SOUND

PRESENTED BY : JIGNASHA
PATEL
INTRODUCTION
Sound waves are longitudinal waves that can travel
through any material medium (i.e., solids, liquids
or gases) with a speed that depends on the
properties of the medium.
As sound travels through a medium, the particles
of the medium vibrate along the direction of
motion of the wave.
This is in contrast to a transverse wave where the
particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
The displacement that occur as a result of sound
waves involve the longitudinal displacements of
individual molecules from their mean or
equilibrium positions.
This results in a series of high and low pressure
regions called compression and rarefaction
respectively.

“Sound waves are longitudinal waves that travel

through all media (solid, liquid or gas) in the form
of compressions and rarefactions.”
ORIGIN OF SOUND
Sound is
A form of energy made by vibrations.

When an object vibrates it causes the air particles around it

to move.

These particles bump into particles close to them and this

continues until they run out of energy.

Sound is a variation in the pressure of the air of a type

which has an effect on our ears and brain.
Sound may be produced in a variety of
ways, normally as a result of some
mechanical disturbance on an object,
causing it to vibrate. For example
-- guitar strings
-- human vocal chord
-- loudspeaker
-- jet engines
--drum
TYPES OF SOUND
Sound waves are often categorised into
three groups:
1. Infrasonic
2. Audible
3. Ultrasonic
Audible and inaudible wave :
When we wave our hands, we produce
compressions and rarefactions in air.
However, no audible sounds are produced
because the frequency of such vibrations is
too low (< 20 Hz) to affect our auditory
nerves. Likewise if the frequency of sound is
high (> 20 kHz), no sound is heard by the
human ear. It is because the vibrations are so
rapid that auditory nerves do not respond to
them.
1) Audible waves : ---
Audible waves are sound waves that human
ear can hear.
-- The range of human hearing is 20 Hz to 20
kHz. In other words, we cannot hear waves
of frequency below 20 Hz or above 20 kHz.
-- The audible waves can be generated in a
variety of ways such as by musical
instruments, human vocal cords and
loudspeakers.
2) Inaudible waves : --- Those
waves which human ear cannot hear are called
inaudible waves.
-- There are two types of inaudible waves viz.,
infrasonics and ultrasonics.
-- Infrasonics are longitudinal waves with
frequencies below 20 Hz. Earthquake waves are
an example.
-- Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves with
frequencies above 20 kHz. For example, they can
be generated by inducing vibrations in a quartz
crystal with an applied alternating electric field.
Sound may be broadly classified into two
general groups : 1. Musical
sound
2. Noise
The difference between a musical sound
and a noise is subjective, i.e., its depends
upon the sense of a person.
A sound which is musical to someone may
be noise to others.
1) Musical Sound :
It is a pleasant, continuous and uniform
sound produced by regular and periodic
vibration.
e.g., sound produced by tuning fork, flute, piano
etc.
-- In musical sound there is no sudden changes in
loudness.
(2) Noise : It is an
unpleasant, discontinuous and non-uniform
sound produced by irregular succession of
disturbances.
-- All sounds other than musical sounds are noise
E.g., sound produced by a
falling brick, clapping of
two wooden blocks etc.
-- In noise there is sudden
changes in loudness.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES
Sound waves are characterised by its pitch
(frequency), loudness (intensity) and quality.
The speed of the sound depends on the medium
transmitting it.
Fig.1
1) Amplitude : It is the maximum displacement of
the medium from its equilibrium state when a
mechanical wave passes through the medium. The
amplitude of wave is denoted by ‘a’.
2) Wavelength : The distance between two
successive crest and two successive trough is
called wavelength of the wave. It is denoted by ‘λ’.

3) Time period : The time period of a wave is the

time taken by the wave source to complete 1
vibration or cycle. It is denoted by ‘T’.
4) Frequency : The frequency of a wave is the
number of complete cycles that pass a given
point in one second. It is denoted by ‘f’.
-- The unit of frequency is Hz.
f = 1/T

5) Wave velocity : The distance covered by a

wave in one second is called wave velocity. It
is denoted by ‘v’ and is measured in ms-1 in SI
units.
6) Vibration : Any regularly repeated to-and-fro
motion or change is known as vibration.

