSHEP comes.
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358
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359
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7. Emergency operation with one P.T. of less V.A capacity:

When one of the 110 KV P.T. failed at Udumalpet in 1991/1992, a smaller V.A.
capacity was temporarily used till the correct capacity P.T. was arranged. All the
metering circuits were kept switched off to keep the P.T. load under capacity and the S.S.
was operated with calculated risk.
8. Emergency operation with one transformer of less capacity at Aliyar Power House:
When one single phase transformer of 24 MVA capacity failed, a transformer of
12 MVA was connected in the bank with other phase transformers of 24 MVA and the
Aliyar machine was operated for some days till the correct size transformer was arranged.
The load and the generator was limited to the capacity of the small size transformer. The
machine had negative sequence relay and it was kept in service without any problem.
9. Need to test C.T. at rated current:
Due to the non-availability of suitable loading transformer one 800 A.C.T. was
tested O.K. with 400 A and put in service but the ratio did not keep up when the load
went beyond 400 A. This shows that, the CTs should be invariably tested for its rated
current.
At Kadambarai, the generator ring CTs are rated 8000 A. Loading transformer
was available to inject only 1000 A. Hence, 8 turns of current injecting lead were
toroidally would through the C.T. and the tests were done for 8000 A. Such torodial
winding may not be possible in sub-station C.Ts but their maximum rating is 1200 A only
and hence no problem exists.
10. Tripping of generator differential relays at sholayar PH-1
There were frequently maloperation of generator differential relays of both
machines at Sholayar PH 1 for through faults on 110 KV feeders since commissioning in
1971. Suspecting the metrosils connected across the CT secondaries they were removed
on 12-11-79 and thereafter there was not even a single such wrong tripping.
11. Negative sequence relay operation at Kadamparai
Unbalance current (1000 A, 1000 A, 1800 A) was noticed in machine 4 on
29.8.90. The observation was ignored assuming that the transducers would have been
faulty. When the load picked upto 70 MW on 30.8.90, the machine tripped on negative
sequence relay.
Many tests like measurement of D.C. resistance of generator circuit, measurement
of generator impedance primary injection by injecting current just after 230 KV CTs in
the yard – in vain.
Primary injection was done after the 230 KV breaker in the yard. CT secondary
currents were less than expected in R and Y phases.
Reached the location. Y Phase limb of the 230 KV ABCB was showing 500 in
closed condition.
Lesson: Don’t make assumptions.
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12. Tandem rod problem in 110 KV OMCB:
During routine maintenance works on a 110 KV OMCB (BHEL) at 230 KV/110

KV S.S. at Udumalpet, the timing was incorrect in one of the limbs. The reason was the
loosening of bolts in the tandem rod.
13. Problem with core balance CTs in Cables:
In one of the sub-stations where core balance CT was used for earth fault
protection in the outgoing cable of a distribution line, the earth fault relay did not operate
for a known earth fault in the cable.
It was found that the earthing of cable sheath was not made properly.
The earth fault current has gone through the C.T. and also returned through the
C.T. getting cancelled each other in the C.T. Hence no out put from C.T.
Correct sheathing is shown in figure. Current first goes through the cable core,
returns through sheath and again returns through the sheath. The sheath currents through
the CT gets cancelled and the cable core current remains.
14. Protection tripping through ‘Local’ control of breaker:
In a section of a system with 8 No. grid feeder breakers commissioned under one
contract, a fault occurred in one of the lines.
The protection operated O.K. and isolated the fault. The Operator went to the yard
for inspection and tried to test charge the line through local control from the breaker
mechanism box. All the incoming breakers to that S.S. tripped at the remote ends. The
distance relay in the above faulty line operated but the breaker did not trip.
On investigation, the protection scheme was so designed that the protection