7) Phase : The stage in a cycle that a wave has

reached at a particular time from some reference
point.
RELATION BETWEEN WAVE VELOCITY,
FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
Consider a mechanical wave passing through a
medium possessing the properties of elasticity and
inertia.
C

B D
t=T
E
o A
I
t=0
F H
G
Here at t=0, all the particles in the medium are in
equilibrium position.
At time t=0 the position of particle is A and after
some time t=T it reaches at point I.
By definition, wavelength (λ) is the distance
travelled by the wave in time T.
Wave velocity v = distance travelled by
wave/time taken

v 
T
but
1
 f
T

v   f

 wavevelocity  freq.  wavelength

CALCULATION OF VELOCITY OF SOUND
IN AIR
NEWTON’S FORMULA :
Newton assumed that the propagation of sound
waves in air is an isothermal phenomenon. i.e., a
process in which temperature remains constant
and Boyle’s law holds good.
He argued that the small amount of heat which is
produced at compression is rapidly taken away to
the places of rarefactions where a slight cooling is
produced.
In this way the temperature of the gas remains
constant. Thus, for a given mass of gas at pressure p
and volume V, we have pV =
constant differentiating, we get

p d V  V d p  0
d p
 p  
 d V 
 
 V 

Change in pressure

Volume strain

 K (By Hooke's law)

Substituting this value of p in the velocity expression
K
v
, we have
.....(1)
v
p

This is the Newton’s formula. For air at
0˚C, p = 76×13.6×980 dyne/cm2
and ρ = 0.00129 gm/c.c.

= 280 m/s
76  13.6  980
v
This value is much0.00129
lower
than the experimental value
332m/s. Hence, Newton’s formula is not acceptable.
LAPLACE’S FORMULA :
Laplace pointed out that the propagation of sound
waves through air is not an isothermal process (as
suggested by Newton) but it is an adiabatic process.
He argued that due to the reasons (1) that
compressions and rarefactions in sound waves take
place very rapidly, (2) large distances
between compressions and rarefactions,
(3) poor conductivity of air, there is no
appreciable heat flow from regions of compressions
(where temp. is slightly high) to the regions of
rarefactions (where temp. is slightly low).
Thus, the conditions do not remain isothermal. i.e.,
temperature changes.
The relation between pressure and volume of air is
governed by the adiabatic relation,
.....(1)

pV
where γ is the adiabatic  constant
constant.
Differentiating eq.(1)

 1
p V dV  V  d P  0
p d V  V d p  0
dp
p    K
 dV / V 
 p
v 

This is the Laplace formula.
The value of ‘γ’ for air is 1.41. substituting the value of
γ, p and ρ, we get
1.417613.6980
v
which is in good0.00129
agreement with the
 331.6 m/s
experimental value.
EFFECT OF PRESSURE,TEMPERATURE AND
HUMIDITY ON THE SPEED OF SOUND
EFFECT OF PRESSURE :
When the pressure of a given mass of a gas changes,
there is a corresponding change of volume and density.
If the temperature remains constant, then from Boyle’s
law, we have
1
......(1)
p
V
where p and V are the pressure and volume of the gas
respectively.
We also know that,
m

V
.....(2)
if 'm' is constant then,
1

from eq.(1) and (2),V

Now from Laplace’s formula,

p
p   or  constant
.........(3) 

p 1.41p
v   constant
 
Hence if the temperature of the gas remains constant,
the speed of sound does not change with a change of
pressure.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE :
When the temperature of gas changes, its density also
changes without affecting the pressure. Thus, the
speed of sound also changes. i.e., the speed of sound is
different at different temperatures.
Let  0 and  t be the densities of the gas at 0˚C and
t˚C respectively. The speeds of sound at the
temperature can be expressed as,
 p p
v0  and vt 
0 t
vt 0
........(4)
 
v0 t
Now, according to Charle’s law 0  t (1 where
 t ) α is the
coefficient of expansion of the gas and is equal to 1/273
per ˚C nearly. Hence,
vt  (1   t )
 t  (1   t )
v0 t
t ........(5)
(273  t ) T
 (1  )  t
273 273 T0
Where Tt and T0are absolute temperatures.
Thus the speed of sound is directly proportional to the
square root of the absolute temperature.