tripping was not effective when the breaker control was on ‘LOCAL’.
We have already said that the protection tripping should be effective irrespective
of the position of the local-remote control switch of the breaker.
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15. A Terrific Experience:
While test charging after a fault tripping the operator at 230 KV S.S. Udumalpet
one day observed that there was no current in one phase of a 230 KV feeder going to the
nearby S.S. at Myvadi. The protection did not operate will not operate if it was on open
jumper.
LC was availed and a through inspection of the line was done by lines wing and
everything was O.K.
Test charged the feeder. The current was still missing.
Shut down the feeder. 400 Volts 3 phase voltage was injected from 230 KV
Udumalpet S.S. and bulbs connected at Myvadi a end of the line were burning O.K. in all
the 3 phase.
The protection wing was again moving in the yard for further probing. Suddenly,
one person shouted and alerted others to sit down. A vertical live 230 KV jumper from
the bus going to the isolator got unclamped at the top end and was hanging down just at
the safe clearance over the head of the inspecting persons.
16. Operation during L.C.
This happened when Kundah PH I was a dead end. A double circuit 110 KV line
was there between Kundah PH-2 and Kundah PH-1. All the machines were shut down at
Kundah PH-1.
A shutdown was needed in line No. 1 shut down was issued and LC was availed
in line 1 at both ends. Line work was taken up and LC returned and everything
normalised.
But the SBA at Kundah PH I found that the 110 KV bus RVM was not recording
for so many hours. On deeper investigation, it was found that the operator had tripped
line 2 at Kundah PH-1 while issuing the L.C.
How much negligence?
Clear instructions over the step by step operations before issuing a line clear on
equipment should be available in every SS/PH at the operators table.
Sub-log book should be essentially maintained. The author has heard a story of
attending repair works in the cooler of a healthy generator when the cooler was defective
in other unit.
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17. Primary injection and Bus bard stability problem:
The above figure shows the portion of a 33 KV GIS system. When the B/B CT
was tested for ratio by inserting the current cable through the available external hole
marked as “C”, the CT behaved accurately.
When it was tried to do the primary injection by injection current in between A

and B through conductor, the CT behaved erratically.
THE PROBLEM could not be solved for many months inspite of the visits of
expert from the country where it was manufactured.
The foreign company finally brought a flux Camera which can take photo of
magnetic flux. It was seen that there was flux linking between points D and E through F.
This was found to be due to missing of an insulating washer provided in one of the fixing
bolts of flange F. Actually, there should not have been electric conductivity between G
and H but the defect was the existence of continuity due to the missing washer as was
concluded by the company engineers.
18. Real life is like that:
I. After the tripping of a generator, the hydraulic operator in a power house was
shouting to the electrical operator:
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“Hey – the machine has tripped – but the shaft is still rotating”
II. No rains – No problem:-
Load dispatch engineer asked to put one Generator on bars immediately.
Operator replied that the rotor is outside.
Load dispatcher advised that since there were no rains, the rotor could well be
outside and asked to put the machine first.
III. Deserving appreciation:
The rewinding works of an induction motor was going on. One big engineer
commented to the electrician, “what you are doing is wrong. There should be only 4 leads
coming out. How come there are six leads?”
Finally, after successful completion of the work, the big engineer recommended
himself for appreciation and got it too.
IV. Yet to design:
This is in sixties. A proposal was sent through the hierarchical ladder to the
Canadian Company who erected Kundah system to provide a transformer in a circuit to
solve a problem. The company replied:
“We are yet to design a D.C. transformer”.
V. More careful:
One engineer was more careful that he wanted to get approval from the foreign
company who had supplied the 250 V.D.C. generator equipment as to whether varnishing
could be done to improve its I.R. value.
VI. How is it?
Boss: Which fool gave you the degree?
Subordinate engineer: The same fool who gave it to you.
VII. Betting by the author:
Primary injection was going on in the Bus bar protection C.T. in a sub-station.
One young engineer was doing the test. The author was witnessing. The testing guy
found it very difficult to drive current in the loading transformer when he tested one
particular phase. He said to his assistant to check whether any secondary of the C.T. was
open.
The author intercepted and asked? “How is it? You are sending current only
through the C.T. primary and a big bus bar jumper of about 5 meters. How can the C.T.
open circuit can impede the current in the loading transformer?”
The testing guy was very sure. The author was very adamant. The author offered
to make a bet and the testing guy immediately accepted. Supplying Pepsi to all present
was the bet.
The author had to supply Pepsi to all finally.
Experience always speaks.
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VIII. Protection Mind:

One engineer saw a chicken in his dream inside the Kadamparai PH. (How can a
chicken get into the under ground Power House?) He was telling about this dream to his
nearest people.
Within two or three days, there was the fire accident at Kadamparai. It was sug-
gested by somebody in presence of the then Chairman to send down through a basket –
pulley – rope system a chicken through the vertical tunnel upto the Power House location
to ensure that fire had extinguished completely. These are also protection thinking and
dreaming.
IX. Getting shouted gives un-forgetting pleasure:
The top brass from Madras who is famous for shouting is in site to witness the
scheduled commissioning of a big equipment. One small protection engineer could not be
available for the commissioning. He gets the nod from his local boss to be away on the
day of commissioning on an unavoidable family function. The news reached the shouting
boss. He shouts, “what? What do you mean? nothing doing. No commissioning
tomorrow. We will wait for you. Go and finish your job and join us.” This shouting is
unforgettable. Only the protection engineer can get so much of importance – every one of
you know.
X. Masters:
The author has innumerable number of masters in this world. Leaking rain water
was dripping over a villager silting in a bus. He was not at all caring. He neither bothered
nor enjoyed. He was as calm as a baby in its mothers’ arms. He is also a master of the
author. The author thinks of him whenever he faces such a situation now and then and
asks himself how the villager in bus would have acted under this circumstance?
Like wise many masters. The author is blessed always with very good bosses
anywhere in the world.
Most of the bosses like Er. K. Narayanasamy, Er. B. Ranganathan and Er. K.R.
Syed Abdul Subhan are his masters in many ways. When the author makes an analysis of
tripping or when he drafts a letter or when he faces a labour union, he asks himself, “How
Engineer …… will analyse this tripping?” The author gets some more depth. His masters
has “assessed” the author as “GIVES IMMEDIATE SOLUTIONS IN THE FIELD” and
“CAPABLE OF TACKLING ANY PROTECTION PROBLEM”
- Million dollars boosts indeed.
The author has started thinking confidently after getting these assessments that he
could give himself a solution to any problem in life also.
The 26 year old protection engineer of electrical equipment has understood now
the way to protect himself from any hazards in life and his own I.R. value is > --------.
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CHAPTER-XIX
UNDER GROUND CABLES
Er. M. Arunachalam
EE / GRT
A.3.1. 11KV & 33KV POWER

CABLES.
A.3.2. 110KV OIL FILLED

POWER CABLES.
A.3.3. 110KV XLPE POWER

CABLES.
A.3.4. 230 KV XLPE POWER

CABLES.
A.3.5. PILOT CABLES.
A.3.6. LV CABLES.
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CHAPTER–XIX
A.3.1. 11KV & 33KV POWER CABLES.
Test No. Test Description Standard Ref. Remarks

1. Sheath Insulation &
continuity Test. IEC-52 IR value for
ISI- sheath>100 meg
2. Insulation test for ohms, And for cable
cable core. conductor>500 meg
ohms
3. Phasing test
4. H.V. test
A.3.2. 110 KV OIL FILLED POWER CABLES.

1. Oil flow test IEC-141-1
2. Impregnation Test
ISI-
3. Conductor
Resistance test.
4. Capacitance test
5. Sheath insulation by IR value more
5KV megger. Than 100 Meg
ohms.
6. Cross bonding test.
7. Tightness of links in
Junction boxes
8. Test for SVL by
2.5KV Megger. Test at 245KV
DC for 15
9. High Voltage Test. Minutes.
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CHAPTER–XIX
A.3.3. 110 KV XLPE POWER CABLES

1. Insulation Test IEC-840
2. Conductor ISI-
Resistance,
capacitance &
inductance test.
3. Sheath insulation
Test.
4. Cross bonding Test.
5. Link box tightness
check
6. SVL test by 2.5 KV Test at 185 KV
megger DC for 15
minutes.
7. H. V. Test
A.3.4 230 KV XLPE POWER CABLES.
1. Insulation Test
2. Conductor IEC – 840
Resistance, ISI-
capacitance &
inductance test.
3. Sheath insulation
Test.
4. Cross bonding Test.
5. Link box tightness Test at 385 KV DC
check for 15 minutes.
6. SVL test by 2.5 KV
megger
7. H.V.Test
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CHAPTER–XIX
A.3.5. PILOT CABLES.
1. Insulation Test by IR value>100 Meg

5KV Megger ohm
2 Loop Resistance
Test.
3. Cross talk test &
coupling Test.
4. Noise level
measurement
A.3.6. LV CABLES.

1. Phasing & IEC- 227-2
continuity check. IR value More than
100 Meg Ohms.
2. 2KV insulation test.
3. Visual inspection,
size & ratings
confirmation.
Note: Annual DL H.V. test on cables in generalings station should be dispensed with and
the DL H.V test should be conducted after ratification of fault conditions.
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CHAPTER-XX
BATTERIES
Checking of Value Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries in conjunction with the
commissioning of plant.
1. GENERAL
This is a general guideline for bringing Valve regulated lead acid (VRLA)
batteries into service
Test Record 1 WAT 910037-006 is to be used during testing.
For commissioning of freely vented lead acid batteries, please see provision 1
WAT 910034-007.
The installation, commissioning and maintenance instructions given by each

manufacturer shall always be complied and should be read at the same times
as this guideline.
2. RFERENCE DOCUMENTS.
- Installation drawings and instructions from the manufacture provided
together with the battery, regarding storage, erection, initial charging etc.
- Commissioning instruction for rectifies 1 WAT 910034-005
- Manufacturers manual for rectifier.
3. TEST EQUIPMENT
Multimeter class 1.5
Test leads
Voltmeter for DC class 0.2 (Digital multimeter)
Thermometer
Rubber gloves, goggles, eyecup, cold water and saline solution in squeeze
bottle for eye wash.
4. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
4.1 Hydrogen gas.
When lead acid batteries are being charged, oxihydrogen gas is liberated. To
minimise the risk of explosion, the following precautions must be taken:
- Ensure that the space around the battery is adequately ventilated. Ensure
ventilation according to local standards. Use Swedish standard SS 408 01
10 if no local standard is available.
- Smoking is to be prohibited
- Prior to touching the call caps, remove any static electricity by placing
the hand on the edge or the side of the respective battery cases.
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4.2 Chemical stuff.
The valves of the battery must not be blocked or opened. Filling of cells is
not possible, since the electrolyte is immobilized and the battery already
filled when delivered.
Severe damages on the battery container might cause acid to leak. Therefore
the same safety precautions as the vented batteries are necessary:
- Use protective goggles.
- Washing facilities are to be available close to the battery.
- Electrolyte on the skin, must be washed with plenty of soap and water.
- If electrolyte gets into the eyes wash with plenty of clean water and get
immediate medical attention.
Lead compounds are poisonous. Always wash your hands after working with
the battery.
4.3 Electrical current

Valve regulated batteries are always electrically alive and the risk of short
circuit (and electrical sparks, see 4.1) must be prevented.
- Use insulated tools only to make connections to the battery, taking care
not to over tighten beyond manufacturer’s recommended torque value.
- Check the circuit and make sure it is safe before making a connection to
the battery.
- Before working on the battery, always remove personal metal effects,
such as rings, watches, bracelets, necklaces etc.
4.4 Temperature.
For lead acid batteries in general and especially for valve regulated batteries
it is of utmost important to keep the temperature at a steady level of 20 C
(See fig. 1).
5. PREREQUISITES.
Chargers which are connected to the battery shall already been commissioned
previously.
6. VALVE REGULATED BATTERIES.GENERAL INFORMATION

6.1 Description of basic technology
Over the past years VRLA batteries have been introduced as an alternative to
the conventional lead acid and nickel cadmium batteries. This new type is
advertised as “sealed” or “maintenance free”. The correct designation is
“valve regulated” according to IEC 896-2 (draft).
In a VRLA cell the net water consumption is strongly reduced by means of a

recombination of the oxygen at the negative electrode and by preventing the
hydrogen from being generated.
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CHAPTER–XX
However, the oxygen recombination does not work at 100% efficiency.

Some oxygen escapes from the electrochemical system. Furthermore,
evolution of hydrogen cannot be fully suppressed. This means that water loss
will take place already during normal conditions and particularly during
charging with high currents and high temperatures. These water losses are
not possible to replace.
The valve, which must open at high pressure, is a very important detail. If
the valve sticks open (or is removed for any reason), this will lead to oxygen
ingress with resultant discharge of the cells and ultimately total dry out. If it
sticks, internal pressure build-up will create a severe bulge of the cell
container leading to eventual fracture. In the extreme case it may rise to an
explosion.
NOTE:
Valve regulated batteries are not sealed.
6.2 Two VRLA designs
The VRLA batteries are divided into two main groups depending on the way
the gas recombination is achieved:
- Absorbed (starved) electrolyte