EFFECT OF HUMIDITY :
For the same temperature and pressure, the density of
water vapour is less than that of air. Therefore, the
presence of the moisture in the same volume of air
lowers the density of the mixture.
Let ρ and ρ’ be the densities of dry and moist air
respectively at the same pressure, then
velocity of sound in dry air
 p
vd 


And velocity of the sound in moist air

p
vm 
'
vm  p/' 
  
vd  p /  since,
 ' ρ > ρ’ therefore,
vm  air
Thus, the speed of sound in moist v d is greater than in
dry air.
EFFECT OF WIND :
 If the wind blows in the direction of sound, then the
velocity of sound increased but if wind blows in the
opposite direction, the velocity of sound is decreased.

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY(PITCH):
There is no effect of frequency on the speed of sound
in a medium.
Sound waves of different frequency travels with the
same speed in the air although their wavelength in air
are different.
If the speed of sound wave dependent on the
frequency then we could not have enjoyed orchestra.
INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES
When two or more wave of sound of same frequency
travelling in almost same direction superimpose, the
resultant intensity in the region of superimposition is
different than the intensity of individual waves.
The modification in the distribution of intensity
of sound in the region of superposition is called
interference.
Depending upon the way the waves superimpose, the
interference is of two types : (1)
Constructive interference (2) Destructive
interference
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
When the waves superimpose in such a way that their
maxima and minima correspond with each other, the
resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due
to separate waves (fig.1).
As the intensity is proportional to the square of the
amplitude and hence the resultant intensity at this
point is increased.
This phenomenon is called constructive interference.

Fig.1
CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE

For constructive interference, path difference between

two waves is nλ 
    i.e. path difference = nλ 
   or path difference = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ, …..
   where n = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,…..
EFFECT
 In constructive interference, two waves of sound
reinforce each other.
In constructive interference, one can hear a louder
sound.
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
When the waves superimpose in such a way that the
maxima of one corresponds with the minima of other,
the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference of
the amplitudes due to separate waves. This is termed
as destructive interference ( fig. 2).
Fig.2
CONDITION FOR DESTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
If the path difference between two light waves
is (n+1/2)λ , then the interference between them will
be destructive.
   Path difference = (n+1/2)λ
   i.e. path difference = 1/2λ, 3/2λ, 5/2λ , …. 
   where n = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,…..
EFFECT
 In destructive interference, two waves cancel the
effects of each other.
Due to destructive interference we can not hear sound
or the intensity of sound is decreased
Thus, due to phenomenon of interference we get
maximum sound(due to constructive interference)
and minimum sound (due to destructive interference)
which are called louder sound and null sound
respectively.
The array of such fringes is labelled as interference
pattern (fig.3).
  
DOPPLER EFFECT
DEFINITION
When a source generating wave moves
relative to an observer, or when an observer
moves relative to a source, there is an
apparent shift in frequency.
This apparent change in frequency due to
the motion of the source (or receiver) is
called the Doppler effect, after Christian
Doppler (1803-1853), the Austrian Physicist
who first explained this phenomenon.
The Doppler effect occurs for all types of waves
whenever there is a relative motion between the
source of waves and the observer.
The greater the speed of the source, the greater
will be the Doppler effect.

“The apparent change in the observed frequency of

a wave due to the relative motion between the
source of waves and the observer is called Doppler
Effect.”

Note: The change in loudness is not the Doppler

Effect! It is the shift in frequency!
Resting sound source
f s  fo

Frequency fs V=340m/s Frequency fo

source observer
at rest at rest
The Doppler effect occurs when a source of
waves moves relative to the observer.
You have certainly experienced this effect
with sound. You are familiar with the rise
and subsequent drop in pitch of an
automobile horn as it approaches and then
passes.
In other words, frequency of sound is raised
when the source of sound approaches you
and lowered when the source is moving
away from you.
Sound source moving toward observer
fo  f s
Observer hears
increased pitch
(shorter wave length)

Frequency fo
Frequency fs

source observer
at rest
The reason is simple , as the car approaches
a stationary listener, the sound waves are
crowded together, causing a decrease in
wavelength and increase in frequency of the
sound heard.
After the car has passed and moving away
from the listener, the sound waves spread
out.
As a result, the wavelength is increased and
the observed frequency is decreased.
 Sound source moving away from observer
fo  f s
Observer hears
decreased pitch
(longer wave length)