- Gelled electrolyte
Absorbed electrolyte cells are built up of pasted plates with microporous

glass fibre as separators.
The electrolyte is absorbed by the pores of the electrode active materials and
the separator. The separator is not saturated with acid and the acid free pores
are used for transferring the oxygen from the positive to the negative
electrode.
The gel electrolyte is immobilised by the addition of silicon dioxide to the

sulfuric acid. The oxygen is transported through micro cracks in the gel.
The plates can be designed as for FVLA with pasted or tubular plates. The
separators are normally made of microporous plastic.
6.3 Float charge
Due to the limited acid volume and consequently the need for high acid
density in the absorbed cells (1.29-1.30 kg/I), the float charge voltage will be
somewhat higher than for other lead acid batteries. For this reason the
absorbed VRLA cells must be charged with a higher float charge level of
2.27 V/cell with given tolerances.
The gelled type has the same density as the FVLA type i.e. 1.24-1.26 kg/I
and accordingly has the same float charge level of 2.23-2.25 V/cell.
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CHAPTER–XX
This discrepancy must of course be considered when calculating the number

of cells so that the upper limit is not exceeded.
Absorbed Gelled
Density 1.29-1.30 kg/I 1.24 kg/I
Float charge 2.27 V/c 2.23 V/c
The manufacturer must give detailed information of recommended float

charge voltage.
6.4 High rate charge (boost charge, equalizing charge)

In order to avoid gas development and risk of dry-out, all manufacturers
advise limitations for voltage, current and time when recharging VRLA cells.
It is therefore of importance to follow the instructions from the manufacturer.
6.5 Ambient temperature

The higher ambient temperature, the higher float current at a given voltage
level.
High float current causes high internal temperature and escape of gas, which
will dramatically decrease the lifetime of the battery.
This is valid for all lead acid batteries. See fig 1.
Life Time
100 %
Fig 1.
50 %
0 10 20 30 40
Temperature
Due to the exothermal oxygen recombination reactions, VRLA batteries

develop much more heat inside the cell than the conventional cells.
Furthermore, as there is no free acid, the heat dissipation is not supported by
convection.
Under extreme conditions, the battery can be subject to successive increase
of float current and temperature until it is destroyed. This phenomenon is
called “thermal runaway”.
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CHAPTER–XX
A temperature compensated charger can be installed in the DC system .

This charger can decrease the float charge level at high temperatures and
therefore marginally improve the situation but not restore the lifetime due to
high temperatures. See typical values fig 2.
Plant voltage Per Coil (V)
240
235
230
Fig 2.
225
220
215
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Temperature C’
In general, the gelled batteries have a larger electrolyte volume than the
absorbed type and are more resistant to a drying out. This is a general
guideline and differences between different makes may change this picture.
6.6 Ripple
There is no difference between valve regulated batteries and conventional

lead acid batteries regarding the acceptance of ripple current. The ripple
current must be limited to a value recommended by the manufacturer
(Normally 5A/100Ah). Otherwise the corrosion on the positive grid and the
internal temperature will increase.
6.7 Discharge performance
The absorbed type has a very good high rated discharge current performance.
Therefore this technology is highly suitable for UPS systems, diesel engine
starting and DC systems where large current peaks are required after a long
discharge period.
For the gel type, the peak loads might increase the nominal battery capacity
and consequently the cost. Gel-technology is worth its price for applications
with low discharge current without extreme peak loads at the end of the
discharge period.
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CHAPTER–XX
6.8 Classification and Lifetime
EUROBAT has classified the VRLA batteries into 4 groups with particular
reference to – Performance
- Safety
- Design Life
*10 + year – High integrity
Telecommunications, nuclear and conventional power plants, oil and

petrochemical industry and other applications where the highest security is
required.
*10 year – High performance
In general terms, this group of batteries have comparable design life

performance as in the 10 + year – High integrity group. However,
requirements for performance and safety are not as severe. The requirement
for capacity is 95% at first cycle and 100 % at 10:th cycle.
*5-8 year – General purpose.
Safety requirements and design life related tests are not as stringent.
*3-5 year – Standard commercial.
This group of batteries are at the consumers end and are popular in small
emergency equipment.
There are some gelled batteries on the market today which cannot reach
100% after first cycle and shall be classed in the 10 year – Higher
performance group.
The difference in lifetime expectancy between the two VRLA types at 20

degrees C is;
* Absorbed technology – appr. 10 years for the 10+ and 10 year groups.
* Gel technology – appr. 12-15 years
7. RECEIVING, UNPACKING AND STORAGE.
Inspect the battery upon arrival and check that the goods delivered are
complete and that all cells/blocks are undamaged.
Under no circumstances shall the cell/blocks be lifted by their terminal

pillars.
There is no need to remove the terminal covers before the erection of the
battery set.
If the battery cannot be installed immediately, store all parts in a clean and
dry room.
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CHAPTER–XX
It is advisable to check the voltage for each cell/block after the unpacking.
This can be done without removing the terminal cover (for most of the
makes). The recommended lowest voltage is given by the manufacturer.
(appr. 2-10 V/cell)
In order to ensure that the batteries can be charged easily after a long period
of storage, it is recommended that the batteries should not be stored more
than the following periods without recharging (typical values);
6 months at 20 C
4 months at 30 C
2 months at 40 C
For this reason it is very important that the design office is informed about
any delays at an early stage so that the delivery of the batteries can be
coordinated with the start of commissioning.
8. INSTALLATION
The installation section of the battery manual and the installation drawing for
the special project must be complied completely.
Care for space between cells/blocks and for good ventilation in the room
where the battery is accommodated.
9 . COMMISSIONING CHARGE
NOTE! It is very important to follow the instruction from each manufacturer

regarding;
- applied float voltage and high rate voltage (if recommended).
- current limit
- time period for charging
- temperature when charging
Some manufactures make a distinction between initial charge for
immediately load connection and initial charge for site acceptance test.
Generally, the absorbed typed are more sensitive to high voltages and large
current. For this reason batteries require most time to be initially charged,
especially when the battery is subject for site acceptance test (up to 6days
charging for some manufactures).
The voltage applied to the battery set is calculated according to: next
recommended charging voltage (n = number of cells)
If a temperature compensated charger is installed, the float charge voltage
shall be adjusted according to recommendation from the manufacture or
according to fig 2. In this case the alarm level for under/over float charge
voltage is set to 2-3% of the set float value.
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The charging current (1 charging) is expressed as % of Ah capacity 0.1 x

C10 means that the current shall be limited to a value of 10 % of the nominal
10 h capacity.
For a 100 Ah nominal capacity it is 10 A. Before initial charge it might be

necessary to derate the current limit of the charger (1 set) so that the current
is limited to the recommended value; I set = I charging
When the station load is connected it is advisable to set the current limit in
accordance with actual configuration in the power station (substation) and the
recommended value given from the design office; I set = I charging + I load
10 . SITE ACCEPTANCE TEST (CAPACITY TEST)
The site acceptance test must be carried out in the period between completion
of the commissioning charge and the introduction of an operating load on the
system.
The capacity test is normally performed during 5 hours, 10 hours or the

battery duty period. The following instruction will apply to the 5 and 10
hours discharge.
- Read the ambient temperature.
- The charger shall be connected to the battery until the start of the
discharge. It is recommended to check the voltage for each cell/bloc after
completion of the initial charge but before disconnection the charger and
start of the testing.
- If nothing else is specified the discharge current is given in the

manufactures catalogue at an end voltage of 1.80 volt/cell for 5 hour or 10
hours discharge.
- The battery load until shall be connected to suitable terminals where the
station loads and rectifier are disconnected and where the battery load unit
connections are protected by fuses/circuit breakers. See fig 3
377
- If possible, makes a rough current setting on the battery load unit before is
connection to the battery.
- Connect the battery load unit and make a final adjustment of the current. It
is very important to that the discharge current is supervised and kept at an
accurate level of +/-1 % throughout the test
- Make a note in the test sheet at what time the test is started and at what
time the test is finished.
- The battery voltage is to be measured 6 times during the discharge period.
- Battery terminal voltage is to be measured the first 3 times and individual

cell voltage is to be measured the last 3 times (at 80-90-100% discharge).
If the battery terminal voltage is measured at the load bank, the voltage drop
in the cables between battery and load bank has to be considered
- Voltage drop between the battery terminals and the cell connections shall
be checked during an early stage of the discharge. All cells are checked
and the voltage must not exceed 5 mV. Connections where the voltage
drop is larger must be investigated and carefully adjusted.
Successively as the test is performed, enter the test results in Test Record 1
WAT 910037 – 006.
378
CHAPTER–XX
The acceptance test must be supervised to prevent deep discharges and the
recharging must be commenced immediately after the discharge with a
voltage, current and time equal to the method for putting the batteries into
service without test.
1. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR COMMISSIONING TEST
Two criteria must be regarded for acceptance of the site test.