Frequency fo Frequency fs

observer
source
at rest
To understand the The source radiates
cause of the Doppler spherical waves, shown
effect, study fig.1 which here as a circle.
shows a source of a
sound moving to the
right toward a
stationary observer B.
A B

Fig.1
Each wave crest moves out as expanding sphere
but since the source is moving, it emits each
successive wave at a different location.
As a result, the waves moving in the same
direction as the source are crowded together while
those moving in the opposite direction are spread
further apart.
The wave speed is constant whether the source
moves or not.
Thus where the wavelength is shortened (for
observer B), the frequency is increased and where
the wavelength is lengthened (for observer A), the
frequency is reduced.
The relationship describing the Doppler shift for a
moving source is given by,
Observed freq. .......(1)
v
f0  fs where, is the
 vthe
actual frequency emittedv by s source
is the apparent frequency is the
fs
velocity of sound in air is the velocity of
sound of source
fo
v
vs
Source toward observer:
v
Increased frequency fo  fs
v  vs

Source away from observer:

Decreased frequency v
fo  fs
v  vs
Now suppose that the observer is also moved...
Therefore, the relationship is given by,
Observed freq. .......(2)
(v  vo )
fo  fs
where, v
is the observed(apparent)frequency is
f o frequency
the source is the speed of the
observerf s is the speed of the sound
vo
v
Observer moving towards source:
(v vo )
Increased frequency fo  fs
v

Observer moving away from the source:

Decreased frequency (v vo )
fo  fs
v
ONLY FOR INFORMATION
The Doppler effect holds not only for sound waves
but also for electromagnetic waves including
microwaves, radio waves and visible light.
When a light source approaches, there is an
increase in its measured frequency.
When it recedes, there is a decrease in its
frequency.
Increasing frequency is called a blue shift, because
the increase is toward the high-frequency, or blue
end of the spectrum.
Decreasing frequency is called a red shift, referring
to the low-frequency, or red end of the color
spectrum.
Distant galaxies show a red shift in their light. A
measurement of this shift enables astronomers to
calculate their speeds of recession.
The red shift Is also a piece of evidence for the
Big Bang theory.
Police use the Doppler effect of radar waves to
measure the speeds of cars on the highway.
Radar waves are electromagnetic waves.
Police bounce them off moving cars. A computer
built into the radar system compares the frequency
of the radar with the frequency of the reflected
waves to find the speed of the car.
ECHO
In audio signal processing and acoustics,
an echo (plural echoes) is a reflection of
sound, arriving at the listener some time after
the direct sound.
Typical examples are the echo produced by
the bottom of a well, by a building, or by the
walls of an enclosed room and an empty
room.
 A true echo is a single reflection of the
sound source.
The word echo derives from the Greek word.
If so many reflections arrive at a listener
that they are unable to distinguish between
them, the proper term is reverberation.
An echo can be explained as a wave that has
been reflected by a discontinuity in
the propagation medium, and returns with
sufficient magnitude .
 Echoes are reflected off walls or hard
surfaces like mountains.
When dealing with audible frequencies, the
human ear cannot distinguish an echo from
the original sound if the delay is less than
1/15 of a second. Thus, since the velocity of
sound is approximately 343 m/s at a normal
room temperature of about 25 °C, the
reflecting object must be more than 11.3 m
from the sound source at this temperature
for an echo to be heard by a person at the
source.
Sound travels approximately 343 metres/s
(1100 ft/s). If a sound produces an echo in 2
seconds, the object producing the echo
would be half that distance away (the sound
takes half the time to get to the object and
half the time to return). The distance for an
object with a 2-second echo return would be
1 sec X 343 metres/s.
In most situations with human hearing,
echoes are about one-half second or about
half this distance, since sounds grow fainter
with distance.
Echoes may be desirable (as in sonar) or
undesirable (as in telephone systems).
VELOCITY OF SOUND IN WATER
The propagation speeds of travelling waves are
characteristic of the media in which they travel
and are generally not dependent upon the
other wave characteristics such as frequency,
period, and amplitude.
The speed of sound in air and other gases, liquids,
and solids is predictable from their density and
elastic properties of the media (bulk modulus).
In a volume medium the wave speed takes the
general form
elastic property K
v 
inertial property 