-cell/bloc voltage deviation
-capacity
The cell/bloc voltage deviation has a very wide range for new VR batteries. It
is recommended to check the voltage for each cell/bloc after completion of the
initial charge but before disconnecting the charger and start of the testing. In
this stage the deviation can reach a level of +0,2/-0,1 V/cell for gelled cells
but less for absorbed type.
At the end of a site test the cell/bloc voltage deviation shall not vary more
than +/-0.06 V from mean value and the battery voltage shall not be bellow
the predestinated end voltage (normally the number of cells multiplies with
1.80 V/cell).
The capacity test shall be interrupted when the battery voltage has reached the
end voltage.
If the happens for instance at the 4,5 hour reading for a 5 hour test, it indicates
that the capacity is only 90 % (4,5/5).
For adsorbed type in*10+ year – High integrity group not less than 100 %
capacity is accepted.
For gelled type which is in the 10 year – High performance group 95 %

capacity at first cycle is accepted.
Temperature correction for other temperatures than 20 C must be done as

follows:
K(t) = capacity at temperature t = time for discharge x discharge current.
K(20) = capacity at 20 = K(t) / f
f = correction factor given by the manufacture. If nothing is specified this

factor can be calculated as; 1+0,006 x (t-20)
379
CHAPTER–XX
ABB Substations Inspection and test record Record form No:

1 WAT 910037-006
Description: Order No.: Sheet
Batteries valv requlated lead acid 1
With capacity test Drawing No.: Cont
2
Customer.: Customer ref.:
Erection site.: Ref.:
A. neral Data and Information
Battery type…………………………….Manufacturer:………………………….
Nominal Voltage:………………………Nubmer of cells:……………………….
Temperature compensated charger ___
B. Initial charging:
Charging coltage:……………………… V
Charging current. (current limit of the charger):……………………. A
Charging time:………………………….h
C. Cell voltage after initial charging:
Float voltage:………….V Time between initial charging and capacity test….h

Ambient temperature:…………………. C
Cell. Volt Cell Volt Cell. Volt Cell. Volt Cell. Volt Cell. Volt
No. age No. age No. age No. age No. age No. age
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120
Test carried out Customers approval
Date. Sign.: Date. Sign.:
380
CHAPTER–XX

1 WAT 910037-006
Description Order No.: Sheet.:
Batteries vlav regulated lead acid 2
With capacity test Drawing No.: Cont.:
3
Customer.: Customer’s ref.:
Erection sale.: Ref.:
D. Capacity test.
5 hours test:___ 10 hours test:___ ..........hours test:____
End voltage/cell 1.80 V/cell_____ Other end voltage/cell.......V/cell
Time between initial charging and capacity test.......h
Ambient temperature............................... C
Discharge current according to datasheet.........................A
Calculated capacity (discharge current x time)........................Ah
The discharge was started at...............stopped at..................
Individual cell voltage
5 hours test 10 hours test …….hours

Time V Time Time hours
(h) (h) V (h) V
0 0
1.00 1.00
2.30 5.00
4.00 (80%) Sh.4 8.00 (80%) Sh.4 (80%) Sh.4
4.30(90%) Sh.5 9.00 (90%) Sh.5 (90%) Sh.5
Compl. Compl. Compl.
test (100%) Sh.6 test (100%) Sh.6 test (100%) Sh.6
NOTE:
Individual cell voltages are noted on sheet 4-6. One sheet for each voltmeter reading at
80-90-100% discharge
At 0 hours the load bank is not yet connected and the voltage indicates the open circuit
voltage of each cell.
The capacity test is to be completed when the battery voltage has reached the end
voltage.
Contact resistance between terminals and cell connectors checked (after 1 hour):______
Date. Sign.: Date. Sign.:
381
CHAPTER–XX

1 WAT 910037-006
4
E. Evaluation of results after completed test.
1.Cellvoltage deviation after initial charge with the rectifier still connected at float
charge mode (section C. page 1)
Mean value...........V/cell
Max. value............V/cell
Min. value.............V/cell
2. Cellvoltage deviation after completed test (section D, page 2)
Mean value...........V/cell
Max. value............V/cell
Min. value.............V/cell
3. Extracted capacity.
Extracted capacity after compleated test = discharge current x discharge time:

................................................................................................Ah.
Calculated capacity according to section A:...............Ah.
Correction with other temperatures than 20°C; Capacity (20°C) = Capacity
(t°C)/correction factor:
................................................................................................Ah.
F. Recharging after completed test
Charging voltage...................V
Charging current....................A
Charging time.....................…h
References to used instruments:
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________