Where, K=bulk modulus and ρ = density of water

This relationship works fairly well for water .
For water at 0˚C temperature,
K=2.06×109 N/m2 ρ=999.8 kg/m3
≈ 1000kg/m3 (because the density
of water is 1000 times greater than the density of
air)
 2.06 109
v  1435.27 m/s
1000
Which is the velocity of sound in water.
RESONANCE AND VELOCITY OF
SOUND BY RESONANCE METHOD
RESONANCE : when a
vibrating objects sets up air vibrations in an enclosed
space, the sound vibrations in the air very weak at
some frequencies and strong at other frequency.
The frequency at which the sound vibrations are
strong are called resonant frequency of the system and
the phenomenon is known as resonance.
“The phenomenon of making a body vibrate
with its natural frequency under the influence of
another vibrating body with the same frequency is
called resonance.”
When two waves of equal wavelength and amplitude
propagating in opposite directions superimpose on each
other, then interference occurs and the resultant wave is
called a standing wave. In a standing wave the particles of
the medium at certain points do not oscillate. These points
are called nodes. At certain points the particles of the
medium have maximum amplitude of oscillation, called
antinodes.
In standing (stationary) waves, the distance between two
consecutive nodes or antinodes is ¸λ/2, whereas the
distance between a node and the successive antinode is ¸
λ/4.
When the frequency of oscillation of the vibrating object is
equal to the natural frequency of the system, then
resonance occurs.
Let a string be stretched between two clamps separated
by a fixed distance ‘L’.
To find out the expressions for the resonant frequencies
of the string, we note that a node must exist at each of its
ends because each end is fixed and cannot oscillate.
In fig.1, there is only one antinode
antinode which is at the node
node
centre of the string and it
is called single loop pattern.
Here, L = λ/2
 λ = 2L L
Fig.1
This sets up tells us that for the left going and right
going waves must have wavelength λ = 2L.
Now suppose we have an another antinodes

pattern as shown in fig.2

This pattern has three nodes and
two antinodes and it is said to be
a two loop pattern.
Here for the left going and right
L
going waves have must have the
wavelength λ = L. nodes
Fig.2
A third pattern is shown in fig.3.
It has four nodes and three nodes
antinodes and is called three
loops pattern.
Here, the wavelength is, λ=
2
L in this way we
So continues
3
find,
where, n = 1,2,3.....so on. L
2 frequencies that corresponds to these
The resonant
 L antinodes
wavelengthsn are given by,

v
f 

 nv where n =
1,2,3... f 
2L
here, v is the velocity of travelling wave on the string.
ULTRASONIC
 Introduction to Ultrasonics
Properties of Ultrasonic waves
Ultrasonic Production-
Magnetostriction Method
Ultrasonic Production- Piezo Electric
Method
Applications of Ultrasonics
INTRODUCTION
The word ultrasonic combines the Latin roots
ultra, meaning ‘beyond’ and sonic means sound.
Ultrasonic waves refers to sound waves produced by
an object vibrating at a frequency higher than the
human ear can hear. (i.e., above 20kHz).
By using modern techniques it has become possible to
produce ultrasonic waves of frequency upto 25 billion
Hz, which has wavelength of 10-8 m, comparable with
x-ray wavelength.
An ultrasonic wave is highly energetic and has
extremely short wavelength because of its high
frequency and energy.
The use of ultrasonics, especially in the field of
medicine and in various industries is because of its
small wavelength and high energy.
The field of ultrasonics have applications for imaging,
detection and navigation.
Sound waves having frequency less than the audible
range (<20 Hz) are called Infrasonic.
PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
1. They are highly energetic.
2. Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves
get reflected, refracted and absorbed.
3. Their speed of propagation depends upon their
frequency. i.e., it increases with increase in
frequency.
4. Ultrasonics show very negligible diffraction due
to their small wavelength. Hence they can travel
over long distances without any loss of energy.
5. The liquid through which ultrasonic wave pass,
behaves as a diffracting grating under
monochromatic light.
6. They produce intense heating effect when passed
through a substance.
ULTRASONICS PRODUCTION
Ultrasonic waves cannot be produced by the usual
methods, like from a diaphragm of a loudspeaker, fed
to alternating current.
This is due to the fact that at very high frequency the
inductive effect of loudspeaker coil is so large that
practically no current passes through it.
Morever, the diaphragm of a loudspeaker cannot
vibrate at such high frequencies.
Therefore, different methods are specially used for the
production of ultrasonic wave.
Ultrasonic waves are produced by the
following methods.