Date, Sign.: Date, Sign.:
382
CHAPTER–XX

1 WAT 910037-006
Drawing No.: Cont.:
With capacity test 5
Cell voltage after 80% discharge
Cell Volta Cell Volta Cell Volta Cell Volta Cell Volta Cell Volta
No. ge No. ge No. ge No. ge No. ge No. ge
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120

383
CHAPTER–XX

1 WAT 910037-006
6
Ref.:
Erection sale.:
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120

384
CHAPTER–XX

1 WAT 910037-006
6
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120

385
Contributors of this Manual
1. Er. A.S. Kandasamy M.E.,MI.EEE(USA) CE/Transmission
Contributed a lot of papers on Distribution protection and Metering system.
2. Er. K. Mounagurusamy. B.E.,

Chief Engineer/Protection & communication. The experiences in the generation and
transmission network with contributions to the development of the system.
3. Er. M. Varadharajan, B.E,
Executive Engineer/O&M /Orathanadu
Experiences in generating station protections and distribution protection contributed to

the value information.
4. Er. P. Ponnambalam, B.Sc., B.E.,
Executive Engineer/Sub-Station Erection / Chennai
The experience in the field of erection and testing of equipment contributed to the
manual.
5. Er. M. Arunachalam, M.E.,
Executive Engineer/Grid relay Test/Chennai
The experiences on transmission protection are shared much on this manual.
The contributions are worthy in nature and confined to the transmissions.
386

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CHAPTER–XII

UNDERFREQUENCY RELAYING AND LOAD

- Load shedding is essential in emergencies to keep the system in tact.

- Stator voltage is proportional to speed of generator and hence MVAR output

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION DURING DECLINING FREQUENCY:

Published in TNEB Engineers Association bulletin

U/F SYSTEM PROTECTION IN TNEB AS ON APRIL 2001

1) 400KV Sriperumbudur – cuddapah will trip at 100MW (Export to cuddapah) when

2) 400KV Salem – Bangalore will trip at 300MW (Export to Bangalore) When

II If frequency is not improving due to Generation – Load mismatch, Load release

a) ETPS (combined with BBGTPS) Block:

b) GMR Vasavi Diesel Generation Plant Block:

c) NCPTS (Combined with TCPL Generation) Block:

d) Neyveli Thermal Power Station Block:

e) Mettur Thermal Power Station Block:

f) TTPS – Hydro Block :

Under Frequency relay on Aliyar Power House to automatically change the

Units and levels & Measurement methods:

10 log10 Po/Pr dB.

In a non-linear Network to which two or more sinusoidal signals are applied

Ex: h = 0dB. P2 = -43.5 dB

Insulation level of Line Trap:

Residential voltage by nominal discharge

Sparkover voltage of the arrester

Typical factory impulse voltage: 90 KV

Impulse Test voltage of L.T. 75 KV

Due to R+jx = 10 log (1+0.25+N)/N2+P2 db

Where N = R/Z & P = 1 x 1 /2.

Due to R only 20 log ( 1 + 1 /2N) db

Due to 1x1 only 10 log (1+0.25/P2) db

Band width of line trap

That frequency band V f1

Rated band width:

Bandwidth expressed in terms of

Rated blocking impedance or rated tapping loss

V f1N Band width expressed in terms of rated blocking impedence.

Line trap blocking resistance: 570 ohms.

TEST ON LINE TRAPS:

1) Measurement of inductance of the main civil.

2) Measurement of Temperature Rise

4) Short time current tests

Measurement of blocking impedence

Measurement of tapping loss.

Measurement blocking impedance

Z are resistors equal to characteristic impedance of the line.

Equivalent series resistance 40 r

Stray capacitance of Low for CC

Stray conductance of low 20 pvs for CC

High frequency current – to with stand atleast 1A ( )

value of current equival

4. D.C. test voltage

5. Test between the low voltage and earth terminals.

Measured capacitance shall not differ from the rated value by

Tangent of the loss angle.

Limits of permissible variation subject to agreement.

The purpose of measurement is to check uniformity of production.

Typical value less than 0.5 x 10-3

Carrier freq. requirements.

composite lost : not more than 2 dB

Return loss : preferably not less than 12dB

Nominal line 200-400 ohm

400-700 ohm phase-phase coupling