(1) Magneto-striction generator or oscillator

(2) Piezo-electric generator or oscillator

This two methods are widely used now-a-days.

Magnetostriction method is used when frequencies
upto 100 kHz are needed while Piezo electric
generators are used mostly for the frequencies above
that.
MAGNETOAGNETOSTRICTION GENERATOR
This method is based on the phenomenon of
Magneto-striction effect.

Principle: Magnetostriction effect

When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel is
placed in a magnetic field parallel to its length,
the rod experiences a small change in its
length.This is called magnetostricion effect.
The change in length (increase or decrease)
produced in the rod depends upon the magnitude
of the magnetic field, the nature of the materials
and is independent of the direction of the
magnetic field applied.
If the rod is placed inside a coil carrying an alternating
current, then it suffers the same change in length for
each half cycle of alternating current.
This result in setting up vibrations in the rod whose
frequency is twice that of alternating current.
Ordinarily, the amplitude of the vibrations of rod is
small. If, however, the frequency of the alternating
current is the same as the natural frequency of the rod,
then resonance occurs and the amplitude of vibration
is considerably increased.
Sound waves are now emitted from the ends of the rod.
Morever, if the applied frequency is of the ultrasonic
frequency, the rod sends out ultrasonic waves.
CONSTRUCTION

Magnetostriction oscillator
The experimental arrangement is shown figure.
AB is a rod of ferromagnetic materials like iron or
nickel. The rod is clamped in the middle. This rod
is permanently magnetised in the beginning by
passing a direct current in the coil (primary coil)
which is wrapped round the rod.
There are two other coils L1 and L2 (secondary
coil) which are wrapped over primary coil as shown
in figure.
The coil L1 wound on the right hand portion of the
rod along with a variable capacitor C in the
collector circuit of transistor while L2 is wound on
the left hand portion of the rod in the base circuit.
The coil L1 and variable capacitor C forms a
resonant circuit.
 The frequency of oscillating circuit is controlled
by the variable capacitor C.
L1 and L2 are inductively coupled.
The direct current milliameter (mA) reads the
collector current.
The natural frequency of the rod is given by
……….(1)
P E
n
2L D
Where L is the length of the rod, E is Young’s
modulas, D is the density of rod materials and P is
the harmonic modes 1,2,3..etc.
Working
When the battery is switched on, the circuit L1 C sets up
1
alternating current of frequency f  in collector
2 L C
circuit.
This alternating current flows through coil L1 , it causes a
corresponding change in the magnetisation of the rod,
which causes a change in the length of the Ni rod.
This change in the length of the rod produces an e.m.f. In
coil L2. This e.m.f. is applied to the base of transistor.
This change of e.m.f. produced an amplified current
change in the circuit i.e. In the coil L1, which again cause
a change of length of Ni rod.
In this way oscillation of rod is maintained. The oscillation
frequency f of the Ni rod is controlled by the variable
capacitor C and is given by
..........
1
(2) f 
2 LC
If this frequency matches with the natural frequency of the
rod, resonance will occur.
By adjusting the length of the rod and the capacity of the
condenser, high frequency oscillations of different
frequencies are obtained.
Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum
amplitude and generates ultrasonic waves of high
frequency from its ends.
Frequency can be extended upto 3×105 Hz.

ADVANTAGES:
1. The design of this oscillator is very simple and its
production cost is low
2. At low ultrasonic frequencies, the large power output
can be produced without the risk of damage of the
oscillatory circuit.

DISADVANTAGES:
3. It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate
ultrasonic frequency above 300 kHz.
4. The frequency of oscillations depends on temperature.
5. There will be losses of energy due to eddy current.
PIEZO ELECTRIC GENERATOR OR
OSCILLATOR
This method is based on the Piezoelectric effect.

Principle: Piezoelectric effect

When certain crystals like Quartz, Rochelle salt,
tourmaline, etc., are stretched or compressed along certain
axis (known as mechanical axis), an electrical potential
difference is produced along a perpendicular axis (known
as electric axis).
The converse of piezo electric effect is also true.
i.e., when an alternating potential difference is applied
along the electric axis, the crystal is set into elastic
vibration along the corresponding mechanical axis.
This is known as inverse piezo electric effect or
electrostriction.
If the frequency of electric oscillations coincides with
the natural frequency of the crystal, the vibrations will
be of large amplitude.
This phenomenon is utilized for the production of
ultrasonic waves.
 CONSTRUCTION

Piezo electric oscillator

The experimental arrangement is shown in figure.
The high frequency alternating voltage which is
applied to crystal is obtained by Hartley oscillatory
circuit.
The Hartley circuit consist of a tuned oscillatory
circuit (inductance L1 and variable capacitor C1 in
parallel).
One end of the tuned circuit is connected to the base
of a transistor while the other is connected to the
emitter.
The coils L1 and L2 of the oscillator circuit are taken
from the primary of the transformer.
The crystal plate is sandwiched between metallic foils
(AB ) and forms a parallel plate capacitor. This is
coupled to the electronic oscillator through primary
coil L3 of the transformer T.
WORKING
When the battery is switched on by pressing switch S,
the oscillator produces high frequency oscillations
with frequency
1
f 
2 L1C1

The frequency of this oscillations can be varied with

the help of variable capacitor C1.
The e.m.f. developed in oscillatory circuit induces an
e.m.f. in coil L3 due to transformer action.
As a result, the crystal is now under high frequency
alternating voltage.
Inverse piezo-electric effect takes place and the
crystal contracts and expands alternatively. The
crystal is set into mechanical vibrations.
The frequency of the vibration is given by

P Y
n = 2l 

Where P = 1,2,3,4 … etc. for fundamental, first

harmonic, second harmonic etc.,
Y = Young’s modulus of the crystal and
ρ = density of the crystal.
The capacitor C1 is varied till the frequency of
oscillation matches with the natural frequency of
vibration of the crystal. Under this condition, the
crystal generates high power ultrasonic waves.
The vibrating crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic
waves of large amplitude.
ADVANTAGES :
It is more efficient than magnetostriction oscillator.
Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5 x 108 Hz or 500
MHz can be obtained with this arrangement.
The output of this oscillator is very high.
It is not affected by temperature and humidity.

DISADVANTAGES :
The cost of piezo electric quartz is very high.
The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very
complex.
APPLICATIONS
Ultrasonics have found numerous applications in the
following fields: (1)
Communication (2) Industry (3) Scientific
world (4) Medical world.
They are so useful mainly due to the following
reasons:
(1) At sufficiently high frequency almost parallel beam
of plane waves can be propagated.
(2) As the wavelengths are small, measurements can be
made on a small sample without affecting the
physical conditions like temperature, density etc.
(1)Detection of flaws in metals (Non Destructive
Testing –NDT)

Ultrasonic waves are used to detect the presence of

flaws or defects in the form of cracks, blowholes
porosity etc., in the internal structure of a
material or metals.
By sending out ultrasonic beam and by measuring
the time interval of the reflected beam, flaws in
the metal block can be determined.
In flaws, there is a change of medium and this
produces reflection of ultrasonic at the cavities or
cracks.
The reflected beam (echoes) is recorded by using
cathode ray oscilloscope.
The time interval between initial and flaw echoes
depends on the range of flaw.
By examining echoes on CRO, flaws can be
detected and their sizes can be estimated.
This method is used to detect flaws in all common
structural metals and other materials like rubber
tyres etc.
The method is very cheap and of high speed of
operation.
It is more accurate than radiography.
(2) Detection of submarines, Iceberg and other
objects in ocean :

A sharp ultrasonic beam is directed in various

directions into the sea. The reflection of waves from
any direction shows the presence of some reflecting
body in the sea.

(3) Depth of the sea :

We know that ultrasonic waves are highly energetic

and show a little diffraction effect. Thus, they can be
used for finding the depth of the sea.
(4) Cleaning and Clearing :

The waves can be used for cleaning utensils, washing

clothes, removing dust and soot from the chimney.

(5) Direction Signalling :

The ultrasonic wave can be concentrated into a sharp

beam due to smaller wavelength and hence can be
used for signalling from ship-to-ship specially in
submerged submarines.
(6) Soldering and metal cutting :
Ultrasonic wave can be used for drilling and cutting
processes in metals. These waves can also be used for
soldering. For example, aluminium cannot be soldered
by normal methods. For soldering aluminium
ultrasonic wave along with electrical soldering iron are
used. Ultrasonic welding can be done at room
temperature.

(7) Formation of alloys:

The constituents of alloys, having widely different
densities, can be kept mixed uniformly by a beam of
ultrasonic. Thus, it is easy to get alloy of uniform
composition.
(8) Coagulation and crystallisation :

The particles of a suspended liquid can be brought

quite close to each other using ultrasonic so that
coagulation may take place which helps in the rate of
crystallisation.

(9) Disease treatment :

The body parts affected due to neuralgic or rheumatic

pains, on being exposed to ultrasonic get great relief.
(10) Detection of abnormal growth :
Abnormal growth in the brain, certain tumours which
cannot be detected by X-rays can be detected by
ultrasonic waves.

(11) Surgical use :

Surgical uses of ultrasonic waves includes the selective
cutting of the tissues during an operation.

(12) Dental cutting :

U –waves have been found very useful for dental
cutting because:
(i) They make the cutting almost painless,
(ii) They cut the hard material very easily,
(iii) They do not require any mechanical device for
cutting purpose.

(13) Biological effect :

 Small animals like frogs, rats, fishes, etc. Can be

killed or injured by high intensity ultrasonic. This
may be the only one destructive application of U-
waves since other applications described above are
all non-destructive applications of U-waves.
RECORDING AND REPRODUCTION OF
SOUND
Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical
or mechanical inscription and re-creation of sound
waves, usually used for the voice or for music.
The two main classes of sound recording
technology are :
(1) Analog recording and
(2) Digital recording.
ANALOG RECORDING
Analog recording is achieved by a small microphone
diaphragm that can detect changes in atmospheric
pressure (acoustic sound waves) and record them as
graphic sound waves on a medium.
 ANALOG

GREEK
ANA LOGOS

ACCORDING TORELATIONSHIP
Sound Recording and Reproduction, technology
used to record, store, and play back sounds. Sound
recording and reproduction are two separate
processes.
Sound recording uses microphones to pick up sound
waves in the air. The pressure changes associated with
the waves are converted into electrical signals, which
can be coded and stored for future access.
Sound reproduction, or playback, uses additional
devices to retrieve the stored information and convert
it back into electrical signals. The signals are then sent
to a loudspeaker, which converts them back into
sound.
To record sound, a microphone changes the acoustic
energy of sound waves in the air into electrical signals.
Inside a microphone is a thin, flat, metallic surface,
called a diaphragm, that is suspended in a magnetic
field.
When a sound wave reaches the microphone, the air
pressure changes around the diaphragm, causing the
diaphragm to move. This movement within a magnetic
field creates an electrical signal. The signal is then
transferred to a storage medium, such as a cassette
tape, a compact disc (CD), or a phonograph record.
To reproduce sound, a playing device—such as a CD
player, cassette deck, or phonograph—accesses the
stored data. The playing device reads the data and
converts the information back into electric energy.
 The electrical signal is sent to a loudspeaker, which
has a diaphragm housed in a magnetic field in much
the same way as a microphone's diaphragm is housed.
 The electrical signal creates a disturbance in the
magnetic field. These resultant variations in the
magnetic field cause the diaphragm to move.
As the diaphragm moves, it pushes out and pulls in,
creating changes in air pressure to recreate the sound
that was originally recorded.
DIGITAL RECORDING
Digital recording and reproduction uses the same
analog technologies, with digitization of the data
and signal.
In a digital recording system, sound is stored and
manipulated as a stream of discrete numbers, each
number representing the air pressure at a
particular time. The numbers are generated by a
microphone connected to a circuit called an
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER, or ADC.
Each number is called a SAMPLE, and the number of
samples taken per second is the SAMPLE RATE.
Ultimately, the numbers will be converted back into
sound by a DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER or
DAC, connected to a loudspeaker.

Fig. 1 The digital signal chain

Fig.1 shows the components of a digital system. Notice
that the output of the ADC and the input of the DAC
consists of a bundle of wires. These wires carry the
numbers that are the result of the analog to digital
conversion. The numbers are in the binary number
system in which only two characters are used, 1 and 0.
The sequence of numbers is transmitted from storage
into a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), which
converts the numbers back to an analog signal by
sticking together the level information stored in each
digital sample, thus rebuilding the original analog
wave form.
This signal is amplified and transmitted to
the loudspeakers.